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Volume 1: Book of Wei 1 - Annals of Emperor Wu

Chapter 1 of 三國志 · Records of the Three Kingdoms
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1
谿
Emperor Wu, canonically titled Grand Progenitor, came from Qiao in Pei commandery. His clan name was Cao; his given name Cao (taboo form); his courtesy name Mengde. His line traced back to Cao Shen, who had served the Han as Chancellor of State. 〈The Cao Man Zhuan adds that Cao Cao was also called Jili and was known in childhood as A Man. Wang Chen's Book of Wei traces his ancestry to the Yellow Emperor. In the line of Gaoyang, Lu Zhong's son An founded what became the Cao clan. When King Wu of Zhou overthrew Shang, he preserved ancient noble lines and enfeoffed Cao Xia in Zhu. Through the Spring and Autumn era that state joined the great alliances; by the Warring States period Chu had swallowed it. The family scattered, and one branch settled in Pei. When Liu Bang founded the Han, Cao Shen earned the marquisate of Pingyang; the title passed down through the generations, was once broken, then restored, and the rightful heir still holds an enfeoffment at Rongcheng today.〉 Under Emperor Huan, Cao Teng rose to senior eunuch and chief steward to the empress, and received the title of marquis of Feiting. 〈Sima Biao's Continuation of the Han History records that Cao Teng's father, Jie (courtesy Yuanwei), was widely known for kindness and generosity. A neighbor who had lost a pig insisted the one at Jie's door was his; Jie yielded without argument. The runaway pig soon wandered home. Mortified, the neighbor brought back Jie's animal and apologized; Jie accepted both with a smile. From then on his community held him in high regard. His sons were Boxing, Zhongxing, and Shuxing, in birth order. Cao Teng, courtesy Jixing, entered service young as a Yellow Gate attendant. In 120 CE, Empress Dowager Deng ordered the selection of steady young pages to tutor the crown prince; Cao Teng was chosen. The crown prince singled him out for meals and largesse. When Emperor Shun came to the throne, Cao Teng advanced from junior Yellow Gate attendant to senior eunuch and chief steward to the empress. For more than thirty years inside the palace he served four sovereigns without a stain on his record. He delighted in promoting talent and never used his influence to ruin anyone. Men he backed — Yu Fang and Bian Shao of Chenliu, Yan Gu and Zhang Wen of Nanyang, Zhang Huan of Hongnong, Tangxi Dian of Yingchuan, and others — all rose to the highest offices, yet he never bragged about his part in their careers. A Shu prefect tried to curry favor with Cao Teng through his clerk; Inspector Chong Hao intercepted the letter at Hangu Pass, informed the court, and charged the powerful eunuch with unauthorized external correspondence. The emperor replied, "The letter came from outside the palace; Cao Teng sent nothing out, so he is blameless." He shelved Chong Hao's accusation. Cao Teng bore no grudge and instead praised Chong Hao for understanding how a loyal official should serve his sovereign. Years later, as Minister of Education, Chong Hao told people, "My rank as duke today is due to Regular Attendant Cao's kindness." Cao Teng's public life was marked by such magnanimity. Emperor Huan honored him as a veteran of the previous reign, enfeoffed him at Feiting, and advanced him to the exalted rank of tejin. In 229 CE, the third year of Taihe, he was posthumously canonized as Emperor Gao.〉 His adopted son Cao Song inherited the title and rose to grand commandant, though his true parentage remained obscure. 〈The Continuation of the Han History gives Cao Song's courtesy name as Jugao. He was steady and conscientious, and loyal wherever he served. He was colonel director of retainers; Emperor Ling then promoted him to grand minister of agriculture and grand herald, and finally made him grand commandant in place of Cui Lie. In 220 CE, the first year of Huangchu, Cao Song was posthumously honored as grand emperor. Wu lore and Guo Ban's Shi Yu both claim Cao Song was actually a Xiahouson of Xiahou Dun's uncle. That would make Cao Cao and Xiahou Dun cousins on the male side.〉 Cao Song was Cao Cao's father.
2
Young Cao Cao was sharp and resourceful but swaggered as a brawling rake, neglecting steady study, so contemporaries saw nothing remarkable in him. 〈The Cao Man Zhuan says he spent his youth hawking and hunting, roaming without restraint, until his uncle kept reporting him to Cao Song. Annoyed by the tattling, he once met his uncle on the road and pretended to have a stroke-twisted mouth, slack features, the whole performance. When his uncle asked what was wrong, Cao Cao gasped, "I was suddenly struck by an ill wind." The uncle hurried the news to Cao Song. Cao Song rushed out in alarm, only to find his son looking perfectly healthy. Cao Song asked, "Your uncle said you had a stroke. Are you recovered?" Cao Cao replied, "I was never ill; I only lost my uncle's goodwill, so he slandered me." From then on Cao Song doubted his brother's reports. After that his uncle's complaints fell on deaf ears, and Cao Cao could misbehave with impunity.〉 Only Qiao Xuan of Liang and He Yong of Nanyang saw something exceptional in him. Qiao Xuan told him, "The empire is sliding toward chaos; only a genius of the age can save it, and that man may be you!" 〈The Book of Wei records that Grand Commandant Qiao Xuan, famed for reading character, exclaimed on meeting Cao Cao, "I have known every luminary of our age, and none compares to you. Mind how you carry yourself. I am an old man now. I charge you with my family's future." From that moment his name carried real weight at court. The Continuation of the Han History describes Qiao Xuan (courtesy Gongzu) as stern, capable, and gifted at sizing people up. Zhang Fan's Han Annals adds that Qiao Xuan served in the provinces and capital, was known for firm decisions and modesty toward inferiors, and never traded on rank for his relatives. During the Guanghe era he rose to grand commandant, then retired ill as a grand palace counselor; he died so poor that his kin could barely bury him. Contemporaries hailed him as a model minister. The Shi Yu records Qiao Xuan telling Cao Cao, "You do not yet have a reputation; you should befriend Xu Zijiang." Cao Cao called on Xu Shao, who took him in, and his fame spread from that introduction. Sun Sheng's Miscellaneous Tales of Agreement and Disagreement claims Cao Cao once slipped into eunuch Zhang Rang's quarters and was spotted. He waved a short halberd in the courtyard, vaulted the wall, and escaped. His fighting skill was so extraordinary that no one could touch him. He read widely, loved strategy, compiled excerpts from military treatises under the title Essentials Drawn Together, and annotated Sunzi's thirteen chapters, works that circulated for generations. He once asked Xu Shao, "What kind of man am I?" Xu Shao refused to answer. Pressed again, Xu Shao replied, "In a well-ordered age you would be an outstanding minister; in disorder you would dominate as a formidable power." Cao Cao roared with laughter.〉 At twenty he entered office on the Filial-and-Incorrupt list, became a gentleman cadet, served as captain of the northern district of Luoyang, then was named magistrate of Dunqiu county. 〈The Cao Man Zhuan says that on taking up his post in Luoyang he immediately set his yamen in order, including the four gates. He hung colored clubs by each gate and bludgeoned every curfew-breaker, powerful house or petty thief alike. Months later a kinsman of the favored eunuch Jian Shuo violated the night curfew; Cao Cao had him beaten to death on the spot. The capital went quiet; no one dared test him. Palace favorites seethed but could not strike him, so they conspired to praise him upward and bundle him off as magistrate of Dunqiu.〉 He was recalled to the capital as a gentleman consultant. 〈The Book of Wei notes his dismissal when his wife's cousin Song Qi, marquis of Yinqiang, was executed. His classical scholarship later won him a second appointment as gentleman consultant. Earlier, Grand General Dou Wu and Grand Tutor Chen Fan had tried to purge the eunuchs and were themselves destroyed. Cao Cao submitted a blunt memorial charging that honest men had been murdered while villains choked the court. Emperor Ling ignored it. Soon an edict ordered the three bureaus to dismiss local officials whose misrule had provoked popular lampoons. The Three Excellencies were venal time-servers; bribery decided cases, the ruthless escaped impeachment, and principled minor officials were ruined. Cao Cao despised the corruption. When omens prompted a policy review, he fired off another memorial accusing the Three Excellencies of shielding well-connected wrongdoers. The emperor took the point, showed the memorial to the three bureaus, rebuked them, and appointed the lampooned officials as gentlemen consultants. Yet governance only worsened, predators grew bolder, and honest men were torn down faster than ever. Seeing no hope of reform, Cao Cao fell silent.〉
3
輿 宿
Near the close of the Guanghe era the Yellow Turban rebellion broke out. He was named chief of cavalry and sent to suppress the rebels in Yingchuan. As chancellor of Jinan he purged eight corrupt magistrates out of more than ten who had been currying favor with great houses. He banned illicit shrines, drove off criminals, and brought the commandery to order. 〈The Book of Wei notes that magistrates had grown fat on bribes and noble protection while successive chancellors looked the other way. When Cao Cao arrived, officials were cashiered wholesale; high and low trembled, and wrongdoers bolted to neighboring jurisdictions. Sound administration took hold and the entire commandery grew calm. Shrines to Prince Liu Zhang of Chengyanghonored for aiding the Hanhad multiplied across Qingzhou until Jinan alone held over six hundred. Merchants paraded in faux ministerial splendor with musicians and outriders while the people grew poorer, and no previous governor had dared stop them. Cao Cao tore down the shrines and forbade officials and commoners from offering sacrifice there. Once he held real authority he stamped out such superstitious abuses for good.〉 Eventually he was recalled to serve as prefect of Dong commandery. He declined the post, citing illness, and retired to his home district. 〈The Book of Wei records that, by then, dominant ministers controlled the government while imperial in-laws threw their weight about unchecked. Cao Cao refused to abandon principle just to stay in office. He kept rubbing powerful men the wrong way and, fearing for his kin, asked to be kept on palace night duty instead. As a gentleman consultant he habitually cited illness and took repeated leaves to go home. Outside the city walls he put up a retreat where he read through the warm months and hunted through the cold ones for his own diversion.〉
4
西 退
Soon Wang Fen of Ji, Xu You of Nanyang, Zhou Jing of Pei, and other local notables conspired to depose Emperor Ling in favor of the prince of Hefei; they sounded out Cao Cao, who turned them down flat. The plot collapsed and Wang Fen's party fell apart. 〈Sima Biao's Spring and Autumn of the Nine Provinces relates how Chen Yi, son of Chen Fan, met the prognosticator Xiang Kai of Pingyuan at Wang Fen's house. Xiang said, "The heavenly patterns are unfavorable to the eunuchs; the noble houses of the Yellow Gates and Regular Attendants will be destroyed." Chen Yi was delighted. Wang Fen replied, "If that is the omen, I will lead the purge." He then sealed the conspiracy with Xu You and the rest. Emperor Ling planned a northern progress to his old Hejian estates; Wang Fen meant to use the journey as cover, filing false reports of Black Mountain raids so he could mobilize an army. A band of crimson mist then stretched from horizon to horizon in the north; the court astronomers reported, "There will be a hidden plot; it is not fitting to travel north," and the emperor canceled the trip. The court ordered Wang Fen to disband his levies, then summoned him to the capital. Cornered, Wang Fen took his own life. The Book of Wei preserves Cao Cao's answer to Wang Fen: "Deposing one sovereign and raising another is the darkest business a subject can touch. The ancients who dared it—Yi Yin and Huo Guang—weighed every risk before they moved. Yi Yin commanded absolute trust, held the chief minister's leverage, and stood over the bureaucracy, so his every move to install or remove a ruler carried the weight of law. Huo Guang inherited a mandate to steady the realm, spoke with the authority of an imperial clansman, had the empress dowager's backing inside the palace and a bloc of ministers outside, faced a boy king with no roots in power, and could act in closed session. His coup turned as smoothly as a wheel; the old regime crumbled like dry rot. You are dazzled by how easy it looked in the old stories and blind to how hard it would be today. Honestly weigh your coalition against the rebel kingdoms of the Han civil war, are you stronger? Is a minor prince of Hefei as formidable as the old kingdoms of Wu and Chu? Yet you mean to stage a coup and expect a sure win—is that not courting ruin?"〉"
5
使 使
Bian Zhang and Han Sui in Jincheng murdered their provincial superiors and rose in revolt with well over a hundred thousand followers, throwing the empire into panic. Cao Cao was called to the capital as colonel director of the army. Emperor Ling died just then; the heir came to the throne while the empress dowager ruled from behind the curtain. Grand General He Jin and Yuan Shao planned to slaughter the eunuchs, but the empress dowager blocked them. He Jin then summoned Dong Zhuo from the west, hoping to intimidate the empress dowager into yielding, 〈The Book of Wei says Cao Cao laughed when he heard the plan: "Eunuchs are an old evil, but no sovereign should have pampered them until they grew this dangerous. Once their guilt is fixed, behead the ringleaders; one stern warden could do it—why drag frontier armies into the capital? Try to wipe out every eunuch at once and the plot will leak; I already see He Jin's downfall."〉" Dong Zhuo had not reached Luoyang when He Jin was cut down. Dong Zhuo entered the city, demoted the young emperor to prince of Hongnong, set Liu Xie on the throne as Emperor Xian, and plunged the capital into chaos. Dong Zhuo recommended Cao Cao for the post of colonel of valorous cavalry and wanted his counsel. Cao Cao assumed a false identity and slipped away eastward toward home. 〈The Book of Wei adds that Cao Cao was sure Dong Zhuo would fall, so he never took the commission and fled homeward. With a handful of riders he stopped to visit his old acquaintance Lü Boshe at Chenggao; Lü was away; his son and house guests tried to rob Cao Cao of his mounts and baggage, and Cao Cao cut several of them down with his own blade. The Shi Yu offers a different version of the same visit. Lü Boshe was out, but his five sons were home and laid out a full guest reception. Cao Cao knew he was a fugitive from Dong Zhuo; he imagined treachery, drew his sword in the dark, slaughtered eight people, and fled. Sun Sheng's Miscellany says he mistook the clatter of kitchenware for an ambush and murdered the household in the night. Walking away in anguish, he muttered, "I would rather wrong the world than let the world wrong me!" Then he pressed on.〉 Beyond the pass, at Zhongmou, a suspicious post chief arrested him; locals who quietly knew who he was interceded until the magistrate let him go. 〈The Shi Yu says the county took him for a runaway and jailed him. By then the yamen staff already held Dong Zhuo's wanted notices; but the merit officer privately recognized Cao Cao and, arguing that these times called for heroes rather than shackles, persuaded the magistrate to release him.〉 Dong Zhuo then murdered the empress dowager and the deposed boy emperor. Cao Cao reached Chenliu, spent his family fortune, and began recruiting a loyal army to bring down Dong Zhuo. That winter, in the twelfth month, he first raised an army at Jiwu, 〈The Shi Yu records that Wei Zi, a filial-and-incorrupt graduate of Chenliu, bankrolled Cao Cao's first levy of five thousand men.〉 The year was 189 CE, the sixth year of the Zhongping era.
