Biography of Li Si

李斯者，楚上蔡人也。年少時，為郡小吏，見吏舍廁中鼠食不絜，近人犬，數驚恐之。斯入倉，觀倉中鼠，食積粟，居大廡之下，不見人犬之憂。於是李斯乃嘆曰：「人之賢不肖譬如鼠矣，在所自處耳！」

Li Si hailed from Shangcai in the state of Chu. In his youth, he served as a minor clerk in the commandery. He noticed that the rats in the office latrine ate filthy scraps and, being close to people and dogs, were constantly startled and terrified. But when Li Si entered the granary, he saw that the rats there feasted on heaps of stored grain beneath the great eaves, free from any fear of people or dogs. At this, Li Si sighed and said, 'Whether a man proves worthy or worthless is like these rats—it all depends on where he places himself!'

乃從荀卿學帝王之術。學已成，度楚王不足事，而六國皆弱，無可為建功者，欲西入秦。辭於荀卿曰：「斯聞得時無怠，今萬乘方爭時，游者主事。今秦王欲吞天下，稱帝而治，此布衣馳騖之時而游說者之秋也。處卑賤之位而計不為者，此禽鹿視肉，人面而能閒行者耳。故詬莫大於卑賤，而悲莫甚於窮困。久處卑賤之位，困苦之地，非世而惡利，自託於無為，此非士之情也。故斯將西說秦王矣。」

He then went to study the arts of kingship and empire under Xunzi. When his studies were complete, he reckoned that the King of Chu was not worth serving and that the six states were all in decline, with none offering a path to greatness. He resolved to travel west and enter Qin. He took his leave of Xunzi, saying, 'I have heard that when opportunity arises, one must not hesitate. Now the great powers contend for supremacy, and itinerant advisors hold sway over affairs. The King of Qin seeks to devour the realm and rule as emperor—this is the hour for men of common cloth to race forward, the harvest season for persuaders. Those who cling to lowly positions and make no plans for action are like beasts that stare at meat—they wear human faces but can only wander aimlessly. No disgrace is greater than a lowly station, and no sorrow runs deeper than poverty. To languish in humble positions and bitter circumstances, rejecting the world and scorning gain, entrusting oneself to inaction—this is not the true nature of a scholar. And so I shall go west to persuade the King of Qin.'

至秦，會莊襄王卒，李斯乃求為秦相文信侯呂不韋舍人；不韋賢之，任以為郎。李斯因以得說，說秦王曰：「胥人者，去其幾也。成大功者，在因瑕釁而遂忍之。昔者秦穆公之霸，終不東并六國者，何也？諸侯尚眾，周德未衰，故五伯迭興，更尊周室。自秦孝公以來，周室卑微，諸侯相兼，關東為六國，秦之乘勝役諸侯，蓋六世矣。今諸侯服秦，譬若郡縣。夫以秦之彊，大王之賢，由灶上騷除，足以滅諸侯，成帝業，為天下一統，此萬世之一時也。今怠而不急就，諸侯復彊，相聚約從，雖有黃帝之賢，不能并也。」秦王乃拜斯為長史，聽其計，陰遣謀士齎持金玉以游說諸侯。諸侯名士可下以財者，厚遺結之；不肯者，利劍刺之。離其君臣之計，秦王乃使其良將隨其後。秦王拜斯為客卿。

Upon arriving in Qin, he found that King Zhuangxiang had just died. Li Si sought a position as a retainer in the household of Lü Buwei, the Chancellor and Marquis of Wenxin. Lü Buwei recognized his talent and appointed him as a gentleman-attendant. Through this position Li Si gained an audience with the king. He addressed the King of Qin, saying, 'One who waits for opportunity must seize the decisive moment. Those who accomplish great deeds exploit every crack and flaw, and steel themselves to see their designs through to the end. In former times, Duke Mu of Qin achieved hegemony, yet he never annexed the six states to the east. Why was this? The feudal lords were still numerous, and the virtue of the Zhou had not yet waned. Thus the Five Hegemons rose in turn, each upholding the Zhou royal house. Since Duke Xiao of Qin, the Zhou house has dwindled into insignificance. The feudal lords have swallowed one another until only six states remain east of the passes. For six generations now, Qin has ridden its victories to bring the lords to heel. Today the feudal lords submit to Qin as though they were mere commanderies and counties. With the might of Qin and the wisdom of Your Majesty, sweeping away the feudal lords would be as easy as brushing dust from a stove—enough to destroy them all, complete the imperial enterprise, and unify the realm. This is an opportunity that comes once in ten thousand generations. If we hesitate now and fail to press the advantage, the feudal lords will regain their strength and bind themselves in alliances. Then even one with the wisdom of the Yellow Emperor could not conquer them.' The King of Qin appointed Li Si as Chief Secretary, adopted his strategy, and secretly dispatched agents bearing gold and jade to win over the feudal lords. Those renowned men among the feudal lords who could be swayed by wealth were lavished with gifts and bound to Qin's cause. Those who refused were put to the sword. Once the bonds between rival rulers and their ministers had been severed, the King of Qin sent his finest generals to follow up with force. The King of Qin then promoted Li Si to the rank of Guest Minister.

會韓人鄭國來閒秦，以作注溉渠，已而覺。秦宗室大臣皆言秦王曰：「諸侯人來事秦者，大抵為其主游閒於秦耳，請一切逐客。」李斯議亦在逐中。斯乃上書曰：

It happened that Zheng Guo, a man from the state of Han, had come to Qin on a scheme to drain its resources by proposing the construction of an irrigation canal. In time, the plot was uncovered. The nobles and senior ministers of Qin all spoke to the king, saying, 'Foreigners from the feudal states who come to serve Qin are, for the most part, nothing but spies for their own rulers. We request that all guest officials be expelled.' Li Si was among those slated for expulsion. Li Si then submitted a memorial to the throne, which read:

臣聞吏議逐客，竊以為過矣。昔繆公求士，西取由余於戎，東得百里奚於宛，迎蹇叔於宋，來丕豹、公孫支於晉。此五子者，不產於秦，而繆公用之，并國二十，遂霸西戎。孝公用商鞅之法，移風易俗，民以殷盛，國以富彊，百姓樂用，諸侯親服，獲楚、魏之師，舉地千里，至今治彊。惠王用張儀之計，拔三川之地，西并巴、蜀，北收上郡，南取漢中，包九夷，制鄢、郢，東據成皋之險，割膏腴之壤，遂散六國之從，使之西面事秦，功施到今。昭王得范睢，廢穰侯，逐華陽，彊公室，杜私門，蠶食諸侯，使秦成帝業。此四君者，皆以客之功。由此觀之，客何負於秦哉！向使四君卻客而不內，疏士而不用，是使國無富利之實而秦無彊大之名也。