6
使西
In the first month of spring, 190 CE, the first year of Chuping, Rear General Yuan Shu, Ji Inspector Han Fu, 〈The Record of Heroes gives Han Fu's courtesy name as Wenjie and his origin as Yingchuan. He had been assistant secretary in the censorate. Dong Zhuo named him inspector of Ji province. Ji was populous and rich in men and supplies. While Yuan Shao held Bohai, Han Fu feared he would mobilize and posted several aides to hem him in. Qiao Mao, governor of Dongjun, forged a circular from the capital's three excellencies denouncing Dong Zhuo and begging the provinces to march: "We are helpless in Luoyang; only a loyal coalition can save the dynasty." Han Fu read the letter and polled his staff: "Do we back the Yuans or Dong Zhuo?" Headquarters clerk Liu Zihui snapped, "We mobilize for the Han, not to pick between Yuan and Dong!" Han Fu flushed, knowing he had misspoken. Liu Zihui went on, "War is a curse; no province should fire the first shot; wait until another region moves, then fall in with the coalition. Ji is no weaker than its neighbors, and no one else has a better claim to lead." Han Fu agreed. He wrote Yuan Shao listing Dong Zhuo's crimes and authorized him to take the field.〉 Inspector Kong Zhou of Yu province, 〈The Record of Heroes identifies Kong Zhou (courtesy Gongxu) as a native of Chenliu. Zhang Fan's Han Annals quotes Zheng Tai warning Dong Zhuo that Kong Zhou is a brilliant talker who "can make the dead seem alive" with rhetoric alone.〉 Yan Inspector Liu Dai, 〈Liu Dai was the elder brother of Liu Yao; his career is noted in the Book of Wu.〉 Henei Governor Wang Kuang, 〈The Record of Heroes gives Wang Kuang (courtesy Gongjie) as a man of Taishan. He was open-handed and famed as a brawling man of honor. He Jin recruited him as an envoy; Wang Kuang shipped five hundred crack crossbowmen from Xu toward Luoyang. He Jin fell before they arrived, and Wang Kuang marched home. He later rose from private life to governor of Henei. Xie Cheng's Later Han History notes that Wang Kuang and Cai Yong were close in youth. That year Dong Zhuo's troops routed him; he fled to Taishan, scraped together a few thousand fighters, and meant to link up with Zhang Miao. Along the way he murdered Chief of the Metropolitan Guards Humu Ban. Ban's relatives, beside themselves with fury, allied with Cao Cao and put Wang Kuang to the sword. Bohai Governor Yuan Shao, Chenliu Governor Zhang Miao, Dongjun Governor Qiao Mao, 〈The Record of Heroes calls Qiao Mao (courtesy Yuanwei) a kinsman of Qiao Xuan. He had previously governed Yan with a firm but fair hand.〉 Shanyang Governor Yuan Yi, 〈Yuan Yi (courtesy Boye) was Yuan Shao's elder cousin. He had been magistrate of Chang'an. Zhang Chao of Hejian once urged Grand Commandant Zhu Jun to notice Yuan Yi, praising his "virtue above his generation and judgment fit for the age. His loyalty and candor are plainly heaven-given; as for mastering the canon, surveying every school, composing fu from a height, and naming whatever he saw, you will not find his like today." The full text survives in Zhang Chao's literary collection. The Record of Heroes adds that Yuan Shao later made Yuan Yi inspector of Yang, where Yuan Shu destroyed him. Cao Cao once remarked, "Of all the men who kept studying after they came of age, only Yuan Yi and I really kept at it." The remark is quoted in Emperor Wen's Treatise on Literature. Bao Xin, chancellor of Jibei, 〈his career is summarized under his son Bao Xun's biography.〉 All rose together, each with tens of thousands of men, and chose Yuan Shao as alliance chief. Cao Cao served as acting general who inspires martial might.
7
使 西
In the second month Dong Zhuo learned the coalition had risen and relocated the imperial court to Chang'an. He stayed to hold Luoyang and burned the palace quarter. Yuan Shao held Henei; Zhang Miao, Liu Dai, Qiao Mao, and Yuan Yi camped at Suanzao; Yuan Shu at Nanyang; Kong Zhou at Yingchuan; Han Fu remained in Ye. Dong Zhuo's army was too strong for any of them to move first. Cao Cao said, "We took up arms to crush a tyrant; the coalition is assembled—why do you shrink from striking? If Dong Zhuo had seized the two capitals, wrapped himself in the emperor's legitimacy, and menaced the east from those fortress passes, even ruling viciously he would still have been a serious threat. Instead he torches Luoyang, drags the sovereign west, and leaves the empire reeling with no rallying point—this is Heaven handing us our moment. One hard blow could finish him; we must not miss it." He marched west to seize Chenggao. Zhang Miao detached Wei Zi with a column to accompany Cao Cao. At Yingyang on the Bian River they ran into Xu Rong; the fight went badly and casualties were heavy. Cao Cao took a stray arrow and his mount was cut down; his cousin Cao Hong gave him a horse and he escaped under cover of night. Xu Rong saw how few men Cao Cao had yet how fiercely they fought all day and judged Suanzao too tough a nut; he withdrew as well.
8
使 使
Back at Suanzao the allies mustered over a hundred thousand men but spent their days feasting instead of advancing. Cao Cao rebuked them and laid out a plan: "Let Yuan Shao from Bohai drive the Henei host against Mengjin; hold Chenggao and Aocang, plug Huanyuan and Daigu, and seal every choke point; let Yuan Shu march the Nanyang troops to Dan and Xi, punch through Wuguan, and threaten the Guanzhong heartland. Raise high walls, refuse pitched battle, feint everywhere, and show the empire that legitimacy lies with us against the usurper—peace would follow quickly. Yet here we stand, righteous banners raised, paralyzed by doubt—the whole realm is watching, and I am ashamed for you!" Zhang Miao and the rest ignored him.
9
Short of men, Cao Cao went with Xiahou Dun to Yang province to recruit; Inspector Chen Wen and Danyang governor Zhou Xin furnished a little over four thousand soldiers. On the march back, near Longkang, most of the recruits mutinied. 〈The Book of Wei says the mutineers torched his tent at night; he cut down dozens with his sword while the rest fled, and only then broke out of the camp; leaving barely five hundred loyal men.〉 At Zhi and Jianping he scraped together another thousand-odd troops and moved to camp in Henei.
10
Liu Dai feuded with Qiao Mao, murdered him, and installed Wang Gong as acting governor of Dongjun.
11
西 使
Yuan Shao and Han Fu wanted to enthrone Liu Yu, inspector of Youzhou; Cao Cao refused to go along. 〈The Book of Wei preserves his reply: "Dong Zhuo's guilt is known everywhere; we raised a host in the name of righteousness and the realm answered—because the cause was just. The boy emperor is frail and trapped by villains, but he is no deposed King of Changyi; to swap thrones overnight would unsettle everyone under Heaven. You may press north toward Youzhou; I will keep facing west against Dong Zhuo."〉" Yuan Shao once flashed a jade imperial seal at Cao Cao during a banquet; Cao Cao laughed it off and marked him as dangerous. 〈The Book of Wei says Cao Cao roared with laughter and answered, "I am not listening." Yuan Shao sent another envoy: "Lord Yuan's power is unmatched, his sons are grown, and no hero in the land surpasses him—will you not follow him?" Cao Cao gave no answer. He thought even less of Yuan Shao's integrity after that and began plotting his destruction.〉
12
In the spring of the second year Yuan Shao and Han Fu proclaimed Liu Yu emperor anyway; Liu Yu never dared take the throne.
13
In the fourth month of summer Dong Zhuo withdrew to Chang'an.
14
In the seventh month of autumn Yuan Shao bullied Han Fu out of Ji province.
15
The Black Mountain chiefs Yu Du, Bai Rao, Sui Gu, and company 〈Commentarial gloss: the surname graph Sui is read sui (fanqie spelling shen-sui).〉 They led over a hundred thousand men in plundering Wei and Dong commanderies. Wang Gong could not stop them, so Cao Cao entered Dong commandery, struck Bai Rao at Puyang, and broke his force. Yuan Shao then had him appointed governor of Dong commandery with his seat at Dongwuyang.
16
西 西 使西 西
In the third year's spring Cao Cao was at Dunqiu while Yu Du besieged Dongwuyang. He swung west into the hills to storm the bandits' home base instead. 〈The Book of Wei says every general wanted to march back to relieve the city. Cao Cao said, "Sun Bin relieved Zhao by striking Wei; Geng Yan saved himself by threatening Linzi while the enemy held Xi'an. If Yu Du hears we are in the mountains and pulls back, Dongwuyang lifts the siege by itself; if he refuses to turn, I crush his base and he still cannot take Dongwuyang." He marched as planned.〉 Yu Du heard and abandoned the siege to race home. Cao Cao ambushed Sui Gu, then smashed the Xiongnu chieftain Yufuluo at Neihuang. 〈The Book of Wei identifies Yufuluo as a son of the southern Xiongnu shanyu. During the Zhongping era the court called out Xiongnu auxiliaries, and Yufuluo led his contingent to aid the Han. When rebellion at home killed the shanyu, Yufuluo kept his warriors in China instead of returning. As the empire unraveled he merged with the White Wave rebels of Xihe, ravaged Taiyuan and Henei, and raided commanderies across the north.〉
17
In the fourth month of summer Minister Wang Yun and Lü Bu assassinated Dong Zhuo. Dong Zhuo's generals Li Jue and Guo Si struck back, killed Wang Yun, and drove Lü Bu east through Wuguan. Li Jue and his clique seized control of the government.
18
退 退
A Qingzhou Yellow Turban horde said to number a million poured into Yan, killed Rencheng's chancellor Zheng Sui, and rolled on toward Dongping. Liu Dai wanted to attack at once. Bao Xin warned, "They number a million, the people are terrified, and our men have no stomach for a stand-up fight. Look at how they swarm without wagons or grain trains, living entirely on plunder. Better husband our strength and dig in behind solid walls. Denied battle, unable to storm us, they will fall apart; then we can sortie with picked troops at the decisive point and break them." Liu Dai refused, gave battle, and was killed. 〈The Shi Yu says that after Liu Dai fell, Chen Gong told Cao Cao, "Yan has no governor and the court cannot speak; let me rally the province behind you as its shepherd and you can use it to reunify the empire." Chen Gong urged the staff: "The empire is shattered and Yan has no leader; Cao Cao of Dong commandery is the man for this hour; make him inspector and he will bring the people peace." Bao Xin and the others agreed.〉 Bao Xin went with Wan Qian and other officials to Dongjun and invited Cao Cao to become inspector of Yan. He then marched against the Yellow Turbans east of Shouzhang. Bao Xin died fighting hard; Cao Cao only barely won. 〈The Book of Wei says he reconnoitered with a thousand-odd horse and foot, blundered into the enemy camp, lost several hundred men in a sharp skirmish, and pulled back. The rebels pressed forward. Veteran rebels, they had won so often that every man fought like a picked warrior. Cao Cao's core troops were few, his recruits green, and the whole army was rattled. He donned armor, toured the lines in person, spelled out rewards and penalties, and steadied the men until they rallied; probing attacks gradually forced the enemy back. They sent him a letter: "At Jinan you smashed our shrines; your teaching then matched the Central Yellow Unity sect; you seemed to understand the Way, yet now you oppose Heaven. The Han mandate is spent; the Yellow Heaven must rise. The great wheel of fate is not something your talents can hold back." Cao Cao ridiculed the manifesto, denounced their crimes, and kept offering terms of surrender; then laid ambushes, fought round the clock, took prisoners in every clash, and drove the rebels into full retreat. Bao Xin's body was never found, so the army carved a wooden effigy, offered sacrifice, and mourned him. They chased the Yellow Turbans into Jibei. The rebels asked to capitulate. That winter he accepted over three hundred thousand soldiers and more than a million civilians, enrolled the best fighters, and organized them as the famed Qingzhou Army.
19
使
Yuan Shu quarreled with Yuan Shao and begged Gongsun Zan for help; Zan posted Liu Bei at Gaotang, Shan Jing at Pingyuan, and Tao Qian at Fagan to squeeze Yuan Shao. Cao Cao and Yuan Shao attacked together and broke every thrust.
20
使 退
In the spring of the fourth year his headquarters lay at Juancheng. Liu Biao, inspector of Jingzhou, severed Yuan Shu's supply lines, so Yuan Shu drove into Chenliu and camped at Fengqiu with Black Mountain remnants and Yufuluo in support. He stationed Liu Xiang at Kuangting. Cao Cao struck Liu Xiang; when Yuan Shu tried to relieve him, Cao Cao routed him badly. Yuan Shu fell back to Fengqiu; Cao Cao besieged him, but before the ring closed Yuan fled to Xiangyi; Cao Cao chased him to Taishou and broke a dyke to flood the town. Yuan ran to Ningling, then to Jiujiang under pursuit. That summer Cao Cao withdrew his army to Dingtao.
21
Que Xuan of Xiapi raised a few thousand followers and declared himself emperor; Xuzhou governor Tao Qian joined him, seized Hua and Fei in Taishan, and raided Rencheng. That autumn Cao Cao invaded Tao Qian, captured over ten towns, and penned him up behind his walls.
22
使
The same year Sun Ce crossed the Yangzi on Yuan Shu's orders and within a few years held the lands south of the river.
23
穿 使
In the spring of Xingping 194 Cao Cao marched back from Xuzhou. His father Cao Song had retired to Qiao, fled the Dong Zhuo turmoil to Langye, and died at Tao Qian's hands, so Cao Cao's eastern campaigns were driven by vengeance. 〈The Shi Yu places Cao Song at Hua county in Taishan. Cao Cao told Taishan governor Ying Shao to escort the family into Yan, but before Ying Shao arrived Tao Qian sent several thousand horsemen on a secret raid. The Cao household mistook them for Ying Shao's escort and let their guard down. Tao Qian's men arrived and cut down Cao Cao's brother Cao De in the doorway. Cao Song panicked, broke through the back wall, and tried to push his plump concubine out first; she stuck in the breach; Cao Song hid in the latrine with her and both were butchered; the entire household perished. Ying Shao fled his post and threw in with Yuan Shao. By the time Cao Cao conquered Ji, Ying Shao was already dead. Wei Yao's Book of Wu records that Cao Song traveled with over a hundred wagonloads of luggage. Tao Qian sent Commandant Zhang Kai with two hundred horsemen as escort; between Hua and Fei in Taishan, Zhang Kai murdered Cao Song for his treasure and bolted to Huainan. Cao Cao blamed Tao Qian anyway and used it as the pretext for war.〉 That summer he left Xun Yu and Cheng Yu to hold Juancheng while he struck Tao Qian again, seized five towns, and swept eastward into Donghai. On the way back past Tan, Tao Qian's general Cao Bao and Liu Bei blocked the road east of the city. Cao Cao smashed their line, stormed Xiangben, and left a trail of atrocities across the countryside. 〈Sun Sheng observes that punishing the guilty while sparing the innocent is the classical standard of conquest; Tao Qian was the culprit, yet massacring his people was going too far.〉
24
西
Then Zhang Miao and Chen Gong mutinied, opened Yan to Lü Bu, and the whole province flipped. Xun Yu and Cheng Yu held Juancheng while Fan and Dong'e counties stood fast, allowing Cao Cao to wheel his army homeward. Lü Bu besieged Juancheng without success, then shifted west to Puyang. Cao Cao said, "Lü Bu seized a province overnight yet failed to seal Dongping, block Kangfu and Taishan, and ambush me in the defiles; instead he sits in Puyang. That tells me he is no strategist." He pressed the attack. Lü Bu sortied and led his horse first against the Qingzhou Army. The Qingzhou men broke; Cao Cao's line collapsed; he charged through flames, was thrown, and scorched his left palm. Staff officer Lou Yi hoisted him onto a horse and they rode clear. 〈Yuan Wei's chronicle says the Tian clan of Puyang feigned defection and lured Cao Cao inside the walls. They torched the east gate to signal there would be no turning back. When the trap sprang, Cao Cao's force was routed. Lü Bu's horsemen seized Cao Cao without recognizing him and demanded, "Where is Cao Cao?" Cao Cao pointed at another rider: "The man on the dun horse—that is Cao Cao." They let him go and galloped after the decoy. With the gate still blazing, he punched back through the flames and escaped.〉 Before he reached headquarters his officers, not having seen him return, were terrified. He rallied the men in person, ordered siege gear rushed forward, and settled into a hundred-day standoff with Lü Bu. Locusts devoured the crops, the people starved, Lü Bu ran out of grain, and both sides drew apart.
25
使
In the ninth month of autumn he withdrew to Juancheng. Lü Bu pulled into Chengshi, where local magnate Li Jin defeated him, so he fell back east to Shanyang. Yuan Shao then sent envoys seeking an alliance. Fresh from losing Yan and out of supplies, Cao Cao was ready to agree. Cheng Yu talked him out of it, and he listened. In the tenth month of winter he reached Dong'e.
26
Grain hit five hundred thousand cash a hu; cannibalism appeared; he had to disband newly raised units. When Tao Qian died, Liu Bei took Xuzhou in his place.
27
西 使
In the spring of the second year he struck Dingtao by surprise. Jiyin governor Wu Zi held the southern citadel and Cao Cao could not crack it. Then Lü Bu arrived and Cao Cao defeated him again. That summer Lü Bu's generals Xue Lan and Li Feng camped at Juye; Cao Cao attacked, Lü Bu tried to relieve them, Xue Lan fell, Lü Bu ran, and Cao Cao beheaded Lan and his officers. Lü Bu returned from Dongmin with Chen Gong and ten thousand men; outnumbered, Cao Cao laid ambushes and routed them with a sudden strike. 〈The Book of Wei notes that most men were out harvesting wheat, fewer than a thousand remained in camp, and the palisade was weak. He put women on the walls with every able fighter left in line. West of camp ran a long embankment with a dark wood to the south. Lü Bu smelled a trap and warned his men, "Cao Cao is a trickster; do not march into an ambush." He halted his host more than ten li to the south. Next day Cao Cao hid the bulk of his force behind the dyke and showed only half beyond it. Lü Bu pushed closer; Cao Cao sent skirmishers to draw him in, then unleashed the men hidden on the dyke in a combined arms rush, captured Lü Bu's command chariot, and chased him to his camp before pulling back.〉 Lü Bu fled by night; Cao Cao retook Dingtao, then detached columns to secure the county seats. Lü Bu ran east to Liu Bei; Zhang Miao went with him and posted his brother Zhang Chao to defend Yongqiu with the families. In the eighth month of autumn he invested Yongqiu. In the tenth month of winter the emperor formally named him inspector of Yan. In the twelfth month Yongqiu fell; Zhang Chao committed suicide. Zhang Miao's three degrees of kin were extirpated. Zhang Miao begged Yuan Shu for aid and was murdered by Shu's men; with Yan pacified, Cao Cao swept east into Chen.
28
That year Luoyang-Chang'an convulsed; the emperor fled east, was beaten at Caoyang, crossed the Yellow River, and found refuge at Anyi.
29
西
Cao Cao meant to escort the emperor west; some generals hesitated until Xun Yu and Cheng Yu pressed the case. He sent Cao Hong west, but Guards General Dong Cheng and Yuan Shu's general Chang Nu held the defiles and blocked him.
30
西 使殿殿 西 使
Bands under He Yi, Liu Pi, Huang Shao, He Man, and others mustered tens of thousands each in Runan and Yingchuan, having first answered Yuan Shu and then thrown in with Sun Jian's camp in the south. In the second month Cao Cao marched against them, killed Liu Pi and Huang Shao, and accepted He Yi's surrender. The court named him General Who Establishes Virtue, then in the sixth month of summer promoted him to general who guards the east and enfeoffed him at Feiting. In the seventh month of autumn Yang Feng and Han Xian escorted the emperor back toward Luoyang, 〈The chronicle says the emperor first lodged in the old mansion of the eunuch Zhao Zhong in Luoyang's west ward. Zhang Yang was told to patch up the halls, naming one the Hall of Yang'an; in the eighth month the court moved in.〉 Yang Feng camped separately at Liang. Cao Cao entered Luoyang to secure the capital while Han Xian bolted. The emperor invested him with the ceremonial axe and authority over the Secretariat. 〈The imperial diary adds that he also took the colonel director of retainers post.〉 With Luoyang in ruins, Dong Zhao and others urged him to move the seat to Xu. In the ninth month the court passed east through Huanyuan, named Cao Cao grand commandant, and enfeoffed him as marquis of Wuping. Since the emperor's flight west the government had unraveled; only now were rites for the state shrines properly restored. 〈Zhang Fan's Han Annals says that after Caoyang the emperor first meant to ride the Yellow River downstream toward the east. Palace attendant and grand astrologer Wang Li warned, "Since last spring, Venus has overtaken Saturn in Ox and Dipper and passed the Celestial Ford, while Mars has moved retrograde and kept station at the North River; this must not be violated." The emperor therefore gave up crossing the river north and prepared to leave east through Zhiguan. Wang Li also told Liu Ai, director of the imperial clan, "Venus had already lingered at the Celestial Gate and conjoined Mars; a conjunction of metal and fire portends revolution. The Han mandate is spent; Jin or Wei will produce the next power." Afterward Wang Li kept telling the throne that the five phases cycled, earth would follow fire, Wei would follow Han, and only the house of Cao could pacify All under Heaven." Cao Cao heard of it and sent word: "I know you are loyal, but Heaven's secrets are not for public chatter."〉
31
西
As the court moved east, Yang Feng tried to cut it off from Liang but arrived too late. In the tenth month of winter Cao Cao struck Yang Feng, who fled south to Yuan Shu; Cao Cao then stormed his camp at Liang. The court named Yuan Shao grand commandant, but Yuan Shao refused the post because it ranked below Cao Cao. Cao Cao insisted on stepping aside and gave Yuan Shao the grand commandant title instead. The emperor then appointed him minister of works with acting authority as chariot-and-cavalry general. That year, on the advice of Zao Zhi, Han Hao, and others, he inaugurated the military colony system. 〈The Book of Wei notes that years of famine had emptied every granary. Armies sprang up everywhere with no long-term logistics: they looted when hungry, wasted surplus when fed, and collapsed of their own disorder beyond counting. North of the river Yuan Shao's men lived on mulberries. Between the Yangzi and the Huai, Yuan Shu's troops scraped by on shellfish. Cannibalism spread and the countryside went bare. Cao Cao declared, "To stabilize a state you need strong armies and full granaries: Qin unified China by pushing agriculture, Han Wudi held the west with tuntian farms; we should follow their example." That year he recruited settlers for colonies around Xu and harvested a million hu of grain. Provinces and commanderies followed suit with colony overseers, and grain piled up in every district. Free of long supply trains, he could campaign in every direction, wipe out the rebels, and bring the realm to heel.
32
Lü Bu surprised Liu Bei and seized Xiapi. Liu Bei fled to Cao Cao. Cheng Yu urged, "Liu Bei is a hero who owns men's hearts; he will never serve under you—deal with him now." Cao Cao answered, "This is the hour to win allies; murdering him would cost me the world's trust."
33
Zhang Ji quit the Guanzhong war zone and marched into Nanyang. When Zhang Ji died, his nephew Zhang Xiu inherited the command.
34
便
In the first month of spring, 197 CE, he reached Wan. Zhang Xiu capitulated, had second thoughts, and rose again. The fight went badly: Cao Cao was wounded by a stray bolt, and his eldest son Cao Ang and nephew Cao Anmin were killed. 〈The Book of Wei says his mount Jueying took bolts in the jaw and leg and a hit on Cao Cao's right arm as well. The Shi Yu adds that Cao Ang, unable to ride, gave his father a horse and died so Cao Cao could escape.〉 Cao Cao fell back to Wuyin, turned on Zhang Xiu's pursuing cavalry, and beat them off. Zhang Xiu fled to Rang and linked up with Liu Biao. He told his officers, "I accepted Zhang Xiu's surrender without taking hostages when I had the chance; that is how we came to this. Now I know why we lost. Mark this lesson: it will not happen again on my watch." Then he withdrew to Xu. 〈The Shi Yu notes an old rule that commanders entering audience crossed halberds at their throats as a security ritual. That ritual had just been revived when Cao Cao went to court before the Wan campaign. Afterward Cao Cao stopped appearing for formal audiences.〉
35
使 使
Yuan Shu planned to declare an empire south of the Huai and sent word to Lü Bu. Lü Bu seized the messenger and forwarded Yuan Shu's letter to the capital. Yuan Shu attacked in fury and Lü Bu smashed him. In the ninth month of autumn Yuan Shu struck Chen; Cao Cao marched east against him. Yuan Shu ran at the news, leaving Qiao Rui, Li Feng, Liang Gang, and Yue Jiu to cover his retreat; Cao Cao crushed that rear guard and executed every officer. Yuan Shu escaped across the Huai. Cao Cao returned to Xu.
36
After Wuyin, Nanyang and Zhangling counties went over to Zhang Xiu again; Cao Hong was beaten back to Ye and harried by Zhang Xiu and Liu Biao. In the eleventh month of winter he led a southern drive to Wan. 〈The Book of Wei says he sacrificed by the Yu River for the fallen of Wan and wept until the whole army wept with him.〉 Liu Biao's officer Deng Ji held Huyang. He stormed the town, took Deng Ji alive, and Huyang submitted. He then seized Wuyin.
37
使
In the first month of spring, 198 CE, he returned to Xu and created the post of military counsellor (jijiu). In the third month he invested Zhang Xiu at Rang. In the fifth month of summer Liu Biao sent a column to relieve Zhang Xiu and threaten Cao Cao's rear. 〈A defector from Yuan Shao reported to Cao Cao, "Tian Feng urged Shao to strike Xu early; if he seized the Son of Heaven to command the lords, the four seas could be settled at a gesture." Cao Cao broke off the siege of Rang.〉 As he withdrew, Zhang Xiu pressed so hard that he could only creep forward in a linked-camp formation. He wrote Xun Yu, "The enemy is on my tail and we crawl along, but I know I will crush Zhang Xiu once we reach Anzhong." At Anzhong, Zhang Xiu and Liu Biao sealed the defiles and pinned him front and rear. By night he dug a covered way through the rough ground, slipped his baggage through, and planted an ambush. At dawn the rebels thought he had bolted and threw their whole force forward. He sprang the trap with horse and foot and shattered them. In the seventh month of autumn he was back in Xu. Xun Yu asked Cao Cao, "Earlier you predicted that the enemy would certainly be broken. Why?" Cao Cao answered, "They barred my retreat yet forced a battle where I had nothing to lose—that is how I knew I would win."
38
使
Lü Bu again sent Gao Shun against Liu Bei for Yuan Shu; Xiahou Dun's relief column failed. Liu Bei was routed by Gao Shun. In the ninth month Cao Cao marched east against Lü Bu. In the tenth month of winter he sacked Pengcheng and took its chancellor Hou Xie. At Xiapi, Lü Bu led cavalry out to meet him. Cao Cao crushed the sortie and captured Lü Bu's champion Cheng Lian. Cao Cao drove him under the walls of Xiapi until Lü Bu panicked and offered to yield. Chen Gong blocked surrender, begged Yuan Shu for help, and talked Lü Bu into another sortie; after another defeat Lü Bu sealed himself inside, and the siege held. His men were exhausted and wanted to quit until Xun You and Guo Jia persuaded him to break the Si and Yi rivers and flood Xiapi. A month later Song Xian and Wei Xu bound Chen Gong, opened the gates, and surrendered; Lü Bu and Chen Gong were executed. Zang Ba of Taishan, Sun Guan, Wu Dun, Yin Li, and Chang Xi each led bandit hosts. They had all followed Lü Bu after he defeated Liu Bei. After Lü Bu fell, Cao Cao enrolled them with lavish favor, carved out the coastal tracts of Qing and Xu for their fiefs, and split Langye, Donghai, and Beihai into new commanderies.
39
宿使
Earlier, as inspector of Yan, he had named Bi Chen of Dongping as chief clerk. When Zhang Miao mutinied he took Bi Chen's family hostage; Cao Cao dismissed him with regrets: "Your mother is in enemy hands; you should go." Bi Chen swore he would not waver; Cao Cao praised him and wept. Once outside the lines he bolted to the rebels anyway. When Bi Chen was taken alive, everyone expected execution; Cao Cao said, "A man that filial to his parents must be loyal to his lord as well. That is exactly the man I want." He appointed him chancellor of Lu. 〈The Book of Wei says Yuan Shao wanted Cao Cao to trump up charges against Yang Biao, Liang Shao, and Kong Rong. Cao Cao refused: "The realm is shattered; every warlord minds his own ambition; trust is already thin; even if I treat men openly they may still doubt me; if I start killing notables, who will feel safe? Besides, we all rose from common ranks and petty slights in the mud; who is free of old grudges? Gaozu forgave Yong Chi and won every heart; should I forget that lesson?" Yuan Shao decided Cao Cao was only mouthing principle while secretly dividing the coalition, and nursed a deep grudge. Pei Songzhi notes that Yang Biao was later cornered by Cao Cao almost to death and Kong Rong was executed anyway, hardly proof that fine words were followed by fine deeds. Knowing is easy; doing is hard. That much is certain.
40
使 使
In the second month of spring, 199 CE, he reached Changyi. Zhang Yang's officer Yang Chou murdered him; Sui Gu killed Yang Chou and led the troops to Yuan Shao, camping at Shequan. In the fourth month of summer he moved to the Yellow River and sent Shi Huan and Cao Ren across to attack. Sui Gu left Xue Hong and Miao Shang to hold the base while he rode north to beg Yuan Shao for aid; he ran into Shi Huan and Cao Ren at Quancheng. They fought, routed him, and beheaded Sui Gu. Cao Cao crossed the river and invested Shequan. Xue Hong and Miao Shang surrendered with their men and received full marquisates; Cao Cao withdrew to Aocang. He named Wei Chong governor of Henei to handle the north bank.
41
Cao Cao had once nominated Wei Chong on the Filial-and-Incorrupt list. When Yan mutinied he said, "Only Wei Chong will never desert me." Learning that Wei Chong had bolted, he swore, "Unless he flees to the southern tribes or the steppe, I will have his head!" When Shequan fell and Wei Chong was taken alive, Cao Cao exclaimed, "What a man!" He cut his bonds and put him back to work.
42
使
Yuan Shao had swallowed Gongsun Zan and held four provinces with a hundred thousand men, poised to strike Xu. His officers were daunted, but Cao Cao said, "I know Yuan Shao: big schemes and small wit, fierce looks and a timid heart, jealous of subordinates, confused command, arrogant generals, and no unified policy. His wide lands and rich grain will only end up supplying me." In the eighth month of autumn he moved to Liyang, sent Zang Ba into Qingzhou against Qi, Beihai, and Dong'an, and posted Yu Jin along the river. In the ninth month he was back in Xu, detaching a force to hold Guandu. In the eleventh month Zhang Xiu capitulated with his army and received a full marquisate. In the twelfth month his headquarters shifted to Guandu.
43
使
After his defeat at Chen, Yuan Shu grew desperate; Yuan Tan sent from Qingzhou to fetch him. Yuan Shu meant to cross north near Xiapi; Cao Cao sent Liu Bei and Zhu Ling to block him. Yuan Shu died of illness on the way. Cheng Yu and Guo Jia warned, "You must not let Liu Bei go." Cao Cao regretted the order but could not overtake him. Before marching east Liu Bei had secretly joined Dong Cheng's plot; at Xiapi he murdered Inspector Che Zhou of Xuzhou and raised an army at Pei. Cao Cao sent Liu Dai and Wang Zhong; they failed. 〈The chronicle quotes Liu Bei taunting Liu Dai: "Send a hundred men and you still cannot touch me; we will see what happens if Cao Cao comes in person!" The Wei Wu anecdotes identify Liu Dai (courtesy Gongshan) as a native of Pei. He had served as chief clerk under the minister of works on campaign and earned a full marquisate. The Brief Account of Wei describes Wang Zhong of Fufeng as a former village chief. When Guanzhong collapsed he starved to the point of cannibalism and drifted south with refugees toward Wuguan. Lou Zibo, acting for Jingzhou, had sent men to escort northern refugees south; Wang Zhong refused to disarm, ambushed the escort, seized their arms, rallied a thousand followers, and brought them to Cao Cao. Cao Cao named Wang Zhong a general of the household and took him on campaign. The heir apparent knew Wang Zhong's grim past and once, on a ride, had clowns tie graveyard skulls to his saddle for a cruel joke.〉
44
Lujiang governor Liu Xun capitulated with his army and received a full marquisate.
45
In the first month of spring, 200 CE, the belt edict conspiracy was exposed and its members executed. As Cao Cao prepared to march east against Liu Bei, his generals warned, "Yuan Shao is your real rival for the empire. Yuan Shao is closing in; if you turn east he will stab you in the rear; what then?" Cao Cao replied, "Liu Bei is a hero; if I do not crush him now he will haunt us later. 〈Sun Sheng's Wei Annals quotes him telling the generals that Liu Bei was a rival fit to trouble even a king. Pei Songzhi remarks that historians polish dialogue, earlier accounts may be false, and later compilers invent still more so; truth drifts further away. Sun Sheng habitually rewrote old passages in the style of the Zuo Commentary, and not only here. How, then, is a later reader to know what to believe? Besides, Cao Cao was rallying the empire under himself; putting in his mouth a line borrowed from King Fuchai of Wu rings false."〉 Yuan Shao may dream big, but he is slow to act; he will not move in time." Guo Jia seconded the plan; Cao Cao struck east, defeated Liu Bei, and took his general Xiahou Bo alive. Liu Bei fled to Yuan Shao while Cao Cao seized his family. Guan Yu held Xiapi for Liu Bei; Cao Cao attacked again and won his surrender. Chang Xi rose for Liu Bei and was crushed in turn. Cao Cao was back at Guandu before Yuan Shao stirred.