Your servant has heard that the officials propose to expel all foreign guests. I humbly submit that this is a grave error. In former times, Duke Mu sought men of talent: he recruited You Yu from the Rong barbarians in the west, obtained Baili Xi from Wan in the east, welcomed Jian Shu from the state of Song, and brought Pi Bao and Gongsun Zhi from Jin. None of these five men were born in Qin, yet Duke Mu employed them, annexed twenty states, and became hegemon over the western Rong. Duke Xiao adopted the laws of Shang Yang, transforming customs and mores. The people flourished, the state grew wealthy and powerful, the common folk served willingly, and the feudal lords submitted in awe. He defeated the armies of Chu and Wei, seized a thousand li of territory, and to this day Qin remains well-governed and mighty. King Hui employed the stratagems of Zhang Yi: he seized the Three River region, annexed Ba and Shu in the west, took Shangjun in the north, captured Hanzhong in the south, encompassed the Nine Yi peoples, dominated Yan and Ying, held the strategic fortress of Chenggao in the east, and carved out the most fertile lands. He shattered the vertical alliance of the six states and forced them to face west and serve Qin—achievements whose benefits endure to this day. King Zhao acquired Fan Sui, deposed the Marquis of Rang, banished the Lord of Huayang, strengthened the royal house, sealed off channels of private influence, devoured the feudal lords piecemeal, and set Qin on the path to empire. All four of these rulers owed their achievements to foreign-born ministers. Viewed in this light, how have guest officials ever failed Qin? Had those four rulers turned away guest officials and refused them entry, shunned men of talent and left them idle, the state would have had no real wealth or profit, and Qin no reputation for power and greatness.

今陛下致昆山之玉，有隨、和之寶，垂明月之珠，服太阿之劍，乘纖離之馬，建翠鳳之旗，樹靈鼉之鼓。此數寶者，秦不生一焉，而陛下說之，何也？必秦國之所生然後可，則是夜光之璧不飾朝廷，犀象之器不為玩好，鄭、衛之女不充後宮，而駿良駃騠不實外廄，江南金錫不為用，西蜀丹青不為采。所以飾後宮充下陳娛心意說耳目者，必出於秦然後可，則是宛珠之簪，傅璣之珥，阿縞之衣，錦繡之飾不進於前，而隨俗雅化佳冶窈窕趙女不立於側也。夫擊甕叩缶彈箏搏髀，而歌呼嗚嗚快耳（目）者，真秦之聲也；鄭、衛、桑閒、昭、虞、武、象者，異國之樂也。今棄擊甕叩缶而就鄭衛，退彈箏而取昭虞，若是者何也？快意當前，適觀而已矣。今取人則不然。不問可否，不論曲直，非秦者去，為客者逐。然則是所重者在乎色樂珠玉，而所輕者在乎人民也。此非所以跨海內制諸侯之術也。

Now Your Majesty possesses jade from the Kunlun Mountains, treasures the jewels of Sui and He, wears pearls bright as the moon, girds the Tai'e sword, rides steeds of the Xianli breed, raises banners adorned with kingfisher-plumed phoenixes, and beats drums covered with the hides of sacred alligators. Not one of these treasures is produced in Qin, yet Your Majesty takes delight in them all. Why is this so? If only goods produced in Qin were deemed acceptable, then luminous jade discs would not grace the court, vessels of rhinoceros horn and ivory would not serve as treasured curios, the beauties of Zheng and Wei would not fill the inner palace, fine coursers and thoroughbreds would not stand in the outer stables, gold and tin from south of the Yangtze would go unused, and the cinnabar and azurite of western Shu would never be gathered. If everything that adorns the inner palace, fills the attendant ranks, delights the heart, and pleases the eyes must originate in Qin, then pearl hairpins from Wan, jade-studded earrings, gossamer gowns from E, and brocade ornaments would never be presented at court, and the graceful, alluring, willowy beauties of Zhao would never stand at Your Majesty's side. Banging on jars, tapping clay pots, strumming the zheng, and slapping thighs while singing out in rough cries—these are the authentic sounds of Qin. The music of Zheng, Wei, Sangjian, Zhao, Yu, Wu, and Xiang—these are all melodies from foreign lands. Yet now Your Majesty sets aside the banging of jars and tapping of pots in favor of the airs of Zheng and Wei, abandons the zheng for the melodies of Zhao and Yu. Why is this? Simply because one seeks what pleases and selects what satisfies. Yet when it comes to selecting men, the approach is reversed. Without asking whether a man is fit, without weighing right from wrong—if he was not born in Qin, he is dismissed; if he is a guest official, he is expelled. This means that what is prized are beauty, music, pearls, and jade, while what is cast aside are the people themselves. This is hardly the way to bestride the realm and bring the feudal lords to heel.

臣聞地廣者粟多，國大者人眾，兵彊則士勇。是以太山不讓土壤，故能成其大；河海不擇細流，故能就其深；王者不卻眾庶，故能明其德。是以地無四方，民無異國，四時充美，鬼神降福，此五帝、三王之所以無敵也。今乃棄黔首以資敵國，卻賓客以業諸侯，使天下之士退而不敢西向，裹足不入秦，此所謂「藉寇兵而齎盜糧」者也。

Your servant has heard that where the land is broad, the grain is plentiful; where the state is great, the people are many; where the army is strong, the soldiers are brave. Mount Tai does not turn away a single handful of soil—that is how it achieves its greatness. The rivers and seas refuse no trickle of water—that is how they achieve their depth. A true king turns away no man from the multitudes—that is how he makes his virtue shine. Thus the land knows no boundaries, the people know no foreign states, the four seasons overflow with bounty, and the spirits send down their blessings. This is why the Five Emperors and Three Kings stood without rival. Yet now you would cast away the common people to enrich enemy states, drive out guest officials to build up the feudal lords, and cause every scholar in the realm to turn away, afraid to face west, binding their feet rather than enter Qin. This is what the proverb calls 'lending arms to bandits and provisions to thieves.'

夫物不產於秦，可寶者多；士不產於秦，而願忠者眾。今逐客以資敵國，損民以益讎，內自虛而外樹怨於諸侯，求國無危，不可得也。

Countless treasures are not native to Qin. Countless loyal men were not born in Qin, yet they wish to serve her faithfully. To expel guest officials now is to enrich enemy states, to diminish our own people for the benefit of our foes. It hollows out Qin from within while sowing resentment among the feudal lords without. To seek security for the state under such conditions is impossible.

秦王乃除逐客之令，復李斯官，卒用其計謀。官至廷尉。二十餘年，竟并天下，尊主為皇帝，以斯為丞相。夷郡縣城，銷其兵刃，示不復用。使秦無尺土之封，不立子弟為王，功臣為諸侯者，使後無戰攻之患。

The King of Qin thereupon rescinded the order to expel guest officials, restored Li Si to his post, and ultimately adopted his counsel. Li Si rose through the ranks to become Commandant of Justice. Over the course of twenty-odd years, Qin finally unified the realm, its ruler was honored as Emperor, and Li Si was made Chancellor. He leveled the walls of the commanderies and counties and melted down their weapons, signaling that they would never be used again. He ensured that Qin granted not a foot of land in fief, established no sons or brothers as kings, and ennobled no ministers as feudal lords, so that in future there would be no threat of war from within.

始皇三十四年，置酒咸陽宮，博士仆射周青臣等頌始皇威德。齊人淳于越進諫曰：「臣聞之，殷周之王千餘歲，封子弟功臣自為支輔。今陛下有海內，而子弟為匹夫，卒有田常、六卿之患，臣無輔弼，何以相救哉？事不師古而能長久者，非所聞也。今青臣等又面諛以重陛下過，非忠臣也。」始皇下其議丞相。丞相謬其說，絀其辭，乃上書曰：「古者天下散亂，莫能相一，是以諸侯并作，語皆道古以害今，飾虛言以亂實，人善其所私學，以非上所建立。今陛下并有天下，別白黑而定一尊；而私學乃相與非法教之制，聞令下，即各以其私學議之，入則心非，出則巷議，非主以為名，異趣以為高，率群下以造謗。如此不禁，則主勢降乎上，黨與成乎下。禁之便。臣請諸有文學詩書百家語者，蠲除去之。令到滿三十日弗去，黥為城旦。所不去者，醫藥卜筮種樹之書。若有欲學者，以吏為師。」始皇可其議，收去詩書百家之語以愚百姓，使天下無以古非今。明法度，定律令，皆以始皇起。同文書。治離宮別館，周遍天下。明年，又巡狩，外攘四夷，斯皆有力焉。

In the thirty-fourth year of the First Emperor's reign, a banquet was held at the Xianyang Palace. The Chief Academician Zhou Qingchen and others offered toasts praising the Emperor's might and virtue. Chunyu Yue, a scholar from Qi, stepped forward to remonstrate: 'I have heard that the houses of Yin and Zhou endured for over a thousand years precisely because they enfeoffed sons, brothers, and meritorious ministers as pillars of support. Now Your Majesty possesses all within the seas, yet your sons and brothers remain mere commoners. Should a crisis arise like those posed by Tian Chang or the Six Ministers, with no enfeoffed kin to provide support, how would you find rescue? I have never heard of a regime that spurned the models of antiquity and yet endured. Now Zhou Qingchen and his ilk flatter you to your face, only compounding Your Majesty's errors. They are not loyal ministers.' The First Emperor referred the debate to the Chancellor for judgment. The Chancellor rejected his reasoning and dismissed his arguments, then submitted a memorial: 'In ancient times the realm was fragmented and in chaos, and no one could unify it. Thus the feudal lords rose up together. In their discourse they all invoked antiquity to undermine the present, adorned empty rhetoric to confound reality, and each man praised his own private school of learning to attack what the sovereign had established. Now Your Majesty has united the realm, distinguished right from wrong, and established a single supreme authority. Yet adherents of private schools join together to attack the system of laws and teachings. When they hear a decree issued, each uses his own learning to criticize it. At court they nurse dissent in their hearts; in the streets they debate in the alleyways. They make their names by opposing the sovereign, exalt themselves by pursuing contrary doctrines, and lead the common people in fabricating slander. If this is not forbidden, the sovereign's authority will erode above while factions coalesce below. It would be expedient to ban them. Your servant requests that all texts of literature, the Odes, the Documents, and the writings of the Hundred Schools be confiscated and destroyed. When the order arrives, anyone who fails to surrender them within thirty days shall be branded and sentenced to hard labor on the walls. The only books to be exempted are those on medicine, divination, and agriculture. If any wish to study, let them take the officials as their teachers.' The First Emperor approved the proposal. He had the Odes, the Documents, and the writings of the Hundred Schools confiscated and destroyed, so as to keep the common people in ignorance and ensure that no one in the realm could invoke the past to criticize the present. He codified the laws and fixed the statutes—everything was to begin with the First Emperor. He standardized the written script throughout the empire. He built detached palaces and pleasure lodges that spread across the entire realm. The following year, the Emperor set out on another inspection tour and repelled the barbarians on every frontier. In all of these undertakings, Li Si played a decisive role.

斯長男由為三川守，諸男皆尚秦公主，女悉嫁秦諸公子。三川守李由告歸咸陽，李斯置酒於家，百官長皆前為壽，門廷車騎以千數。李斯喟然而嘆曰：「嗟乎！吾聞之荀卿曰『物禁大盛』。夫斯乃上蔡布衣，閭巷之黔首，上不知其駑下，遂擢至此。當今人臣之位無居臣上者，可謂富貴極矣。物極則衰，吾未知所稅駕也！」

Li Si's eldest son, Li You, served as governor of Sanchuan. All of his sons married princesses of Qin, and all of his daughters were wed to princes of the imperial house. When Li You, the Governor of Sanchuan, returned to Xianyang, Li Si held a banquet at his residence. Every head of office came forward to raise a toast, and the carriages and riders crowding his gates numbered in the thousands. Li Si heaved a deep sigh and said, 'Alas! I recall that Master Xun once warned: "All things must be guarded against when they reach their fullest flourishing." I, Li Si, began as a man of common cloth from Shangcai, one of the black-haired folk of the back alleys. The Emperor, unaware of my mediocrity, raised me to this station. Among all the ministers of the present day, none stands above me. One might say that I have reached the very pinnacle of wealth and honor. When things reach their zenith, they must decline. I do not yet know where I shall unyoke my carriage and rest.'