46
西 西 使 西 使 滿
In the second month Yuan Shao sent Guo Tu, Chunyu Qiong, and Yan Liang against Liu Yan at Baima while he massed at Liyang to ford the Yellow River. In the fourth month of summer Cao Cao marched north to relieve Liu Yan. Xun You said, "We are outnumbered; we must split their forces. Feign a crossing at Yanjin to draw Yuan Shao west, then hit Baima with a flying column and bag Yan Liang before he can react." Cao Cao took the advice. Yuan Shao heard of the feint and peeled off a wing to face west. Cao Cao raced to Baima; within ten li Yan Liang woke to the danger and hurried out to fight. He sent Zhang Liao and Guan Yu forward and they broke the line, taking Yan Liang's head. He lifted the siege, evacuated the people of Baima, and withdrew along the river's west bank. Yuan Shao crossed in pursuit and caught Cao Cao south of Yanjin. Cao Cao drew up south of a ridge and had scouts report: "Only five or six hundred horsemen." Soon they revised the count: "More cavalry arriving, foot soldiers beyond counting." Cao Cao said, "Say no more." He ordered his men to slip saddles and let the horses graze. The baggage train from Baima was strung out on the road. His officers wanted to pull back to the fortified camp. Xun You snapped, "That train is bait; we must not abandon it!" Wen Chou and Liu Bei arrived with five or six thousand horse from two directions. The staff urged, "Time to saddle up." Cao Cao said, "Not yet." More enemy horse poured in; detachments peeled off toward the wagons. Cao Cao said, "Now." Every man mounted. With fewer than six hundred horsemen he charged, shattered the Yuan vanguard, and took Wen Chou's head. Yuan Shao had now lost two of his champion generals in succession; his army reeled. Cao Cao withdrew to Guandu. Yuan Shao fell back to fortify Yangwu. Guan Yu deserted and rejoined Liu Bei.
47
西 滿 西 使使
In the eighth month Yuan Shao linked his camps along sand ridges for dozens of li east and west. Cao Cao matched him camp for camp but lost the pitched clash. 〈Xi Zuochi's Han–Jin Annals records Xu You telling Yuan Shao, "You should not attack Cao Cao directly. Split your host to hold him while you seize another route to the emperor; victory will follow." Yuan Shao refused: "I mean to crush him here first." Xu You stalked off in fury. The text claims Cao Cao had fewer than ten thousand men and twenty or thirty percent casualties. 〈Pei Songzhi notes that Cao Cao began with five thousand men, won far more than he lost, and rarely suffered shattering defeats. One victory alone added three hundred thousand surrendered Yellow Turbans, to say nothing of other annexations; so even with attrition his army at Guandu could hardly have been that small. A long siege differs from a single shock battle. The main biography says, "Yuan Shao had more than a hundred thousand troops, with camps stretching several dozen li east and west." However brilliant Cao Cao was, he could not have held Yuan Shao for months with only a few thousand men. On the merits, I do not believe the figure. First, Yuan Shao's line stretched for dozens of li; Cao Cao matched him camp for camp, so he must have had substantial numbers. Second, if Yuan Shao had truly outnumbered him ten to one he could have sealed every road, yet Cao Cao sent Xu Huang against his supply trains, rode out against Chunyu Qiong, and rode the lines freely; Yuan Shao plainly could not pin him with a tiny force. Sources agree Cao Cao executed seventy or eighty thousand of Yuan Shao's surrendered men. You cannot round up eighty thousand fugitives with eight hundred guards; that they submitted meekly to massacre shows Cao Cao's army was not a token handful. Third, his force at Guandu could not have been negligible. Historians shrink the numbers for drama, not accuracy. Zhong Yao's biography says, "When Cao Cao and Yuan Shao were locked in confrontation, Yao, as Colonel Director of Retainers, sent more than two thousand horses to supply the army." Yet the annals and Shi Yu speak of only six hundred cavalry on hand; where did Zhong Yao's remounts go? Yuan Shao pushed up to Guandu again, building mounds and mining toward Cao Cao's lines. Cao Cao countered with his own mounds and countermines. Yuan archers filled the sky; men had to crawl under shields and morale sagged. Short of grain, Cao Cao wrote Xun Yu about pulling back to Xu. Xun Yu replied, "Yuan Shao has gathered all his forces at Guandu, wishing to decide victory and defeat with you. Cao Cao's weakest moment faces Yuan Shao's strongest; if he yields now Yuan Shao will own the empire. Yuan Shao is a bully from the ranks who can recruit talent but cannot wield it. You combine military genius with the legitimacy of serving the Han; no campaign can fail you." Cao Cao held his ground.
48
Sun Ce planned to strike Xu while Cao Cao was pinned at Guandu but was cut down by assassins before he moved.
49
使使
Runan bandits such as Liu Pi who had surrendered rose for Yuan Shao and raided the approaches to Xu. Yuan Shao sent Liu Bei to help Liu Pi; Cao Ren crushed them. Liu Bei ran; Cao Ren stormed Liu Pi's camp.
50
使宿 退 使 使 便
When a train of several thousand grain wagons arrived, Cao Cao used Xun You's plan: Xu Huang and Shi Huan intercepted it, routed the escort, and burned every cart. Months of stalemate brought Cao Cao some tactical wins but left him short of men, out of grain, and with exhausted troops. He told his quartermasters, "Give me fifteen more days and I will finish Yuan Shaothen you can rest." In the tenth month of winter Yuan Shao sent Chunyu Qiong with five officers and ten thousand men to convoy supply wagons, camping forty li north of the main Yuan lines. Xu You, angry that Yuan Shao would not line his pockets, defected and urged a night strike on Chunyu Qiong. Staff officers were wary until Xun You and Jia Xu backed the gamble. Cao Cao left Cao Hong to hold Guandu and took five thousand picked horse and foot on a night march, arriving at dawn. Chunyu Qiong saw how small the column was and drew up outside his palisade. Cao Cao hit him hard, drove him inside, and stormed the camp. Yuan Shao sent cavalry to relieve him. Aides warned, "Enemy horse is closing in behind us; detach a screen." Cao Cao roared, "The enemy is on our rear and you tell me now!" His men fought to the last breath, shattered Chunyu Qiong, and executed the whole command group. 〈The Cao Man Zhuan says Cao Cao ran out barefoot to greet Xu You, clapping his hands: "Your coming from afar means my cause is won!" Once seated, Xu You asked Cao Cao, "Yuan Shao's army is strong; how will you meet it? How many days of grain do you have left?" Cao Cao answered, "About a year's worth." Xu You snapped, "Nonsense. Try again." Cao Cao revised it to six months." If you will not be straight with me," Xu You pressed, "how can we break Yuan Shao?" Cao Cao laughed, "The first answers were a joke. In truth I have perhaps a month. What now?" You are isolated, out of supplies, and out of time," Xu You said flatly. More than ten thousand supply wagons sit at Gushi and Wuchao with slack guard duty; hit them with a flying column, burn the depots, and Yuan Shao will collapse within three days." Delighted, Cao Cao picked crack infantry and cavalry, dressed them all in Yuan army colors, gagged the horses, marched by night along a side road, and had each man carry bundles of brushwood. Whenever anyone along the road questioned them, they said, "Lord Yuan fears Cao Cao will raid his rear army, so he has sent troops to strengthen its defenses." The sentries swallowed the tale and stood down. They ringed Wuchao, torched the stacks, and threw the depot into panic. They annihilated the garrison, incinerated grain and treasure, took the heads of Sui Yuanjin, Han Juzi, Lü Weihuang, Zhao Rui, and others, sliced the nose from the still-living Chunyu Qiong (courtesy Zhongjian), mutilated over a thousand prisoners, and hacked the lips and tongues off draft animals to horrify Yuan Shao's host. Yuan Shao's men shook with terror. When night raiders dragged in the mutilated Chunyu Qiong, Cao Cao asked him, "Why did you let it come to this?" Chunyu Qiong snarled, "Win or lose is heaven's business—why ask me?" Cao Cao was inclined to spare him. Xu You warned, "Tomorrow he will glare at you from every mirror—he will never forget this humiliation." Cao Cao had him executed. When Yuan Shao first learned of the raid on Wuchao, he told Yuan Tan, "Let Cao Cao waste strength on Qiong while I storm his main camp; he will have nowhere to run!" He ordered Zhang He and Gao Lan to storm Cao Hong. Hearing Wuchao had fallen, Zhang He and Gao Lan defected. Yuan Shao's army dissolved; he and Yuan Tan abandoned the field and fled north across the Yellow River. Cao Cao could not overtake them but seized every wagon, archive, and trophy and rounded up the fugitives. 〈The court diary preserves Cao Cao's bill of indictment: "General-in-Chief and Marquis of Ye Yuan Shao formerly joined with Governor Han Fu of Ji Province to install the former Grand Marshal Liu Yu, cast a golden seal, and sent the former chief clerk Bi Yu to Liu Yu to explain the reckoning of the mandate. Yuan Shao also wrote proposing Juancheng as a new capital "when the time comes to act." He minted private gold and silver seals while graduates and clerks flocked to his camp. His cousin Xu, governor of Jiyin, wrote that heaven favored the Yuans and the elder brother should take the throne. Yuan Shu's followers wanted him crowned, but Yuan Shu argued that Yuan Shao was senior in years and rank. They were ready to hand over the seal when Cao Cao blocked the roads. The Yuan clan had enjoyed generations of imperial favor yet turned traitor to this degree. I therefore fought them at Guandu in the emperor's name, beheaded eight of their senior generals including Chunyu Qiong, and shattered their army. Yuan Shao and Yuan Tan fled with only their persons. The tally ran to more than seventy thousand heads taken, with booty beyond reckoning."〉" In Yuan Shao's correspondence he found letters from his own capital and even his officers; he burned them all unread. 〈The Wei Annals quotes his explanation: "At Yuan Shao's height I could barely save myself; who could blame others for wavering?"〉 Ji province's towns opened their gates in droves.
51
During Emperor Huan's reign a yellow star appeared over the Chu–Song sky sector; Yin Kui of Liaodong 〈The commentary treats Kui as an archaic spelling of the homophone kui, citing the San Cang lexicon.〉 He was an astronomer who predicted that within fifty years a "true man" would rise between Liang and Pei with irresistible force. Fifty years later Cao Cao broke Yuan Shao and stood unrivaled.
52
使
In the fourth month of summer, 201 CE, he paraded along the Yellow River and crushed Yuan Shao's remnant force at Cangting. Yuan Shao rallied stragglers and reconquered wavering counties in Hebei. In the ninth month Cao Cao was back in Xu. Before Guandu Yuan Shao had sent Liu Bei to plunder Runan, where bandits like Gong Du rose in support. Cai Yang was sent against Gong Du and was routed. Cao Cao marched south against Liu Bei. Hearing Cao Cao was leading in person, Liu Bei bolted to Liu Biao and Gong Du's bands melted away.
53
使 使 使 姿 忿
In the first month of spring, 202 CE, he camped at Qiao and proclaimed, "I took up arms to purge the realm of tyranny. Yet in my home country the dead are so many that I walk all day without recognizing a face, and it breaks my heart. For every officer and man who died childless, I will find kin to carry his line, grant them good land, oxen from the government, and teachers for their children. For the living I will raise shrines to their ancestors; if the dead can know, I shall go to my grave without regret." He then went to Junyi, repaired the Suiyang waterway, and sent a grand sacrifice to Qiao Xuan's spirit. 〈The reward edict preserves his elegy: "Grand Commandant Qiao spread bright virtue and embraced all the world. The state recalls his teaching; scholars cherish his counsel. The spirit is veiled in darkness; the body lies far away in the long night. In my youth I came to your door, a rough boy whom a great man nonetheless welcomed. Whatever honor I gained came from your praise, as Confucius ranked below Yan Hui and Li Sheng marveled at Jia Fu. A knight dies for his patron; I have never forgotten. You once joked: 'After I am gone, if you pass my tomb without pouring a peck of wine and offering a chicken, do not blame me if your belly aches three paces on. Only the closest friends banter like that. I do not claim your ghost would punish me; only memory of you fills me with grief. Ordered east, I halt in my home district and turn my heart toward your grave northward. Accept this poor offering; may you feast, noble sir!"〉" He then moved his headquarters to Guandu.
54
退
Broken by defeat, Yuan Shao began vomiting blood and died in the fifth month of summer. Yuan Shang succeeded him while Yuan Tan proclaimed himself chariot-and-cavalry general and camped at Liyang. In the ninth month of autumn Cao Cao attacked them in a series of fights. The Yuan brothers lost ground and dug in.
55
In the third month of spring, 203 CE, he stormed their outer rampart, drew them out, routed them, and the brothers fled by night. In the fourth month of summer he advanced on Ye. In May he withdrew to Xu, leaving Jia Xin at Liyang.
56
使 祿
On jiyou day he promulgated: "The Sima fa says the general dies rather than retreat, 〈the Book of Wei glossing sui as "yield ground, advance a foot, never yield an inch."〉 Hence Zhao Kuo's mother begged exemption from his punishment. Ancient law held generals accountable: defeat abroad meant punishment for the family at home. Yet we have rewarded victory without punishing failure; that cannot stand. Henceforth any general who suffers rout shall face criminal charges, and any who loses ground shall lose title and rank." 〈A further edict (gengshen) said, "Some critics say that although military officers have merit, their virtue and conduct are not sufficient for commandery and kingdom appointments, what is called 'able to follow the Way, but not yet able to adapt to circumstance. Guan Zhong said talent must be paid for rank and fighters for deeds if the state is to thrive. Paying drones who never fight cannot build an empire. A wise ruler gives no office without merit and no pay without battle; peace calls for virtue, crisis calls for results. Critics who dismiss soldiers are peering at a tiger through a reed!"〉"
57
滿
In the seventh month of autumn, he issued an order: "Fifteen years have passed since mourning and chaos began; those born afterward have not seen the customs of benevolence, righteousness, ritual, and deference. I am deeply grieved by this. Let each commandery and kingdom cultivate literary learning. In counties with five hundred households or more, establish school officials and select the talented men of their villages to teach them, so that perhaps the Way of the former kings will not be abandoned and there will be benefit to all under heaven."
58
西 使 便 使
In the eighth month he marched against Liu Biao and camped at Xiping. As Cao Cao turned south from Ye, Yuan Tan and Yuan Shang fought for Hebei; Shang drove Tan into Pingyuan. Yuan Shang pressed the siege until Yuan Tan sent Xin Pi to offer submission and beg aid. The staff hesitated, but Xun You urged Cao Cao to accept. 〈The Book of Wei quotes him calling Liu Biao a passive "self-guarding thief" who never helped Lü Bu or Yuan Shao. The Yuan brothers are treacherous; we should exploit their civil war. Even if Yuan Tan is lying, crushing Yuan Shang for him still wins us most of Hebei." He agreed to the alliance. He wheeled his army north again. In the tenth month of winter he reached Liyang and betrothed his son Cao Zheng to Yuan Tan's daughter. 〈Pei Songzhi notes that fewer than six months had passed since Yuan Shao's death. Yuan Tan had been posthumously adopted to an uncle's line yet held a wedding while still in mourning for Yuan Shaoa breach of ritual. Cao Cao may have treated the match as a political expedient; so the betrothal need not have been consummated that same year. Yuan Shang abandoned the siege of Pingyuan and rushed back to Ye when he heard Cao Cao was marching north. Lü Kuang and Lü Xiang of Dongping mutinied against Yuan Shang, camped at Yangping, came over with their troops, and received full marquisates. 〈The Book of Wei says Yuan Tan secretly handed his general's credentials to Lü Kuang after the siege lifted. Lü Kuang delivered the seal to Cao Cao, who said, "I knew Yuan Tan was playing games. He wanted me to wear down Yuan Shang while he plundered and recruited; once Shang fell he meant to grow strong on my fatigue. Once Yuan Shang is gone I will be at peak strength; what opening would he find?"〉"
59
西 西 西 使
In the first month of spring, 204 CE, he bridged the Yellow River, diverted the Qi into Baigou, and opened a supply line. In the second month Yuan Shang struck Yuan Tan again, leaving Su You and Shen Pei to hold Ye. Cao Cao reached the Huan River and Su You capitulated. He invested Ye with siege mounds and saps. Wu'an magistrate Yin Kai held Maocheng, keeping the Shangdang supply line open for Ye. In the fourth month of summer he left Cao Hong before Ye while he personally routed Yin Kai. Yuan Shang's officer Ju Hu defended Handan, 〈The surname Ju is still heard in Hebei, pronounced like the pickle character zu.) Ju Hu was the son of Yuan Shao's adviser Ju Shou. Cao Cao took Handan as well. Han Fan of Yiyang and Liang Qi of She surrendered whole counties and received guannei marquis rank. In May he tore down the mounds, ringed Ye with a wall, and broke the Zhang River banks to flood it; more than half the population inside starved. When Yuan Shang marched to relieve Ye in the seventh month, his officers all said, "This is a returning army; every man will fight for himself. It would be better to avoid them." Cao Cao said, "If he comes by the main road, sidestep him; if he threads the western hills, we have him." Yuan Shang took the mountain track and camped on the Fushui as predicted. 〈The Cao Man Zhuan says that several scout parties checked front and rear, and all reported, "They are certainly taking the western road and are already at Handan." Cao Cao gathered his generals and announced, "Ji province is already mine; did you know?" They answered, "No, my lord." You will see for yourselves soon enough."〉 Yuan Shang probed the siege by night; Cao Cao counterattacked, drove him off, and bottled his camp. Before the ring closed Yuan Shang panicked. Yin Kui and Chen Lin offered to yield, but Cao Cao refused and tightened the noose. Yuan Shang bolted to Qishan; Cao Cao pursued. Ma Yan, Zhang Yi, and other officers defected in the field; the army collapsed and Yuan Shang fled to Zhongshan. Cao Cao seized the baggage train, Yuan Shang's imperial regalia, and paraded captives before Ye until the defenders broke. In the eighth month Shen Rong, Shen Pei's nephew, opened the east gate he commanded to Cao Cao's men. Shen Pei sortied, was taken alive, executed, and Ye fell. Cao Cao visited Yuan Shao's grave and wept openly; he comforted the Yuan widow, restored her household goods, gave her silks and staples from the state granary. 〈Sun Sheng argues that ancient kings used reward and punishment to teach the realm, while Yuan Shao exploited chaos to grasp at the throne and trample law. His line deserved extirpation by classical standards. Yet Cao Cao wept at the tomb of a rebel and pampered his kin; that is a stumble in statecraft. The sages despised feigned friendship; duty does not demand hollow tears once bonds are broken. Gaozu erred with Xiang Yu's burial; Cao Cao repeats the mistake.