始皇三十七年十月，行出游會稽，并海上，北抵瑯邪。丞相斯、中車府令趙高兼行符璽令事，皆從。始皇有二十餘子，長子扶蘇以數直諫上，上使監兵上郡，蒙恬為將。少子胡亥愛，請從，上許之。餘子莫從。

In the tenth month of the thirty-seventh year of the First Emperor, he set out on an inspection tour to Kuaiji, traveled up the coast, and proceeded north to Langya. Chancellor Li Si and Zhao Gao, Director of the Imperial Carriage Office who also served as Keeper of the Seals, both accompanied him on the tour. The First Emperor had over twenty sons. His eldest, Fusu, had repeatedly offered the Emperor frank remonstrances, and for this he had been sent to oversee the garrison troops at Shangjun, with Meng Tian as the commanding general. His youngest son, Huhai, was the Emperor's favorite. He requested permission to join the tour, and the Emperor granted it. None of the other sons accompanied him.

其年七月，始皇帝至沙丘，病甚，令趙高為書賜公子扶蘇曰：「以兵屬蒙恬，與喪會咸陽而葬。」書已封，未授使者，始皇崩。書及璽皆在趙高所，獨子胡亥、丞相李斯、趙高及幸宦者五六人知始皇崩，餘群臣皆莫知也。李斯以為上在外崩，無真太子，故祕之。置始皇居輼輬車中，百官奏事上食如故，宦者輒從輼輬車中可諸奏事。

In the seventh month of that year, the First Emperor reached Shaqiu, where his illness grew grave. He ordered Zhao Gao to draft a letter to Prince Fusu, which read: 'Hand command of the troops to Meng Tian and come to meet the funeral cortege at Xianyang for the burial.' The letter was sealed but had not yet been given to the messenger when the First Emperor died. Both the letter and the imperial seal remained in Zhao Gao's hands. Only Huhai, Chancellor Li Si, Zhao Gao, and five or six trusted eunuchs knew that the First Emperor was dead. None of the other ministers had any idea. Li Si reasoned that since the Emperor had died far from the capital and no crown prince had been formally designated, the death must be kept secret. They placed the Emperor's body in a sealed carriage. The officials continued to submit memorials and present meals as if nothing had changed, and eunuchs inside the carriage issued approvals on all matters of state.

趙高因留所賜扶蘇璽書，而謂公子胡亥曰：「上崩，無詔封王諸子而獨賜長子書。長子至，即立為皇帝，而子無尺寸之地，為之柰何？」胡亥曰：「固也。吾聞之，明君知臣，明父知子。父捐命，不封諸子，何可言者！」趙高曰：「不然。方今天下之權，存亡在子與高及丞相耳，願子圖之。且夫臣人與見臣於人，制人與見制於人，豈可同日道哉！」胡亥曰：「廢兄而立弟，是不義也；不奉父詔而畏死，是不孝也；能薄而材谫，彊因人之功，是不能也：三者逆德，天下不服，身殆傾危，社稷不血食。」高曰：「臣聞湯、武殺其主，天下稱義焉，不為不忠。衛君殺其父，而衛國載其德，孔子著之，不為不孝。夫大行不小謹，盛德不辭讓，鄉曲各有宜而百官不同功。故顧小而忘大，後必有害；狐疑猶豫，後必有悔。斷而敢行，鬼神避之，後有成功。願子遂之！」胡亥喟然嘆曰：「今大行未發，喪禮未終，豈宜以此事干丞相哉！」趙高曰：「時乎時乎，閒不及謀！贏糧躍馬，唯恐後時！」

Zhao Gao withheld the sealed letter intended for Fusu and said to Prince Huhai, 'The Emperor has died. He left no edict enfeoffing any of the other princes—only a letter addressed to the eldest son. When the eldest son arrives, he will be installed as Emperor at once, and you will be left without so much as a foot of land. What do you intend to do about this?' Huhai said, 'That is so. I have heard it said that a wise ruler knows his ministers, and a wise father knows his sons. My father gave no order to enfeoff any of his sons. What more is there to say?' Zhao Gao said, 'Not at all. At this very moment, the fate of the empire rests in the hands of you, myself, and the Chancellor alone. I urge you to consider this carefully. To be a subject of others, or to have others serve you; to control men, or to be controlled by them—can these two fates even be spoken of in the same breath?' Huhai said, 'To set aside an elder brother and install the younger—that is unrighteous. To defy a father's edict out of fear of death—that is unfilial. To seize another's achievement with meager ability and shallow talent—that is incompetent. These three acts violate virtue. The realm will refuse submission, my own person will be in mortal peril, and the altars of state will go without offerings.' Zhao Gao said, 'I have heard that Tang and King Wu slew their sovereigns, yet the world called their acts righteous, not disloyal. The Lord of Wei killed his own father, yet the state of Wei celebrated his virtue. Confucius recorded the deed and did not condemn it as unfilial. Grand undertakings cannot afford petty scruples. Supreme virtue does not stand on ceremony. Every district has its own ways, and every office its own function. To fret over trifles and forget the greater picture will surely bring harm in the end. To waver and vacillate will surely bring regret. He who decides boldly and dares to act will find that even the spirits step aside, and success will follow. I urge you to see it through!' Huhai heaved a sigh and said, 'The funeral cortege has not yet departed, and the mourning rites are not yet concluded. How can it be proper to trouble the Chancellor with such a matter?' Zhao Gao said, 'The moment! The moment! There is no time left for deliberation! We must pack our provisions and spur our horses—our only fear should be that we act too late!'

胡亥既然高之言，高曰：「不與丞相謀，恐事不能成，臣請為子與丞相謀之。」高乃謂丞相斯曰：「上崩，賜長子書，與喪會咸陽而立為嗣。書未行，今上崩，未有知者也。所賜長子書及符璽皆在胡亥所，定太子在君侯與高之口耳。事將何如？」斯曰：「安得亡國之言！此非人臣所當議也！」高曰：「君侯自料能孰與蒙恬？功高孰與蒙恬？謀遠不失孰與蒙恬？無怨於天下孰與蒙恬？長子舊而信之孰與蒙恬？」斯曰：「此五者皆不及蒙恬，而君責之何深也？」高曰：「高固內官之廝役也，幸得以刀筆之文進入秦宮，管事二十餘年，未嘗見秦免罷丞相功臣有封及二世者也，卒皆以誅亡。皇帝二十餘子，皆君之所知。長子剛毅而武勇，信人而奮士，即位必用蒙恬為丞相，君侯終不懷通侯之印歸於鄉里，明矣。高受詔教習胡亥，使學以法事數年矣，未嘗見過失。慈仁篤厚，輕財重士，辯於心而詘於口，盡禮敬士，秦之諸子未有及此者，可以為嗣。君計而定之。」斯曰：「君其反位！斯奉主之詔，聽天之命，何慮之可定也？」高曰：「安可危也，危可安也。安危不定，何以貴聖？」斯曰：「斯，上蔡閭巷布衣也，上幸擢為丞相，封為通侯，子孫皆至尊位重祿者，故將以存亡安危屬臣也。豈可負哉！夫忠臣不避死而庶幾，孝子不勤勞而見危，人臣各守其職而已矣。君其勿復言，將令斯得罪。」高曰：「蓋聞聖人遷徙無常，就變而從時，見末而知本，觀指而睹歸。物固有之，安得常法哉！方今天下之權命懸於胡亥，高能得志焉。且夫從外制中謂之惑，從下制上謂之賊。故秋霜降者草花落，水搖動者萬物作，此必然之效也。君何見之晚？」斯曰：「吾聞晉易太子，三世不安；齊桓兄弟爭位，身死為戮；紂殺親戚，不聽諫者，國為丘墟，遂危社稷：三者逆天，宗廟不血食。斯其猶人哉，安足為謀！」高曰：「上下合同，可以長久；中外若一，事無表裏。君聽臣之計，即長有封侯，世世稱孤，必有喬松之壽，孔、墨之智。今釋此而不從，禍及子孫，足以為寒心。善者因禍為福，君何處焉？」斯乃仰天而嘆，垂淚太息曰：「嗟乎！獨遭亂世，既以不能死，安託命哉！」於是斯乃聽高。高乃報胡亥曰：「臣請奉太子之明命以報丞相，丞相斯敢不奉令！」

Once Huhai had accepted Zhao Gao's reasoning, Zhao Gao said, 'Unless we bring the Chancellor into the plot, I fear we cannot succeed. Allow me to approach the Chancellor on your behalf.' Zhao Gao then went to Chancellor Li Si and said, 'The Emperor has passed away. He left a letter to the eldest son, summoning him to meet the funeral cortege at Xianyang and be installed as heir. The letter has not yet been dispatched. The Emperor is dead, and no one else knows. The letter addressed to the eldest son, together with the tallies and seals of state, are all in Huhai's possession. Who shall be named heir rests solely upon a word from you, my lord, and from me. What shall we do?' Li Si said, 'How dare you speak words that could destroy the state! This is not a matter for ministers to discuss!' Zhao Gao said, 'My lord, be honest with yourself—how do you measure up against Meng Tian? In merit, who surpasses Meng Tian? In far-sighted counsel that never misses the mark, who surpasses Meng Tian? In freedom from the world's resentment, who surpasses Meng Tian? In the trust and long familiarity of the eldest son, who surpasses Meng Tian?' Li Si said, 'In all five respects, I fall short of Meng Tian. But why does my lord press me so relentlessly?' Zhao Gao said, 'I began as a menial in the inner palace. By fortunate chance my skill with the clerk's brush brought me into the Qin court, where I have managed affairs for over twenty years. In all that time, I have never once seen a Qin chancellor or meritorious minister who was dismissed retain his fief into a second generation. They all perished by execution in the end. The Emperor had over twenty sons—you know every one of them, my lord. The eldest son is resolute and martially bold; he wins the trust of men and rouses the spirit of soldiers. If he ascends the throne, he will certainly make Meng Tian his chancellor. It is plain as day that you, my lord, will never retire to your homeland bearing the seal of a marquess. I received the imperial command to tutor Huhai, instructing him in law and governance for several years. I have never once observed a fault in him. He is compassionate and kind, sincere and generous. He values talent above wealth, is shrewd in mind yet modest in speech, and observes every courtesy toward scholars. Among all the Emperor's sons, none can match him. He is fit to be the heir. Consider this carefully and make your decision, my lord.' Li Si said, 'Return to your post! I, Li Si, follow the sovereign's edict and obey the decree of Heaven. What is there for me to decide?' Zhao Gao said, 'What seems safe can become perilous, and what seems perilous can be made safe. When safety and danger are not yet determined, of what use is it to be called wise?' Li Si said, 'I am a man of common cloth from the back alleys of Shangcai. The Emperor saw fit to elevate me to Chancellor and enfeoff me as a Marquess, and my sons and grandsons have all attained positions of high honor and handsome stipends. It was precisely because of this trust that he placed the fate of the state in my hands. How could I betray that trust? A loyal minister does not flinch from death but does his utmost. A filial son does not spare himself from hardship but faces danger. Every minister should guard his own duty—nothing more. Speak no more of this, my lord, lest you bring ruin upon me.' Zhao Gao said, 'I have heard that the sage does not cling to a fixed course but adapts to change and follows the times. He sees the branch and grasps the root; he observes the pointing finger and discerns the destination. Such is the nature of all things—how can there be an unchanging law? At this very moment, the fate and power of the empire hangs upon Huhai, and I am in a position to direct events. Moreover, when the outer controls the inner, it is called delusion; when the lower controls the upper, it is called sedition. When autumn frost descends, the grasses and flowers wither; when the waters stir, all living things are set in motion. This is cause and effect, as inevitable as nature itself. How can you be so slow to see this, my lord?' Li Si said, 'I have heard that when the state of Jin replaced its crown prince, three generations knew no peace. When the brothers of Duke Huan of Qi fought for the throne, the Duke's body lay unburied and was left to rot. King Zhou slew his own kin and refused all counsel—his state was reduced to rubble and the altars of state were imperiled. All three defied the will of Heaven, and their ancestral temples went without offerings. I, Li Si, am still a man of conscience. How could I possibly take part in such a scheme?' Zhao Gao said, 'When those above and those below are united, a house can endure. When the inner circle and the outer court act as one, affairs have no hidden side. If my lord heeds my counsel, you will hold a marquessate forever, your descendants will be titled lords for generations, and you will enjoy the longevity of the immortals and the wisdom of Confucius and Mozi. But if you let this chance slip and refuse to act, the catastrophe will reach your children and grandchildren. The thought alone is enough to chill the heart. A shrewd man turns calamity into fortune. Where will you stand, my lord?' Li Si lifted his face to the sky and sighed, tears streaming down his cheeks. 'Alas!' he cried. Alone I face this age of turmoil. Since I have not the will to die, to whom can I entrust my fate?' And so Li Si yielded to Zhao Gao. Zhao Gao returned to Huhai and reported, 'I have conveyed the Prince's wise command to the Chancellor. Chancellor Li Si dares not refuse!'