60
When they first raised armies together, Yuan Shao asked Cao Cao, "If the affair cannot be brought together, what region could we occupy?" Cao Cao returned the question: "What would you choose?" Yuan Shao said, "I would occupy the river to the south, block Yan and Dai to the north, combine the forces of the Rong and Di, and face south to contend for all under heaven. Might that be enough to succeed?" Cao Cao answered, "I will use every talent the realm offers and lead them by principle; then no direction is closed to me." 〈The Master Fu records Cao Cao adding, "The founders Tang and Wu were not mere regional lords. Lean only on terrain and you cannot adapt when fortune shifts."〉"
61
使
In the ninth month he issued an order: "Hebei has suffered the Yuan clan's disaster; let no taxes or levies be collected from it this year!" He tightened laws against great-clan land-grabs, and the people rejoiced. 〈The Book of Wei quotes his edict: "Those who possess states and households do not worry about scarcity, but about inequality; they do not worry about poverty, but about unrest. Under the Yuans the mighty seized what they wished and relatives swallowed neighbors' land; the poor paid their lords' taxes, sold their goods, and still could not satisfy collectors; Shen Pei's kin harbored fugitives and sheltered outlaws. How could such a regime win the people or a strong army! He fixed the rate at four sheng of grain per mu and two bolts of silk plus two jin of floss per household, forbidding any extra exactions. Local magistrates must audit accounts so the rich cannot hide income and the poor cannot be double-taxed."〉" The court named him inspector of Ji, but he yielded the title and kept Yan instead.
62
While Ye was under siege Yuan Tan snapped up Ganling, Anping, Bohai, and Hejian. Yuan Shang fell back to Zhongshan. Yuan Tan attacked; Yuan Shang fled to Gu'an and Yuan Tan absorbed his army. Cao Cao wrote denouncing the broken pact, annulled the betrothal, sent the bride home, and marched. Yuan Tan abandoned Pingyuan and bolted to Nanpi. In the twelfth month he occupied Pingyuan and secured its counties.
63
使
In the first month of spring, 205 CE, he stormed Nanpi, killed Yuan Tan, executed his family, and pacified Ji. 〈The Book of Wei says the assault stalled from dawn until noon; then Cao Cao beat the war drums himself and the men carried the walls in one rush. He issued an order: "Those who shared the Yuan clan's evil shall be allowed to begin anew." Private feuds, extravagant funerals, and all other matters were brought under uniform law. That same month Jiao Chu and Zhang Nan mutinied against Yuan Xi, who fled with Yuan Shang to the Wuhuan of the three commanderies. They surrendered their districts and received full marquisates. During the Nanpi campaign peasants fled the corvée of ice-breaking, 〈Pei Songzhi explains that frozen rivers forced laborers to break ice for supply boats, and many ran away. An edict forbade accepting those deserters. When runaways appeared at headquarters, Cao Cao told them, "If I spare you I break my decree; if I execute you I punish capitulation; slip away and hide where officials cannot find you." They left in tears; yet were caught afterward anyway.
64
涿
In the fourth month of summer Zhang Yan of the Black Mountains surrendered over a hundred thousand men and became a full marquis. Zhao Du and Huo Nu of Gu'an murdered the inspector of You and the governor of Zhuo. The Wuhuan of three commanderies besieged Xianyu Fu at Guangping. 〈The Later Han geography notes Guangping as a Yuyang county. In the eighth month of autumn he executed the rebels, crossed the Lu River, relieved Guangping, and drove the Wuhuan beyond the frontier.
65
In the ninth month he issued an order: "Forming factions and cliques was what the former sages detested. He had heard that in Ji fathers and sons in rival offices traduce each other for factional gain. Zhi Buyi had no brother yet rumor called him his sister-in-law's seducer; Fifth Brother Yu thrice wed an orphan and gossip mocked his fathers-in-law; Wang Feng's faction drew praise from Gu Yong like the Earl of Shen; loyal Wang Shang was smeared as a sorcerer, all lies that invert truth and cheat the throne. Until such slander stops I will be ashamed of my rule." In the tenth month of winter he returned to Ye.
66
Yuan Shao had put his nephew Gao Gan over Bing; after Ye fell Gao Gan submitted and stayed on as inspector. When Cao Cao marched against the Wuhuan, Gao Gan revolted, seized the Shangdang governor, and blocked Hukou. Yue Jin and Li Dian attacked until Gao Gan fell back inside Hukou city. In the first month of spring, 206 CE, he marched against Gao Gan. Gao Gan abandoned his deputy, fled to the Xiongnu for aid, and the shanyu refused him. After a three-month siege he took Hukou pass. Gao Gan bolted toward Jingzhou; Shangluo commandant Wang Yan ran him down and executed him.
67
In the eighth month of autumn he marched east against the pirate Guan Cheng, reached Chunyu, sent Yue Jin and Li Dian to defeat him, and Guan Cheng fled to offshore islands. He transferred Xiangben, Tan, and Qi from Donghai to Langye commandery and abolished Changlu. 〈The Book of Wei preserves his yihai-day edict of the tenth month: "In governing an age and directing the people, one establishes assistants and supporters; the warning lies in those who agree to one's face. The Classic of Poetry says, 'Listen and use my counsel, and perhaps there will be no great regret.' This is truly the earnest request of ruler and ministers. I bear a heavy burden and fear misjudgment; for years I have heard too few good plans; is that my fault for not inviting criticism? Henceforth every chief clerk shall on the first of each month report my faults for my review."〉"
68
西
Exploiting civil war, the Wuhuan of three commanderies overran You and carried off a hundred thousand Han households. Yuan Shao recognized their chiefs as shanyus and sealed the alliances by marrying them to women he claimed as daughters. Tadun of Liaoxi was the strongest of these clients and had been favored by Yuan Shao, so the Yuan brothers fled to him and raided inside the frontier again and again. To supply the northern expedition he cut a canal from the Hutuo River into the Gu River, 〈The commentary gives the reading of that place-name graph as gu.〉 He named it the Pacify-the-Barbarians Canal; then from the mouth of the Ju River 〈The commentary reads the river name graph as ju.〉 He cut through to the Lu River in a channel called the Quanzhou Canal to link the interior with the sea.
69
In the second month of spring of the twelfth year of Jian'an he returned from Chunyu to Ye. On the dingyou day he proclaimed, "Nineteen years ago I took up arms against tyranny; every campaign has succeeded, but the credit is not mine alone. It belongs to the worthy men who have served with me. The empire is not yet at peace, and I mean to finish the work with you; yet I alone would swallow the glory; how could I rest easy! Hurry to register merit and grant fiefs." He then ennobled over twenty chief followers as full marquises, ranked the rest in order, and pensioned the orphans of the fallen according to merit. 〈The Book of Wei quotes his order: "Formerly, when Zhao She and Dou Ying served as generals, they received a thousand in gold and scattered it in a single morning. Thus they could accomplish great achievements and leave a lasting reputation. Whenever I read their stories I admire them. You have shared every campaign; thanks to your counsel and courage we have crushed rebels while I alone have amassed thirty thousand households of fief. In Dou Ying's spirit I now share my rents with officers and with veterans of the Chen–Cai garrisons so the reward is not mine alone. Orphans of the fallen shall be graded for grain stipends. When the harvest is full and taxes are in, I will feast the whole host with you."〉"
70
西 使 西 使
Before the northern expedition his generals argued, "Yuan Shang is a beaten refugee; the tribes care nothing for kin; why would they fight for him? If we march deep into the steppe, Liu Bei will talk Liu Biao into striking Xu. If the capital falls we cannot undo it." Only Guo Jia judged that Liu Biao would never give Liu Bei real authority and urged the march. In the fifth month of summer he reached Wuzhong. In the seventh month of autumn floods blocked the coast road; Tian Chou offered to guide a mountain detour and Cao Cao accepted. He threaded Lulong Pass, cut a five-hundred-li road through mountains and valleys past Baitan and Pinggang, crossed Xianbei territory, and aimed for Liucheng. Within two hundred li the enemy learned of his approach. Yuan Shang, Yuan Xi, Tadun, Louban of Liaoxi, Nengchen Dizhi of Right Beiping, and others met him with tens of thousands of cavalry. In the eighth month he climbed White Wolf Mountain and stumbled into a huge enemy host. His wagons lagged behind, few men wore armor, and his staff was terrified. From the height he saw their ranks were loose, ordered a charge with Zhang Liao in the lead, shattered them, killed Tadun and other chieftains, and accepted over two hundred thousand Hu and Han capitulations. Supuyan of Liaodong and western notables abandoned their people and fled to Liaodong with the Yuan brothers, still trailing a few thousand horse. Liaodong governor Gongsun Kang had long defied the court from his remote seat. Some urged an immediate strike on Liaodong to bag the Yuan brothers. Cao Cao said, "I will let Gongsun Kang send me their heads; no need to march." In the ninth month he withdrew his army from Liucheng, 〈the Cao Man Zhuan describes bitter cold and drought, two hundred li without water, forced slaughter of thousands of horses for meat, and wells sunk thirty zhang before water came. Back in camp he sharply questioned the officers who had opposed the expedition; no one knew why and everyone feared punishment. Instead he rewarded them richly: "I took a reckless gamble and won by heaven's help; that cannot be the rule. Your warnings were the safe course; take this reward and never fear to speak your minds again."〉" Gongsun Kang executed Yuan Shang, Yuan Xi, Supuyan, and their party and sent the heads south. Some officers asked, "Why did Gongsun Kang behead and send Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi only after you withdrew?" Cao Cao answered, "Kang feared the Yuans; pressure would unite them, slackness would set them at each other's throats." In the eleventh month at the Yi River, Wuhuan acting shanyus Pulu of Dai and Lou of Shang led their chiefs to pay homage.
71
使
In the first month of spring, 208 CE, he returned to Ye and dug the Black Warrior Pool to train the fleet. 〈The gloss prescribes the fourth tone for the graph read yi. The San Cang lexicon glosses that graph (read yi) as "drill" or "practice."〉 The Han court abolished the three excellencies and created the posts of chancellor and imperial counselor. In the sixth month of summer he was named chancellor. 〈The court diary records Minister Xu Qiu presenting the seals of office. The new imperial counselor post came with a chief clerk and without the old censorate tie. The Worthies' Conduct describes Xu Qiu (courtesy Mengping) of Guangling. In youth he was known for integrity and stern dignity at court. As governor of Rencheng, Runan, and Donghai he left a record of good rule. Yuan Shu intercepted him when he was recalled to the capital. When Yuan Shu declared himself emperor he offered Xu Qiu exalted rank, but Xu Qiu refused to yield. After Yuan Shu's death Xu Qiu brought the imperial seal to the Han court and was named minister of the guards and minister of ceremonies; when Cao Cao became chancellor he tried to yield precedence to Xu Qiu.
72
使 使 殿 使 使
In the seventh month of autumn he marched south against Liu Biao. Liu Biao died in the eighth month; Liu Cong held Xiangyang while Liu Bei was at Fan. In the ninth month Cao Cao reached Xinye; Liu Cong capitulated and Liu Bei fled toward Xiakou. He pushed on to Jiangling and proclaimed amnesty and a new beginning for the people of Jingzhou. He ennobled fifteen men for surrendering Jingzhou, named Wen Pin governor of Jiangxia with his old command, and enrolled Han Song, Deng Yi, and other local luminaries. 〈Wei Heng's preface credits Wang Cizhong of Shanggu with the first regular-script forms of clerical hand. Emperor Ling's passion for calligraphy produced many masters. Shi Yiguan was the finest but so vain that he burned every draft. Liang Hu got him drunk, stole his drafts, and parlayed the hand into an appointment as minister of personnel. Cao Cao first offered him Luoyang magistrate; Liang Hu chose the northern district captaincy instead. Liang Hu later served Liu Biao. After the conquest Liang Hu surrendered bound, was made acting army marshal on staff, and worked in the secretariat to redeem himself by brushwork. Cao Cao hung Liang Hu's calligraphy in his tent and on his wall, judging it finer than Shi Yiguan's. Liang Hu (courtesy Menghuang) came from Anding. He wrote the plaques for Wei palace halls. Huangfu Mi's recluses text tells of Wang Jun (courtesy Ziwen) of Runan, noted by Fan Pang and Xu Zhang, friend of Cen Zhi of Nanyang. While still a commoner Cao Cao was especially close to Wang Jun; Wang Jun in turn said Cao Cao had what it takes to rule the realm. At the Yuans' mother's funeral in Runan, thirty thousand mourners saw Cao Cao and Wang Jun meet. Cao Cao whispered to Wang Jun, "Chaos is coming, and those two will lead it. If we mean to save the empire we must kill those two first or the storm will break." Wang Jun replied, "If anyone can save the age after them, it is you." They looked at each other and laughed. Wang Jun was outwardly calm and inwardly shrewd and ignored every official summons. He ignored imperial summons, retired to Wuling, and drew more than a hundred families with him. When the court moved to Xu he was summoned as secretary and again refused. Liu Biao secretly favored Yuan Shao while Shao was strong; Wang Jun told Biao, "Lord Cao is the hero of all under heaven. He will surely be able to raise the Way of the hegemon and continue the achievements of Duke Huan and Duke Wen. You snub your neighbor to court a distant ally; when crisis strikes, a plea across the desert will come too late!" Liu Biao would not listen. Wang Jun died at sixty-four in Wuling; Cao Cao grieved when he heard. After taking Jingzhou Cao Cao met the hearse at the river, reburied Wang Jun at Jiangling, and honored him as a sage of old. Yi province governor Liu Zhang for the first time answered a levy and sent troops to reinforce Cao Cao's host. That December Sun Quan struck Hefei to relieve Liu Bei's pressure. Cao Cao marched from Jiangling against Liu Bei, reached Baqiu, and sent Zhang Xi to reinforce Hefei. Sun Quan withdrew when Zhang Xi approached. At Chibi he fought Liu Bei and lost. A plague swept the army; he abandoned the campaign and withdrew. Liu Bei took Jingzhou and the Jiangnan commanderies. 〈The Shan gong zai ji describes Liu Bei's fireship attack, then Cao Cao's retreat down the Huarong trail through mud and a gale, packing the mire with straw so cavalry could cross. The straw-bearers were trampled into the morass and died in great numbers. Once clear of the trap he crowed to his generals, "Liu Bei is my match. His plan was just a beat too slow; had he fired earlier, none of us would have escaped." Liu Bei did try to burn the retreat later, but too late to catch them. Sun Sheng notes that the Wu zhi order of events differs from this account of Hefei before Chibi. The Wu chronicle is the reliable sequence.