於是乃相與謀，詐為受始皇詔丞相，立子胡亥為太子。更為書賜長子扶蘇曰：「朕巡天下，禱祠名山諸神以延壽命。今扶蘇與將軍蒙恬將師數十萬以屯邊，十有餘年矣，不能進而前，士卒多秏，無尺寸之功，乃反數上書直言誹謗我所為，以不得罷歸為太子，日夜怨望。扶蘇為人子不孝，其賜劍以自裁！將軍恬與扶蘇居外，不匡正，宜知其謀。為人臣不忠，其賜死，以兵屬裨將王離。」封其書以皇帝璽，遣胡亥客奉書賜扶蘇於上郡。

The three then conspired together. They forged an edict purportedly from the First Emperor to the Chancellor, designating Huhai as the Crown Prince. They also drafted a separate letter addressed to the eldest son, Fusu: 'We have toured the realm, offering prayers and sacrifices to the gods of the sacred mountains to prolong Our life. Now Fusu and General Meng Tian have led several hundred thousand troops on the frontier for over ten years, unable to advance a single step. Their losses have been heavy, and they have achieved nothing of note. Yet Fusu repeatedly submits memorials full of blunt criticism slandering Our policies, resentful that he cannot return to the capital and be made Crown Prince, nursing his grievances day and night. Fusu, as a son, is unfilial. He is hereby granted a sword with which to take his own life. General Meng Tian, stationed abroad with Fusu, has failed to correct him and must be complicit in his designs. As a minister he is disloyal. He too is sentenced to death. Command of the troops shall pass to the deputy general, Wang Li.' They sealed the letter with the Emperor's own seal and dispatched one of Huhai's retainers to deliver it to Fusu at the garrison in Shangjun.

使者至，發書，扶蘇泣，入內舍，欲自殺。蒙恬止扶蘇曰：「陛下居外，未立太子，使臣將三十萬眾守邊，公子為監，此天下重任也。今一使者來，即自殺，安知其非詐？請復請，復請而後死，未暮也。」使者數趣之。扶蘇為人仁，謂蒙恬曰：「父而賜子死，尚安復請！」即自殺。蒙恬不肯死，使者即以屬吏，系於陽周。

When the messenger arrived and the letter was opened, Fusu wept. He withdrew to his inner chamber, intending to take his own life. Meng Tian stopped him, saying, 'The Emperor is abroad and has not yet formally designated a crown prince. He entrusted me with three hundred thousand troops to guard the frontier and appointed the Prince as overseer. This is one of the gravest responsibilities in the empire. Now a single messenger arrives and you would immediately kill yourself? How do we know this is not a forgery? Let us petition again for confirmation. There is still time—we need not act in haste.' The messenger pressed them repeatedly to comply. But Fusu, who was by nature a humane man, said to Meng Tian, 'When a father commands his son to die, what need is there to petition again?' And with that, he took his own life. Meng Tian refused to die. The messenger had him turned over to the local authorities, and he was imprisoned at Yangzhou.

使者還報，胡亥、斯、高大喜。至咸陽，發喪，太子立為二世皇帝。以趙高為郎中令，常侍中用事。

The messenger returned with his report. Huhai, Li Si, and Zhao Gao were elated. They arrived at Xianyang and announced the Emperor's death. The Crown Prince was installed as the Second Emperor. Zhao Gao was appointed Prefect of the Gentlemen of the Palace and attended constantly at the Emperor's side, directing affairs of state.

二世燕居，乃召高與謀事，謂曰：「夫人生居世閒也，譬猶騁六驥過決隙也。吾既已臨天下矣，欲悉耳目之所好，窮心志之所樂，以安宗廟而樂萬姓，長有天下，終吾年壽，其道可乎？」高曰：「此賢主之所能行也，而昏亂主之所禁也。臣請言之，不敢避斧鉞之誅，願陛下少留意焉。夫沙丘之謀，諸公子及大臣皆疑焉，而諸公子盡帝兄，大臣又先帝之所置也。今陛下初立，此其屬意怏怏皆不服，恐為變。且蒙恬已死，蒙毅將兵居外，臣戰戰栗栗，唯恐不終。且陛下安得為此樂乎？」二世曰：「為之柰何？」趙高曰：「嚴法而刻刑，令有罪者相坐誅，至收族，滅大臣而遠骨肉；貧者富之，賤者貴之。盡除去先帝之故臣，更置陛下之所親信者近之。此則陰德歸陛下，害除而姦謀塞，群臣莫不被潤澤，蒙厚德，陛下則高枕肆志寵樂矣。計莫出於此。」二世然高之言，乃更為法律。於是群臣諸公子有罪，輒下高，令鞠治之。殺大臣蒙毅等，公子十二人僇死咸陽市，十公主僇死於杜，財物入於縣官，相連坐者不可勝數。

While at leisure in his private quarters, the Second Emperor summoned Zhao Gao to discuss matters of state. He said, 'A man's life in this world is like a team of six fine horses racing past a crack in the wall. Now that I rule the world, I wish to indulge in every pleasure of the senses and gratify every desire of the heart, while keeping the ancestral temples secure and the people content, possessing the realm forever and living out my natural span. Is this achievable?' Zhao Gao replied, 'This is precisely what a worthy sovereign is able to do, and what a foolish, disordered ruler is forbidden from doing. Allow me to speak plainly, though I risk the executioner's axe. I beg Your Majesty to hear me out. The plot at Shaqiu is suspected by all the princes and senior ministers. Every one of the princes is Your Majesty's elder brother, and the ministers were all appointed by the late Emperor. Now that Your Majesty has just ascended the throne, their hearts are filled with resentment and none of them are truly submissive. I fear they will revolt. Moreover, though Meng Tian is dead, Meng Yi still commands troops in the field. I tremble with terror, fearing that my end may come at any moment. How then can Your Majesty afford to indulge in such pleasures?' The Second Emperor asked, 'What then should I do?' Zhao Gao said, 'Tighten the laws and sharpen the punishments. Let the guilty implicate one another unto death, extending punishment to entire clans. Purge the great ministers and keep your own kin at a distance. Enrich those who are poor, ennoble those who are humble. Remove every last one of the late Emperor's old ministers and replace them with men Your Majesty personally trusts. In this way, hidden virtue will accrue to Your Majesty. Threats will be eliminated and treacherous plots sealed off. Every minister will bask in Your Majesty's generosity and abundant favor, and Your Majesty may rest your head on a high pillow and indulge your heart's desires at will. No strategy surpasses this one.' The Second Emperor accepted Zhao Gao's counsel and revised the laws accordingly. From then on, whenever ministers or princes were accused of crimes, they were handed over to Zhao Gao for interrogation and judgment. Senior ministers such as Meng Yi were executed. Twelve princes were publicly put to death in the marketplace of Xianyang, and ten princesses were executed at Du. Their wealth was confiscated by the state. Those implicated and condemned alongside them were beyond counting.