73
In the third month of spring, 209 CE, he reached Qiao, built light craft, and drilled the fleet. In the seventh month of autumn he moved from the Guo into the Huai, then up the Fei to camp at Hefei. On xinwei day he issued an order: "Recently the army has repeatedly gone on campaign. Sometimes it has met with epidemic qi, officers and soldiers have died and not returned, households have been left resentful and empty, and the common people have been displaced. Could a humane man take pleasure in this? It was necessity, not choice. He ordered counties to keep rations flowing to destitute military families and sent officers to comfort them." He appointed Yangzhou local officials and opened military farms at Shao Lake. That December the army was back in Qiao.
74
使 忿 西西 使 使 使 使 便
In the spring of 210 CE he issued an order: "From antiquity, has any ruler who received the mandate or restored an age ever failed to have worthy men and gentlemen to govern all under heaven with him? Worthies are found in every ward; luck has little to do with it. Rulers fail because they do not search them out. With the empire still unsettled, recruitment is urgent. He quoted the Analects: not every talent fits every post. If only the spotless may serve, how did Duke Huan ever build a hegemony? Are there no Jiang Taigongs in coarse cloth along the Wei? Are there no Chen Pings, slandered for scandal, awaiting a discerning eye? Help me lift hidden talent wherever merit lies; I will use it." That winter he raised the Bronze Sparrow Terrace at Ye. 〈The Wei Wu anecdotes preserve his jihai-day memoir of 210 CE: "When I was first recommended as filial and incorrupt, I was young. I knew that I was not a man famed from mountain retreats, and feared that people within the seas would see me as ordinary and foolish. I wished to become governor of one commandery, govern and teach well, establish a reputation, and make the scholars of the age know me clearly; so at Jinan he purged corruption, held fair selections, and defied the eunuchs, which earned the hatred of magnates and forced him home on sick leave, planning to sit out twenty years of chaos until he could re-enter office with peers his age, building a study fifty li east of Qiao for reading, hunting, and obscurity, though peace eluded him, until summons pulled him back with a new dream: to earn the title general who campaigns west and a modest epitaph for his tomb, then Dong Zhuo's coup forced him to arms. He could have swollen his ranks but deliberately kept armies small, fearing that swollen hosts provoke stronger foes and fresh catastrophe, so he fought at Bianshui with thousands and later raised barely three thousand in Yangzhou, his self-imposed ceiling, until Yan province and three hundred thousand surrendered Turbans changed the scale, while Yuan Shu played emperor at Jiujiang with court dress and rival empresses, yet even Yuan Shu knew better than to proclaim the throne while Cao Cao lived, until Cao Cao smashed his armies and watched him die broken, then faced Yuan Shao in Hebei outmatched yet ready to die for the Han, and by fortune broke him and his sons, then unmasked Liu Biao's vacillating treason and took Jingzhou, until he stood as chancellor at the summit of any subject's career, and tells this story not to boast but to leave nothing unsaid. Without me at the helm, countless warlords would have crowned themselves emperors or kings. Because I am powerful and skeptical of omens, people whisper that I aim at the throne; the suspicion gnaws at me. Duke Huan and Duke Wen are praised because great power did not stop them from serving the Zhou king. The Analects praises King Wen for holding two-thirds of the realm yet serving Shangthe strong serving the weak. When King Zhao of Zhao asked the exile Yue Yi to plot against Yan, Yue Yi wept and said: 'I serve Zhao as I served Yan; even exiled I would not scheme against Zhao's meanest slave, let alone Yan's descendants. When Huhai killed Meng Tian, the general said: 'My family has served Qin faithfully for three generations; though I commanded three hundred thousand men and could have revolted, I chose death from loyalty to Qin's old kings. Cao Cao says he weeps every time he reads those speeches. His family had held the Han's highest trust for three generations down to Cao Pi and his brothers. He repeated the same confession to his wives and concubines so they would understand. He told them that after his death they should remarry so the world would know his loyalty was not feigned. These are words straight from the guts. Like the Duke of Zhou's golden-coffer oath, he writes to be believed. Yet he cannot simply disband his armies and retire to his Wuping marquisate. Why not? Because stripped of troops he would be murdered. His fall would topple the state, so he refuses empty honor that invites real ruin. He once refused three son's marquisates but now accepts them as political hostages for safety. He cites Jie Tui refusing Jin rewards, and Shen Xu fleeing Chu honors, and sets the book aside to reflect. Yet wielding Han authority he turned weakness to strength, small to great, and pacified the realm by heaven's favor, not his own might alone. Four counties and thirty thousand households are more than his virtue deserves. The south is still restless, so he cannot resign command; but he can give back fief income. He therefore returns twenty thousand households from three counties and keeps only ten thousand at Wuping to silence critics."〉"
75
使
In the first month of spring, 211 CE, 〈the court answered on gengchen: accept the five-thousand-household cut and split the yielded fifteen thousand among Cao Zhi, Cao Ju, and Cao Bao as marquises of five thousand households each. The emperor named Cao Pi general of the household for the five offices with full staff as the chancellor's deputy. Shang Yao of Taiyuan rebelled at Daling; Xiahou Yuan and Xu Huang crushed the revolt. In the third month he sent Zhong Yao against Zhang Lu in Hanzhong. He ordered Xiahou Yuan east from Hedong to join Zhong Yao.
76
西 西 西 使 西 退 西 耀 西 西西 西 使
The western lords feared Zhong Yao meant to attack them, so Ma Chao, Han Sui, Yang Qiu, Li Kan, Cheng Yi, and others mutinied. He sent Cao Ren against them. Ma Chao and the others occupied Tong Pass; Cao Cao instructed the generals, "The troops west of the pass are elite and fierce. Hold firm behind walls and do not fight them." In the seventh month of autumn he marched west, 〈The Book of Wei says that many advisers said, "The troops west of the pass are strong and are practiced with long spears. Unless we select an elite vanguard, we cannot face them," Cao Cao told the generals, "The battle lies with me, not with the enemy. They may drill long spears; I will keep them from thrusting. Watch me."〉" He faced Ma Chao across Tong Pass. He pinned Ma Chao frontally while Xu Huang and Zhu Ling slipped across Puban at night to camp west of the river. During his own northward crossing Ma Chao stormed the ferries before the army was over. Colonel Ding Fei stampeded draft animals as a decoy; the rebels scattered to round them up and Cao Cao got across, 〈the Cao Man Zhuan adds that Ma Chao caught him still seated on a camp stool, until Zhang He and others dragged him aboard, then the current swept the boat four or five li downstream under a rain of arrows, while officers who thought him lost wept with relief when he appeared, and he laughed, "Nearly done in by young bravos today!"〉 He then drove a covered gallery south along the bank. When the enemy fell back to the Wei estuary he feinted broadly, ferried troops across the Wei by night on pontoon bridges, and planted camps on the south bank. A night raid on Cao Cao's camp walked into an ambush and was shattered. Ma Chao's coalition camped south of the Wei and offered to trade the west bank for peace; Cao Cao refused. In the ninth month he forced the crossing of the Wei. 〈The Cao Man Zhuan says Ma Chao's horse kept disrupting each crossing and the sandy soil would not hold walls. Lou Zibo advised Cao Cao, "The weather is cold now. You can raise a wall of sand and pour water over it; it can be completed in one night." Cao Cao followed the plan, ferried water in silk sacks, raised frozen sand walls overnight, and got his whole army across the Wei. Skeptics noted that September seemed early for ice. Pei Songzhi checks the Wei Shu: the army reached Tong in the eighth month and crossed north in an intercalary eighth month, so deep cold by the Wei crossing is plausible. Ma Chao baited him repeatedly; Cao Cao still refused battle; they begged for a territorial settlement and hostages; Cao Cao followed Jia Xu's advice and pretended to agree. Han Sui asked for a parley; he and Cao Cao had been recommended the same year as Sui's father had been, so they sat horse to horse reminiscing about Luoyang like old friends, never touching strategy. Afterward Ma Chao demanded, "What did Cao Cao say?" Han Sui answered, "Nothing important." The western lords began to doubt Han Sui. 〈The Book of Wei says that when Cao Cao met again with Han Sui and the others on a later day, the generals said, "When you speak with the captives, you should not go lightly and exposed. A wooden horse barricade can be made to block and guard the way." Cao Cao agreed. Enemy chiefs saluted from the saddle while crowds of Qiang and Hu pressed close; Cao Cao laughed, "So you want a look at Cao Cao? He has the same face as anyone else, just a busier mind!" The nomad spectators surged forward for a better view. Five thousand armored horse in ten ranks glittered in the sun until the rebels were paralyzed with fear. Later Cao Cao sent Han Sui a letter visibly edited as if Han Sui had altered it himself; deepening Ma Chao's distrust of Han Sui. He then set a battle day, skirmished until the enemy tired, and unleashed his heavy cavalry to crush them, killing Cheng Yi, Li Kan, and others. Han Sui and Ma Chao fled west, Yang Qiu to Anding, and the Guanzhong plain was his. Some officers asked Cao Cao, "At first, when the enemy held Tong Pass and the road north of the Wei was open, why did you not strike Fengyi from Hedong, but instead hold at Tong Pass and only cross north after drawing out the days?" Cao Cao said, "The enemy held Tong Pass. If I had entered Hedong, the enemy would certainly have drawn back to guard the fords, and the Western River could not have been crossed. Therefore I massed troops toward Tong Pass; emptying the west bank so Xu Huang and Zhu Ling could seize it, which let him cross north while Ma Chao could not contest the west bank. He then linked wagons and stakes into a gallery southward, 〈Pei Songzhi cites Gaozu's siege gallery to Aocang between Jingyang and Jingsuo, Ying Shao glossing the gallery as a walled lane to protect supplies, while Cao Cao used only wagon lines and stakes for flank cover."〉 He looked invulnerable yet acted weak on purpose. South of the Wei he dug in and refused sorties to lull the enemy into arrogance; so Ma Chao neglected fortifications and begged for a partition deal instead. Cao Cao agreed to buy time, let them relax their guard, then hit them with stored fury like lightning before they could cover their ears; war has many faces." At first he smiled wider every time another rebel column arrived. After the victory they asked why he had looked pleased. Cao Cao answered, "Guanzhong is long and distant. If the enemy had each relied on dangerous positions, campaigning against them could not have settled it in one or two years. but they had massed in one place without unity or single command, so one blow could end them; that was cause for joy."
77
使
In the tenth month of winter he marched from Chang'an against Yang Qiu and besieged Anding. Yang Qiu surrendered, kept his titles, and was left to pacify his district. 〈The Brief Account of Wei adds that Yang Qiu later rose to general who attacks bandits, tejin rank, marquis of Linjing, and died of old age. In December he withdrew from Anding, leaving Xiahou Yuan in Chang'an.
78
殿 使 鹿
In the first month of spring, 212 CE, he was back in Ye. The emperor granted him Xiao He's honors: no name called in court, no need to trot in audience, sword and shoes in the hall. Ma Chao's lieutenant Liang Xing held Lantian until Xiahou Yuan wiped him out. He transferred a long list of counties from Henei, Dongjun, Julu, Guangping, and Zhao into the enlarged Wei commandery around Ye.
79
In the tenth month of winter he marched against Sun Quan.
80
西
In the first month of spring, 213 CE, he struck Ruxu, took Sun Quan's west-bank camp and commander Gongsun Yang, then withdrew. An edict collapsed the fourteen provinces back into the nine ancient provinces. In the fourth month of summer he arrived in Ye.
81
使 祿
On the bingshen day of the fifth month the emperor sent Imperial Counselor Xi Chu with credentials to ennoble Cao Cao as duke of Wei 〈The Continuation of the Han History identifies Xi Chu (courtesy Hongyu) of Gaoping in Shanyang. He had studied under Zheng Xuan and became a palace attendant early in the Jian'an era. Yu Pu's southern chronicle says the emperor once received Xi Chu and Minister of the Lesser Treasury Kong Rong together and asked Rong, "In what is Hongyu superior?" Kong Rong answered, "You can discuss the Way with him, not power politics." Xi Chu shot back, raising his hu tablet, "When Rong ruled Beihai the people fled; where was his power?" They traded barbs until they were enemies. Cao Cao wrote letters to patch things up. Xi Chu was later promoted from grand master of splendid carriage to imperial counselor. The investiture text began:
82
西 西
The emperor speaks: We, unworthy, suffered exile in the west, shuttled between Tang and Wei, dangling like a king whose tassels are tugged by others; 〈The Gongyang Commentary says, "The ruler is like excess banner tassels. meaning "excess" like something hung," He Xiu says, "The liu are the tassels of a banner. pulled this way and that by inferiors."〉" Ancestral rites ceased and the state altars stood empty; rebels carved up China while We held no true realm and Gaozu's mandate nearly fell to earth. We rise before dawn and sleep uneasily, shaken and grieved in Our heart, saying, "O ancestors, O fathers, former upright ministers who were Our arms and legs, 〈quoting the "Charge to Wen" on "the former upright," Zheng Xuan glossing that as former ministers, meaning the high ministers of the court."〉 Who then will pity Us?" Heaven then sent the chancellor to steady the throne and carry Us through peril; We lean entirely on him. Now We confer the ducal rites; listen with care to Our charge.
83
The text turns to Cao Cao's merit list: when Dong Zhuo first struck, lords left their posts to rescue the dynasty, 〈The Zuo Commentary says, "The lords set aside their positions to assist the royal government." Fu Qian explaining that they gave up local power to serve Zhou."〉 While you, Duke, marched first in the vanguard—that was loyalty to the Han. When the Yellow Turbans ravaged three provinces you exterminated them and calmed the east. You purged Han Xian and Yang Feng, moved the court to Xu, restored offices and rites, and brought peace to heaven and earth. You broke Yuan Shu at Qiyang, beheaded Qiao Rui, and drove Shu to ruin. You executed Lü Bu, destroyed Zhang Yang, forced Sui Gu and Zhang Xiu to yield. When Yuan Shao menaced the throne with superior numbers you held fast to duty, struck at Guandu, and annihilated his army, 〈The Odes says, "Bringing Heaven's limit to the wilds of Mu." Zheng Xuan glossing "limit" as utmost, and the Hong fan on executing the wicked."〉 You snatched the dynasty from the brink of ruin. You crossed the Yellow River, secured four provinces, took the heads of Yuan Tan and Gao Gan, scattered pirates, and pacified the Black Mountains. You crushed the Wuhuan whom Yuan Shang had sheltered beyond the passes in one winter campaign. When Liu Biao withheld tribute your host made every city in Jingzhou kneel. You destroyed Ma Chao and Cheng Yi at the Wei, counted ten thousand ears of the slain, and pacified the frontier tribes. Xianbei, Dingling, Bi, and Baiwu tribes sent envoys and accepted Han officials. You ordered the realm, spread humane rule, taught diligently, judged fairly, and left officials and commoners without grievance; you honored the Liu clan, restored ruined houses, and ennobled every past worthy; yet beside you even Yi Yin and the Duke of Zhou shrink to nothing.
84
使西 使 使 鹿
The edict continues: ancient kings enfeoffed the worthy with land, people, and full rites to guard the Zhou line, as when Duke of Zhou, troubled by Guan and Cai, sent Duke of Shao to invest Jiang Taigong with authority from sea to river, Muleng to Wudi, with right to chastise any feudal lord, making Qi the eastern bulwark of Zhou; Under King Xiang of Zhou, when Chu withheld tribute, Jin Wend of Jin was named hegemon with the paired chariots, royal guard, ritual axes, sacrificial ale, and bows; he opened Nanyang and his line chaired the feudal alliances for generations. The house of Zhou owed its survival to Qi and Jin. You now shine with virtue, shelter the throne, answer Heaven, spread order, and pacify the nine domains so that all submit, 〈as Pan Geng says of "bringing peace to the people," Zheng Xuan glossing yuan as "thereby" and the sense as settling the people, The Lord Shi says, "To the sea's corner where the sun rises, none failed to follow and serve." shu meaning "to follow," bi meaning "to employ," so that all within the sun's reach follows law and serves the throne. Your deeds outshine Yi Yin and the Duke of Zhou, yet your fief is smaller than Qi or Jin ever received; We blush at the mismatch. We stand a frail child on the people's shoulders, dreading every step like thin ice over a pit; without you to bridge it We are lost. We therefore enfeoff you as duke of Wei over Hedong, Henei, Wei, Zhao, Zhongshan, Changshan, Julu, Anping, Ganling, and Pingyuanten commanderies of Ji. You receive the black earth and white reed bundle of a true vassal; divine the tortoise and raise altars to Heaven and Earth for Wei. As Bi and Mao served inside court while Zhou and Shao held the two bols outside, you shall match both roles: remain chancellor and inspector of Ji as before. We now add the nine ritual gifts; hear each charge with care.
85
使 退 使 使 祿 使 退
First gift: for ordering law and livelihood so none stray from duty, the paired state chariots with black four-horse teams. Second: for urging harvest and husbandry, for the farmers' tireless labor, 〈Pan Geng says, "If farmers ruin themselves with ease and do not labor diligently." Zheng Xuan glossing "dusk toil" as striving without cease."〉 Third: for overflowing granaries and silks, the nine-symbol court robes and crimson shoes. Fourth: for teaching humility and harmony, the hall music and six-row dance of a lord. Fifth: for civilizing frontier and heartland alike, vermilion-lacquered palace gates. Sixth: for wise appointments, the raised inner steps to the hall. Seventh: for crushing corruption from the center, three hundred royal guardsmen. Eighth: for enforcing justice and exposing guilt, 〈from the Guo yu, Wei Zhao glossing jiu as "examine, qian as "reverent, xing as "law."〉" Therefore We grant you axe and halberd, one each—the regalia of execution. Ninth: for commanding campaigns in every quarter, the crimson and black bows with their full quivers. Tenth: for filial loyalty that touched the throne, the black-millet sacrificial ale with jade dipper. Wei may copy the full Han royal bureaucracy under its duke. Accept these honors and serve Our mandate faithfully. Rule your people with care, fulfill every duty, and bring glory to the Han house your ancestors served. 〈Pei Songzhi credits the edict to Pan Xu of the Han secretariat.) Pan Xu (courtesy Yuanmao) came from Zhongmou in Chenliu. Cao Cao's order recorded in the Wei Shu said, "As for receiving the nine bestowments and broadly opening territory, the Duke of Zhou was the man for that. Han's eight non-Liu kings who rose with Gaozu built an empire; he could not rank beside them." He refused the bundle three separate times. Wang Ling, Xun You, Zhong Yao, Liang Mao, Mao Jie, Liu Xun, Liu Ruo, Xiahou Dun, Wang Zhong, Liu Zhan, Xianyu Fu, Cheng Yu, Jia Xu, Dong Zhao, Xue Hong, Dong Meng, Wang Can, Fu Xun, Wang Xuan, Yuan Huan, Wang Lang, Zhang Cheng, Ren Fan, Du Xi, Cao Hong, Han Hao, Cao Ren, Wang Tu, Wan Qian, Xie Huan, Yuan Ba, and others then urged him to accept the duchy, saying, "From antiquity, when the Three Dynasties granted ministers land, received the mandate, restored an age, and bestowed ranks on assistants, it was always to praise merit and reward virtue, and to make them shields and guards of the state. They recalled the warlords' chaos when the realm nearly fell. They praised Cao Cao's twenty years of campaigns that crushed the Yuans, Yellow Turbans, and every rebel without parallel in recorded history. They compared him to the Duke of Zhou and Lü Wang, who despite easier inheritances still carved out vast domains. Zhou's eight sons all became lords with full royal-style sacrifices and honors. Even minor helpers at Han's founding like Zhang Er and Wu Rui became kings of wide domains. Such rewards were always how wise emperors treated founding ministers. By labor Zhou and Lü Wang had it easier; by merit Zhang and Wu were smaller men; Qi and Lu held heavier titles; Changsha held more land; yet your Wei fief and nine tins are still modest beside those old precedents, like pearls hidden under a beggar's cloak. Hundreds of officers owe their purple sashes to your rise; if you alone refuse the throne's thanks, you unsettle your men, disappoint the emperor, and betray the cause for false modesty; they beg you not to do it." Cao Cao then filed a memorial saying he would accept only Wei commandery. Xun You and the others replied, "We humbly observe that when Wei was first enfeoffed, the sage court formed its plans and consulted the assembled officials before issuing the patent; while he kept defying the emperor's will by delaying the full acceptance. Now that he had bowed to the edict, taking only one part of nine would still nullify the court's intent and their petition. Qi and Lu once held the eastern sea with four million households, making hegemony easy. Wei's ten commanderies are smaller than Qufu alone by household count, insufficient even as a bulwark for the Han. The Son of Heaven, mindful of Qin's fall without allies, leans on you to shore up the dynasty; accept fully and do not resist." Cao Cao then accepted the ducal investiture. The Wei lüe preserves his thank-you memorial: "Your servant received the late emperor's deep kindness, reached office in the palace bureaus, and, being by nature weary and indolent, felt his hopes fully satisfied. I did not dare hope for high rank or almost-visible prominence. Then fortune raised him to serve the emperor. At the height of the Yuan war he and the emperor had expected to die together. Heaven allowed him to survive and earn a name. Each promotion exceeded his wildest hopes. He had hoped only to keep a marquisate for his heirs in peace. The new duchy rivaled Qi and Lu in ritual rank beyond his deserts. Repeated refusals met only sterner edicts. He knew his life belonged to the state and could not indulge private modesty without being removed. Accepting the fief he thinks not of dynastic ambition but of duty, and swears father and son will spend life and ash repaying the Han. He ends trembling before Heaven's command."〉"
86
使使 西
In the seventh month of autumn Wei raised its own altars of soil and grain and ancestral shrine. The emperor took three of Cao Cao's daughters as imperial consorts, the youngest to come of age in Wei. 〈The diary lists the embassy of Wang Yi with silks and five matchmakers sent to Ye for the betrothal.〉 In the ninth month he built the Golden Tiger Terrace and linked the Zhang to Baigou toward the Yellow River. In the tenth month of winter he split Wei commandery into east and west with commandants. In the eleventh month he created the secretariat, palace attendants, and six ministers for Wei. 〈The Wei Annals names Xun You, Liang Mao, Mao Jie, Cui Yan, Wang Can, Du Xi, and others for the new posts.
87
使
Ma Chao stirred Qiang and Hu in Hanyang; Di chief Qianwan joined him at Xingguo. He sent Xiahou Yuan against them.
88
西
In the first month of spring, 214 CE, he first performed the royal plowing rite. Zhao Qu and Yin Feng of Nan'an turned on Ma Chao, killed his family, and drove him to Hanzhong. Han Sui joined Qianwan with ten thousand allied horse to fight Xiahou Yuan; Xiahou Yuan smashed the coalition and Han Sui fled to Xiping. Xiahou Yuan stormed Xingguo and put it to the sword. He abolished Andong and Yongyang commanderies.
89
便 使 使 殿殿
As Muqiu Xing left for Anding, Cao Cao warned him, "If the Qiang and Hu wish to communicate with the Central States, they should send people themselves. Be careful not to send people there. Meddling Han clerks would teach the tribes to make impossible demands for private gain; refusing offends them; granting harms the state: no win." Muqiu Xing ignored the warning: his colonel Fan Ling coached the Qiang to petition for a dependent-state commandancy. Cao Cao remarked, "I foresaw that, not prophecy, just experience." 〈The Emperor Xian diary says Wang Yi, acting Minister of Ceremonies and Grand Minister of Agriculture, and Liu Ai, Director of the Imperial Clan, were sent with staffs, silk, teams of four horses, palace attendants, and eunuchs to escort the two elder consorts from Wei toward the capital. On guihai in the second month the two consorts received seals in the Wei ancestral temple. On jiazi they were escorted through Yanqiu Gate into the carriages. Wei officials accompanied the escort. On guiyou they reached Weicang; palace attendants and tiger guards relayed them onward. On yihai they entered the Luoyang palace for a joint Han–Wei banquet.〉
90
使 使
In the third month the emperor ranked the duke of Wei above all kings and reissued the gold seal, crimson ribbons, and far-roaming crown. 〈Yang Xuan and Pei Mao delivered the new regalia.
91
In the seventh month of autumn he marched again against Sun Quan. 〈Fu Gan's Jiuzhou chunqiu memorial said, "The great tools for ordering all under heaven are two: civil culture and martial force; Using force, establish awe first; using civil rule, establish virtue first; when awe and virtue reinforce each other, the kingly way is complete. Fu Gan continued: when the empire collapsed you restored order by force nine-tenths of the way. Only Wu and Shu remain; the Yangzi and Shu passes yield to virtue more readily than to terror. He urged demobilization, rewards for merit, and consolidation so the realm sees stable rule. Then build schools to shape character and ritual. Your military fame already fills the seas; add civil arts and the world will submit willingly. Parking an army on the Long River while Sun Quan digs in wastes men and gains nothing. May Your Enlightened Lordship think of Yu Shun's meaning in dancing with shield and axe, preserve awe, nourish virtue, and conquer by the Way." Cao Cao ignored him and the campaign failed. Fu Gan (courtesy Yancai) of Beidi died in office as a chancellor's granary clerk. His son was named Fu Xuan.
92
西
Song Jian of Longxi had ruled Fuhan as a self-styled king for over thirty years. Xiahou Yuan marched from Xingguo against him. In the tenth month of winter Cao Cao took Fuhan, executed Song Jian, and pacified Liangzhou.
93
He returned from Hefei.
94
In November Empress Fu fell because letters to her father Fu Wan showed she and the emperor resented Cao Cao after Dong Cheng's death; she was deposed and killed with her kin. 〈The Cao Man Zhuan says Hua Xin stormed the palace while the empress hid in a wall cavity. Hua Xin broke in and dragged her out. She clutched the emperor's hand barefoot and said, "Can you no longer save me?" The emperor said, "I myself do not know when my own fate will come." He turned to Xi Chu, "Can the world hold such cruelty?" They took her away to die; Fu Wan's clan lost hundreds.
95
殿 使
In December he reached Meng Ford. The emperor granted him plumed guard and palace bell-stands. On yiwei day he issued an order: "Men of conduct are not necessarily able to press forward and seize opportunity, and men who press forward are not necessarily men of conduct. Chen Ping was hardly a saint; Su Qin was hardly loyal. Yet they saved Han and Yan. Therefore never discard a man for a single flaw. If the responsible officials clearly consider this meaning, then no scholar will be left stuck and no office will be left neglected." He added, "Punishment is the life of the common people, yet those who handle prisons in the army are sometimes not the right men. To entrust them with matters of life and death for the three armies greatly frightens me. Appoint only clear-minded jurists to run military justice." He created the law bureau staff.
96
In the first month of spring, 215 CE, his middle daughter became empress. He merged northern border commanderies into Xinxing with one county seat each.
97
西 西 西 宿使 使 退 𢢼 西西
In the third month he marched on Hanzhong via Chencang toward Wudu and the Di country; the Di blocked the road until Zhang He and Zhu Ling cleared it. In the fourth month of summer he passed San Pass from Chencang to Hechi. Di king Dou Mao held defiles with ten thousand men until Cao Cao stormed and slaughtered them in May. Qu Yan and Jiang Shi of Xiping and Jincheng sent in Han Sui's head. 〈The Dian lüe gives Han Sui (courtesy Wenyue) and his early fame with Bian Zhang. Bian Zhang was an army supervisor clerk. Han Sui once urged He Jin to purge the eunuchs, failed, and went home. Later mutineers forced Han Sui and Bian Zhang to lead; Zhang died; Han Sui rebelled for thirty-two years until his seventies when his own men killed him. Liu Ai notes Bian Zhang was also called Yuan. In the seventh month of autumn he reached Yangping. Zhang Wei and Yang Ang held a ten-li wall at Yangping until Cao Cao withdrew, seemingly beaten. Seeing retreat, the defenders relaxed. Cao Cao sent Xie Xiao and Gao Zuo on a night climb, routed them, killed Yang Ren, and drove Zhang Wei away so Zhang Lu fled toward Ba. Entering Nanzheng, the Hanzhong administrative seat, he seized Zhang Lu's hoard. 〈The Book of Wei notes the brutal march through Wudu mountains, then feasted the army in gratitude for their ordeal. Ba commandery and Hanzhong submitted. He restored Hanning as Hanzhong commandery; split Anyang and Xicheng from Hanzhong into a new Xicheng commandery with a governor; and carved Xi and Shangyong with commandants.
98
In the eighth month Sun Quan besieged Hefei until Zhang Liao and Li Dian broke the siege.
99
西 便使
In the ninth month Pu Hu, Yi king of the seven Ba clans, and Du Hu, lord of the Cong district, led Ba and Cong tribes to surrender, 〈Sun Sheng says: Pu is read like fu. The gloss reads the graph as hu.〉 Ba was split; Pu Hu became governor of Badong and Du Hu of Baxi, both full marquises. The emperor authorized Cao Cao to appoint regional lords and governors on his own authority. 〈Kong Yan records an edict: "The great affairs of the army lie in rewards and punishments, encouraging good and punishing evil, and should not wait even a moment. Therefore the Sima fa says, 'Rewards do not pass the day,' wishing the people quickly to see the benefit of doing good. The edict compared this to Emperor Guangwu's restoration, when Deng Yu entered the passes and appointed Li Wen as grand administrator of Hedong, and Lai Xi appointed Gao Jun as General Who Opens the Road, both commissioning officers in the field without prior imperial approval. The Spring and Autumn allows ministers abroad sole discretion for the state's good. You command like the ancient two bols beyond the capital; waiting for Luoyang on every promotion would cripple the war effort. Henceforth carve seals and commission on your own judgment to keep loyalty rewarded without delay."〉"
100
In the tenth month of winter he created six grades of military nobility from title marquis down to grandee fifth class. 〈The Book of Wei lists eighteen ranks of title marquis and seventeen of Guanzhong marquis with gold and purple, sixteen ranks of inner/outer Guanzhong marquis with copper turtle seals, and fifteen ranks of grandee fifth class with ring-knob copper seals, none with rent fiefs, six grades in all beside old marquises. Pei Songzhi marks this as the start of purely nominal nobility.
101
In November Zhang Lu surrendered from Ba with his remaining followers. Zhang Lu and his five sons all received full marquisates. Liu Bei seized Yizhou from Liu Zhang and pushed into Ba; Cao Cao sent Zhang He against him.