公子高欲奔，恐收族，乃上書曰：「先帝無恙時，臣入則賜食，出則乘輿。御府之衣，臣得賜之；中廄之寶馬，臣得賜之。臣當從死而不能，為人子不孝，為人臣不忠。不忠者無名以立於世，臣請從死，願葬酈山之足。唯上幸哀憐之。」書上，胡亥大說，召趙高而示之，曰：「此可謂急乎？」趙高曰：「人臣當憂死而不暇，何變之得謀！」胡亥可其書，賜錢十萬以葬。

Prince Gao wished to flee but feared that his entire clan would be annihilated. Instead, he submitted a memorial: 'When the late Emperor was in good health, whenever I entered the palace he bestowed food upon me, and whenever I departed he provided me with carriages. Garments from the imperial wardrobe were bestowed upon me. Prized horses from the imperial stables were granted to me. I ought to have followed my father in death, yet I lacked the courage. As a son, I am unfilial; as a minister, I am disloyal. One who is disloyal has no name worthy of standing in this world. I beg leave to follow my father in death and request burial at the foot of Mount Li. I humbly beg Your Majesty to take pity on me.' When the memorial was presented, Huhai was delighted. He summoned Zhao Gao, showed it to him, and said, 'Would you call this a man in a desperate hurry?' Zhao Gao said, 'When a minister is consumed by fear for his own life, what time does he have to plot rebellion?' Huhai approved the memorial and granted a hundred thousand cash for the burial.

法令誅罰日益刻深，群臣人人自危，欲畔者眾。又作阿房之宮，治直［道］、馳道，賦斂愈重，戍傜無已。於是楚戍卒陳勝、吳廣等乃作亂，起於山東，傑俊相立，自置為侯王，叛秦，兵至鴻門而卻。李斯數欲請閒諫，二世不許。而二世責問李斯曰：「吾有私議而有所聞於韓子也，曰『堯之有天下也，堂高三尺，采椽不斲，茅茨不翦，雖逆旅之宿不勤於此矣。冬日鹿裘，夏日葛衣，粢糲之食，藜藿之羹，飯土匭，啜土鉶，雖監門之養不觳於此矣。禹鑿龍門，通大夏，疏九河，曲九防，決渟水致之海，而股無胈，脛無毛，手足胼胝，面目黎黑，遂以死于外，葬於會稽，臣虜之勞不烈於此矣』。然則夫所貴於有天下者，豈欲苦形勞神，身處逆旅之宿，口食監門之養，手持臣虜之作哉？此不肖人之所勉也，非賢者之所務也。彼賢人之有天下也，專用天下適己而已矣，此所貴於有天下也。夫所謂賢人者，必能安天下而治萬民，今身且不能利，將惡能治天下哉！笔吾願賜志廣欲，長享天下而無害，為之柰何？」李斯子由為三川守，群盜吳廣等西略地，過去弗能禁。章邯以破逐廣等兵，使者覆案三川相屬，誚讓斯居三公位，如何令盜如此。李斯恐懼，重爵祿，不知所出，乃阿二世意，欲求容，以書對曰：

The laws and punishments grew harsher by the day. Every minister feared for his life, and the number of those who wished to revolt grew ever larger. He also began construction of the Epang Palace, laid down straight roads and imperial highways, increased taxes and levies further still, and imposed conscription and corvée labor without end. Thereupon Chen Sheng, Wu Guang, and other conscripted soldiers from the former state of Chu rose in revolt. The uprising spread east of the mountains. Men of talent rallied together, declared themselves marquises and kings, and turned against Qin. Their forces advanced as far as Hongmen before being driven back. Li Si repeatedly sought a private audience to offer remonstrance, but the Second Emperor refused to see him. Instead, the Second Emperor sent Li Si a rebuke: 'I have my own views, and I have read in the writings of Master Han Fei: "When Yao possessed the realm, his hall rose but three feet high, with unplaned rafters of mulberry wood and an untrimmed thatch roof. Even a wayside inn was no more uncomfortable than this. In winter he wore deerskin robes, in summer hemp garments. He ate coarse grain, supped on wild-vegetable broth, and dined from earthenware bowls. Even a gatekeeper's fare was no meaner than this. Yu carved through Dragon Gate, opened the way to Great Xia, dredged the nine rivers, curved nine dikes, and drained the stagnant waters to the sea. His thighs had no spare flesh, his shins no hair; his hands and feet were thick with calluses and his face was darkened by the sun. He died far from home and was buried at Kuaiji. Even the toil of captives and slaves was no harsher than this." If this is so, then what is the point of possessing the realm? Is it to torment the body and exhaust the spirit, to dwell like a wayfarer, eat like a gatekeeper, and labor like a slave? This is the aspiration of the incompetent, not the calling of the worthy. When a worthy man possesses the realm, he bends it entirely to suit himself—that is the true value of possessing the realm. A man deemed worthy must be able to pacify the realm and govern the masses. If he cannot even serve his own interests, how can he govern the realm? I wish to satisfy my every ambition and desire, to enjoy the realm forever without coming to harm. How can this be achieved?' Li Si's son, Li You, was serving as Governor of Sanchuan. The rebel forces of Wu Guang and others swept westward seizing territory, and he was unable to stop them. Zhang Han defeated and drove back the rebel forces, but investigators were dispatched one after another to Sanchuan. Li Si was reproached for holding the rank of one of the Three Excellencies while permitting bandits to run rampant. Li Si was seized with dread. Clinging to his rank and salary, he could see no way out. Resorting to flattering the Second Emperor's inclinations in hopes of winning favor, he submitted a memorial in reply:

夫賢主者，必且能全道而行督責之術者也。督責之，則臣不敢不竭能以徇其主矣。此臣主之分定，上下之義明，則天下賢不肖莫敢不盡力竭任以徇其君矣。是故主獨制於天下而無所制也。能窮樂之極矣，賢明之主也，可不察焉！

A worthy sovereign must be one who preserves the Way intact and practices the art of supervision and accountability. When ministers are supervised and held to account, none dares fail to exhaust his abilities in service to his lord. When the boundaries between minister and lord are fixed and the hierarchy between high and low is made clear, then every man in the realm, whether worthy or not, will strain every sinew to fulfill his duties and serve his sovereign. Thus the sovereign alone commands the realm, while nothing commands him. Only then can he exhaust every pleasure to its fullest—that is what makes him a worthy and enlightened ruler. Can this not bear reflection?