102
西
In December he left Nanzheng for Ye, leaving Xiahou Yuan in Hanzhong. 〈Wang Can's poem on the campaign begins, "War brings joy and woeit depends whom you serve. Follow a divine commander and the march feels short. It praises the western campaign smashing Hu and Qiang like picking up pebbles. It boasts rich feasts, fat horses, and soldiers returning laden with booty. It ends with a triumphal entry into Ye after three thousand li gained."〉"
103
殿 殿 殿 退 使 西 西西 使使使 使使 使
In the second month of spring, 216 CE, he was back in Ye. 〈The Wei Shu records his spring sacrifice order: "Some critics think that one should remove one's shoes when ascending the hall in the ancestral temple. because his nine-tins privilege allowed sword and shoes in the Han hall, so removing shoes only for ancestors would slight the emperor's grant. He also refused the empty hand-wetting ritual at the lavabo, insisting on a real ablution because the spirits are present. He waited under the canopy until the music ended rather than rushing the spirits away, so he sat through the final cadence before rising. He personally carried the offering to the spirit instead of delegating to attendants. He quotes Confucius on following the lower ritual path when the crowd is wrong."〉" On renyin in the third month he plowed the sacred field again. 〈Officials memorialized, "In the four seasons, military drills are held in the slack times between farming. while Han had dropped to a single October review at Changshui with five camps in eight formations, They proposed scrapping quarterly drills in wartime and holding one grand review each Start of Autumn, called "ordering troops," to match classical language and Han precedent." The emperor approved the memorial. In the fifth month of summer the emperor raised him to king of Wei. 〈The Xian di zhuan preserves the king-making edict: "From antiquity, though emperors and kings have changed their titles and their ranks have differed, when it came to honoring founding merit, establishing achievements, glorifying a surname, and extending it to descendants, how could there be a difference between distant surnames and kin? praising Han founders for enfeoffing all worthy lines to guard the mandate, and long eras of peace between ruler and ministers, until Guangwu's restoration left centuries without non-Liu kings until your rise. The edict continues: the emperor claims unworthiness while chaos ran from west to east. He feared disgracing the Han ancestors. Heaven sent Cao Cao to save the altars and every living Han subject. Your labors exceed ancient worthies yet you stayed humble, so the court first made you duke of Wei only, waiting to reward true merit. When Han Sui and Song Jian allied with Shu you sent generals who took their heads. At Yangping you wore armor yourself and cleared the west to the horizon. He compares the achievement to Tang, Yu, Wen, Wu, and their ministers. Even sage kings rewarded helpers richly; how can a weak emperor repay you so poorly? He advances Cao Cao to king of Wei with Liu Ai bearing seals, soil bundle, and tallies one through five and one through ten. Assume kingship while remaining chancellor and inspector of Ji. Return the old duke of Wei insignia. Respectfully obey Our command, choose and care for your people, bring the many tasks to peace, and thereby raise the fine mandate of Our ancestors." Cao Cao declined three times; the court refused three times. A personal edict said, "Great sages take merit and virtue as high beauty and loyalty and harmony as standard teachings. Therefore they founded enterprises and left names, so that a hundred generations could look up to them; they practiced the Way and established rightness, so that those who exert themselves could imitate them. Thus their fierce achievements were inexhaustible and their fine radiance was abundant. It asks whether even Ji, Qi, Zhou, and Shao matched Cao Cao's burden. The emperor says he loses sleep over how to honor such service. Further refusal would frustrate the court and mislead posterity. Accept the crown and stop refusing." The calligraphy preface notes Liang Hu once made Cao Cao northern district captain. The Cao Man Zhuan says Sima Fang recommended him. After Cao Cao became king, he summoned Lord Jian to Ye, drank joyfully with him, and said to him, "Could I still serve as a captain today?" Lord Jian replied, "When I recommended Your Majesty in the past, you were just fit to serve as a captain." Cao Cao roared with laughter. Sima Fang was the father of Sima Yi. Pei Songzhi doubts Sima Fang was right aide but cites a Jin source linking the recommendation to Cao Cao's early police post.〉 Wuhuan acting shanyu Pulu of Dai brought his chiefs to audience. The emperor made Cao Cao's daughter a princess with bath-town revenue. Southern Xiongnu shanyu Huchuquan came to court, was honored as a guest, then kept in Wei while Qubei ruled the steppe for him. In the eighth month Zhong Yao became prime minister. 〈The Book of Wei records new minister of ceremonies and imperial clan posts.
104
退
In the tenth month of winter he held the troop review, 〈beating the signal drum himself. Then he marched on Wu and reached Qiao in November.
105
西谿 退
In spring 217 his host camped at Juchao, then moved to Haoxi west of the Yangzi. Sun Quan walled Ruxu until Cao Cao pressed him and he withdrew. In March he withdrew, leaving Xiahou Dun, Cao Ren, and Zhang Liao at Juchao.
106
In April the emperor granted imperial banners and cleared-road ceremony. In May he built the Pan Palace at Ye. In June Hua Xin became imperial counselor. 〈First minister of the guards was appointed. His famous talent edict of the eighth month said, "In the past, Yi Zhi and Fu Yue came from lowly men, and Guan Zhong was Duke Huan's enemy, yet all were employed and thereby brought their states to rise. Xiao He, Cao Shen, Han Xin, and Chen Ping had humble or scandalous pasts yet built the Han. Even ruthless Wu Qi froze Qin and Jin when he served Wei and Chu. There may be hidden sages and fearless warriors; civil officials of unusual ability fit for command; recommend scoundrels with statecraft anyway."〉" In October the emperor gave twelve-tassel crown, six-horse imperial chariot, five-seasons escort, and named Cao Pi heir.
107
Liu Bei posted Zhang Fei, Ma Chao, and Wu Lan at Xiabian; Cao Cao sent Cao Hong to hold them.
108
便
In spring 218 Ji Ben, Geng Ji, and Wei Huang rose in Xu, torched Wang Bi's yamen, 〈Cao Cao's order recorded in the Wei Wu anecdotes said, "Acting Chief Clerk Wang Bi was an official of mine when I was cutting through brambles. Loyal, tireless, iron-willed—a model clerk. He regrets having delayed promoting him. He had just appointed Wang Bi chief clerk of Xu."〉" Wang Bi and Yan Kuang crushed the coup and executed the rebels. 〈The commentary names Jin Yi of Jingzhao, who boasted a Han-loyalist pedigree from Jin Midi. Seeing the Han failing, he plotted with Geng Ji, Wei Huang, the Ji family, and others. Geng Ji (courtesy Jixing) had been a trusted chancellor aide promoted to palace attendant and minister of the lesser treasury. Ji Miao and Ji Mu worked through Jin Yi, who was close to Wang Bi, hoping to kill Wang Bi, seize the emperor, and join Liu Bei. With Guan Yu ascendant and Cao Cao in Ye, Wang Bi held Xu. They stormed the gate at night, Jin Yi's men inside shot Wang Bi in the shoulder. Wang Bi fled to Jin Yi's house. Jin Yi's family did not know it was Wang Bi and, thinking he was Wen Ran and the others, answered by mistake, "Is Chief Clerk Wang dead? so your plot has succeeded!" Realizing the trap, Wang Bi ran another way. Another version says that when Wang Bi wished to flee to Jin Yi, his subordinate commander told him, "In today's affair, how can you know whose gate you are entering?" The adjutant helped him reach the south city. At dawn Wang Bi still lived and the rebels melted away. Wang Bi died of his wounds days later. At execution, Geng Ji called out the King of Wei's name and said, "I regret that I did not produce the plan myself and was ultimately misled by these boys!" Wei Huang wept and beat his face until the blade fell. Furious at Wang Bi's death, Cao Cao summoned Luoyang officials to Ye and ordered fire-fighters left, non-fighters right. Everyone crowded left thinking fire-fighters were safe, but Cao Cao considered, "Those who did not fight the fire were not helping the disorder; those who fought the fire were the true rebels," and executed everyone who had fought the blaze.
109
Cao Hong defeated Wu Lan and killed Ren Kui. In March Zhang Fei and Ma Chao withdrew; Qiang Duan of Yinping Di killed Wu Lan and sent the head.
110
In April Wuhuan Wuchenshi rebelled in Dai and Shanggu; Cao Zhang crushed them. 〈An edict recorded in the Wei Shu said, "Last winter Heaven sent epidemic pestilence, the people suffered loss and injury, the army was raised abroad, and cultivated fields were reduced. I am deeply worried by this. It orders lifelong grain for the blind, crippled, childless elderly, and orphans under twelve. Aid for minors ends at twelve; other poor get ration loans. Households with dependents over ninety get one corvée exemption."〉"
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西西 使
In June he issued an order: "Those buried in antiquity always occupied poor and barren land. He chose the plateau west of Ximen Bao's shrine for a low unmarked tumulus. He cites Zhou and Han rules on clustering tombs around the royal mound. Meritorious officers may be buried beside him in ample ground."
112
西
In July he reviewed troops and marched to Chang'an in September.
113
使
In October Hou Yin seized Wan, took the governor hostage, and rebelled. Cao Ren had been facing Guan Yu at Fan; he was now ordered to invest Wan.
114
In spring 219 Cao Ren took Wan and executed Hou Yin. 〈The Cao Man Zhuan blames harsh corvée for Hou Yin's revolt with Guan Yu. Zong Ziqing went to persuade Hou Yin, saying, "You follow the people's hearts and raise a great enterprise; near and far, none fail to look to the wind. and he should free the governor. I will join you in exerting all our strength, and by the time Lord Cao's army comes, Guan Yu's troops will also have arrived." Hou Yin freed the governor. Zong Ziqing escaped, rallied loyalists, and joined Cao Ren to end the siege.
115
簿便
Xiahou Yuan fell to Liu Bei at Yangping. In March Cao Cao took Xie Valley toward Hanzhong and Yangping. Liu Bei held the defiles. 〈The Jiuzhou chunqiu says he muttered "chicken ribs" when debating retreat; Yang Xiu immediately packed his gear, and people were startled and asked Xiu, "How did you know?" Yang Xiu said, "Chicken ribs: throwing them away feels wasteful, yet eating them yields nothing. Hanzhong is the same; the king intends to pull back."〉
116
In the fifth month of summer he withdrew to Chang'an.
117
使
In the seventh month of autumn Lady Bian became queen. He sent Yu Jin to reinforce Cao Ren against Guan Yu. In August the Han River rose, drowned Yu Jin's corps, Guan Yu captured Yu Jin, and tightened the siege of Cao Ren. He ordered Xu Huang to relieve the siege.
118
西
In September Zhong Yao lost his post as prime minister when his western-bureau clerk Wei Feng plotted treason. 〈The Shi Yu describes Wei Feng (Zijing) of Pei as a charismatic schemer whom Zhong Yao had employed. While the main army was away Wei Feng conspired with Chen Wei to seize Ye. Chen Wei panicked, informed the crown prince, and Wei Feng was executed along with dozens of accomplices. Wang Chang's Family Admonition says, "Wei Feng of Jiyin," yet this passage calls him a man of Pei; it is not clear which is right.〉
119
使 殿 殿
In the tenth month of winter the army reached Luoyang. 〈The Cao Man Zhuan says he rebuilt the compound of his old northern-district captaincy and made it grander than before.〉 Sun Quan wrote offering to strike Guan Yu to show loyalty. Cao Cao marched south for Guan Yu but Xu Huang defeated him first, lifting the siege of Fan. He camped at Mopo. 〈The Wei lüe says Sun Quan submitted as vassal and flattered the Mandate of Heaven. Cao Cao showed Sun Quan's letter to outsiders and said, "Does this boy want to set me over a blazing stove?" Chen Qun and Huan Jie memorialized, "Since Emperor An, Han's government has left the imperial house, and the state line has repeatedly been cut off. Down to the present there is only a name and title; not a foot of soil or a single commoner belongs to Han. Its appointed span has long been exhausted, and its calendrical count has long ended; this is not only the case today. They cited omens that the Yellow Heaven would replace Han. They urged him to take the throne since he held nine-tenths of the realm and even Sun Quan acknowledged it. In our foolish opinion, Yu and Xia did not use modest refusals, and Yin and Zhou did not begrudge execution and exile. Fearing Heaven and knowing the mandate, there is nothing to yield to." The Wei Annals records Xiahou Dun telling the king, "All under heaven know that Han's fortune is exhausted and that a different age is about to arise. Whoever saves the people is their true ruler. After more than thirty years at war your merit is plain to the common people; you are the pillar they lean on. Heaven and the multitude are aligned—why hesitate further?" Cao Cao said, "'Applying oneself to government: this too is government. If Heaven's mandate rests with me, I will be King Wen of Zhou." Other sources say Huan Jie urged enthronement while Xiahou Dun wanted Shu conquered first; the king agreed with the latter. When Cao Cao died, Xiahou Dun brooded over what he had said before, sickened, and passed away. Sun Sheng argues that Xiahou Dun was eager for Wei titles while posing as a Han servant, whereas Huan Jie confronted him and kept his integrity; and when the sources are compared, the Shi Yu story does not hold up.〉
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In the first month of spring, 220 CE, he reached Luoyang. Sun Quan killed Guan Yu and sent the head north.
121
殿 使
On gengzi day he died in Luoyang at sixty-six. 〈The Shi Yu records an omen: while building Jianshi Hall he had a tree felled at the Zhuolong Shrine and it bled like a wound. The Cao Man Zhuan adds a bleeding pear root when transplanting. Su Yue reported it; Cao Cao went to look, hated the sign, took it as a bad omen, and soon afterward fell ill.〉 His final order said, "All under heaven is not yet settled, so we cannot follow antiquity. Mourning should end with the burial. Garrison troops must stay at their posts. Officials should keep working. Shroud me in ordinary seasonal clothes; do not store gold, jade, or precious treasures." He was given the posthumous title King Wu. On dingmao in the second month he was buried at Gaoling.
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〈The Wei shu praises Cao Cao for clearing the realm: his campaigns followed Sunzi and Wuzi, yet he improvised stratagems and outthought every opponent. He wrote over one hundred thousand characters of military doctrine, and his commanders fought by that new manual. In the field he micromanaged orders: obedience brought victory, disobedience brought rout. Against an enemy line he looked almost indifferent to battle, yet at the decisive stroke his fury surged, and he won every engagement by skill, not fortune. He read people shrewdly: Yu Jin and Le Jin rose from the ranks, Zhang Liao and Xu Huang from defeated enemies, yet each became a pillar general. Countless others he pulled from obscurity into governorships and magistracies. He built a state with both pen and sword: thirty years of command without neglecting study—days for strategy, nights for the classics, and every climb inspired a poem that became court music. His physical power was legendary—hawking on the wing, wrestling beasts—and at Nanpi he bagged sixty-three pheasants in one day. Palace works and armory refits all bore his personal standards, worked out down to the last detail. He lived plainly: no brocade in the harem, single-color footwear for servants, patched drapes instead of new silks, and bedding chosen for warmth, not display. Spoils of conquest went to the deserving; he paid fortunes for real merit and refused a copper to favor-seekers, while sharing regional gifts with his staff. He despised wasteful funeral pomp and pre-made his own winding-sheet—four small boxes of clothes, nothing more.〉
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〈The Fu zi adds that he curbed bridal excess: ducal brides had plain black hangings and no more than ten attendants.〉
124
〈Zhang Hua lists the great Han calligraphers—Cui Yuan and Cui Shi, Zhang Zhi and Zhang Chang—and places Cao Cao a close second. He could hold his own with Huan Tan and Cai Yong in music and with noted weiqi masters of the day. He dabbled in longevity lore and pharmacology, inviting Zuo Ci, Hua Tuo, Gan Shi, Qie Jian, and others; he even trained himself to swallow wild kudzu by the foot and to tolerate poison wine in quantity.〉
125
〈Late Han magnates affected scholar's headcloths instead of court dress—even generals like Yuan Shao and Cui Bao wrapped their heads in silk. Cao Cao introduced the plain silk qia as wartime headgear—color-coded for rank—a practical field style rather than full court regalia.〉
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洿 使 簿 簿
〈The Cao Man zhuan paints him as irreverent and music-mad, keeping entertainers with him from morning till night. He dressed lightly, tucked a kerchief in a belt pouch, and sometimes received visitors in a casual qia cap. In conversation he joked without reserve, and in mirth he might bury his face in the dishes until sauce stained his headgear. Yet the law was ruthless: any general who outshone him could die for it, and old scores were settled in blood. He wept theatrically over men he executed, but never spared them. Yuan Zhong and Huan Shao had once slighted him; later, when Bian Rang mocked him in Yanzhou, Cao Cao had Bian killed and his kin wiped out. When Yuan Zhong and Huan Shao fled to Jiaozhou, he sent orders through the local governor to extirpate both families. Huan Shao came out to beg pardon on his knees; Cao Cao sneered, "Think kneeling saves you?" Then he had him executed. On a march through wheat, he ordered, "Soldiers must not damage the wheat; violators will die." The troopers dismounted and shifted the crop aside by hand—yet his own mount broke into the field, and he told his chief clerk to rule on the breach. The clerk cited the Chunqiu principle that law does not bind the sovereign. Cao Cao replied, "How can I legislate a rule and break it before the ranks? As commander-in-chief he could not execute himself, so he proposed a substitute punishment." He drew his sword, sheared off his hair, and threw it down as symbolic execution. A favorite concubine once attended him during a daytime nap, lay with his head on her lap, and he told her, "Wake me after a little while." She let him sleep on; when he woke on his own, he beat her to death for disobeying. Once, while campaigning against bandits, army grain ran short, and he privately asked the quartermaster, "What should be done?" The quartermaster said, "We can use smaller scoops to make it suffice." Cao Cao said, "Good." When the troops later said Cao Cao had deceived them, Cao Cao told the quartermaster, "I must borrow your death to satisfy the men. Otherwise the matter cannot be resolved." He then beheaded him, took the head, and displayed it with a placard: "He used small scoops and stole official grain; he is beheaded at the army gate." Such episodes typify his cruelty and cunning.〉
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The historian's verdict: in the late Han collapse Yuan Shao dominated four provinces and seemed unstoppable. Cao Cao matched Legalist rigor with Han Xin–style stratagem, matched men to posts, mastered his passions, forgave old slights when useful, and seized the mandate—above all because his political vision was unmatched. He ranks among the rare figures who tower above their times.
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