故《申子》曰「有天下而不恣睢，命之曰以天下為桎梏」者，無他焉，不能督責，而顧以其身勞於天下之民，若堯、禹然，故謂之「桎梏」也。夫不能修申、韓之明術，行督責之道，專以天下自適也，而徒務苦形勞神，以身徇百姓，則是黔首之役，非畜天下者也，何足貴哉！夫以人徇己，則己貴而人賤；以己徇人，則己賤而人貴。故徇人者賤，而人所徇者貴，自古及今，未有不然者也。凡古之所為尊賢者，為其貴也；而所為惡不肖者，為其賤也。而堯、禹以身徇天下者也，因隨而尊之，則亦失所為尊賢之心矣，夫可謂大繆矣。謂之為「桎梏」，不亦宜乎？不能督責之過也。

Thus Master Shen Buhai said, 'To possess the realm yet not indulge freely is to make the realm itself one's shackles.' The reason is simply this: if a ruler cannot supervise and hold accountable but instead labors in person on behalf of the people of the realm, as did Yao and Yu, then the realm indeed becomes his shackles. If a ruler cannot master the enlightened arts of Shen Buhai and Han Fei, cannot practice the way of supervision and accountability, and instead merely toils his body and exhausts his spirit in personal service to the common people, then he is a servant of the black-haired masses, not a master of the realm. What is there to esteem in that? When others serve you, then you are exalted and others are lowly. When you serve others, then you are debased and others are exalted. Thus he who serves others is debased, while he whom others serve is exalted—from ancient times to the present, this has never been otherwise. In all the ways of antiquity, the worthy were honored precisely because they were exalted. And the unworthy were despised precisely because they were debased. Yet Yao and Yu served the realm with their own bodies. If we blindly honor them for this, we betray the very principle of honoring the worthy. This is a grave error indeed. To call this 'shackles'—is that not perfectly apt? It is the error of failing to supervise and hold others to account.

故韓子曰：「慈母有敗子而嚴家無格虜」者，何也？則能罰之加焉必也。故商君之法，刑棄灰於道者。夫棄灰，薄罪也，而被刑，重罰也。彼唯明主為能深督輕罪。夫罪輕且督深，而況有重罪乎？故民不敢犯也。是故韓子曰「布帛尋常，庸人不釋，鑠金百溢，盜跖不搏」者，非庸人之心重，尋常之利深，而盜跖之欲淺也；又不以盜跖之行，為輕百鎰之重也。搏必隨手刑，則盜跖不搏百鎰；而罰不必行也，則庸人不釋尋常。是故城高五丈，而樓季不輕犯也；泰山之高百仞，而跛羊牧其上。夫樓季也而難五丈之限，豈跛羊也而易百仞之高哉？峭塹之勢異也。明主聖王之所以能久處尊位，長執重勢，而獨擅天下之利者，非有異道也，能獨斷而審督責，必深罰，故天下不敢犯也。今不務所以不犯，而事慈母之所以敗子也，則亦不察於聖人之論矣。夫不能行聖人之術，則舍為天下役何事哉？可不哀邪！

Master Han Fei said, 'An indulgent mother produces spoiled sons, while a strict household has no recalcitrant servants.' Why is this? Because the certainty of punishment makes all the difference. Thus under the laws of Lord Shang, those who threw ashes in the street were punished. Now, throwing ashes is a trifling offense, yet the penalty imposed was severe. Only an enlightened ruler is capable of enforcing strict oversight over petty offenses. If petty offenses are policed so stringently, how much more so for serious crimes? Thus the people dare not transgress. Master Han Fei also said, 'An ordinary person will not let go of eight feet of silk, yet the great robber Zhi will not snatch a hundred measures of molten gold.' This is not because ordinary folk are more covetous and the profit of silk cloth runs deeper, or because Robber Zhi's desires are shallower. Nor is it that Robber Zhi thinks lightly of a hundred measures of gold. When snatching is certain to be followed by punishment, even Robber Zhi will not reach for a hundred measures. But when punishment is not certain, even an ordinary person will not let go of eight feet of silk. A city wall five zhang high deters even the great climber Lou Ji from scaling it lightly. Yet Mount Tai rises a hundred ren, and lame sheep still graze upon its slopes. If even Lou Ji hesitates before a wall of five zhang, how can lame sheep manage a summit a hundred ren high? The difference lies in the steepness of the gradient. The reason enlightened rulers and sage kings can hold their exalted positions so long, wield such weighty authority, and monopolize the benefits of the realm is no secret art. It is simply that they decide alone, supervise and hold accountable with care, and impose punishments without fail. Thus the realm dares not transgress. If a ruler neglects the very means by which transgression is prevented and instead practices the indulgence by which doting mothers ruin their sons, then he has failed to heed the wisdom of the sages. If a ruler cannot practice the techniques of the sages, what can he become but a servant of the realm? Is this not a cause for grief?

且夫儉節仁義之人立於朝，則荒肆之樂輟矣；諫說論理之臣閒於側，則流漫之志詘矣；烈士死節之行顯於世，則淫康之虞廢矣。故明主能外此三者，而獨操主術以制聽從之臣，而修其明法，故身尊而勢重也。凡賢主者，必將能拂世磨俗，而廢其所惡，立其所欲，故生則有尊重之勢，死則有賢明之謚也。是以明君獨斷，故權不在臣也。然後能滅仁義之涂，掩馳說之口，困烈士之行，塞聰揜明，內獨視聽，故外不可傾以仁義烈士之行，而內不可奪以諫說忿爭之辯。故能犖然獨行恣睢之心而莫之敢逆。若此然後可謂能明申、韓之術，而修商君之法。法修術明而天下亂者，未之聞也。故曰「王道約而易操」也。唯明主為能行之。若此則謂督責之誠，則臣無邪，臣無邪則天下安，天下安則主嚴尊，主嚴尊則督責必，督責必則所求得，所求得則國家富，國家富則君樂豐。故督責之術設，則所欲無不得矣。群臣百姓救過不給，何變之敢圖？若此則帝道備，而可謂能明君臣之術矣。雖申、韓復生，不能加也。

Moreover, if men of frugality, principle, and righteousness stand at court, then wanton pleasures must cease. If ministers given to remonstrance and reasoned argument attend at the sovereign's side, then dissolute ambitions will be curbed. If men of valor who die for their principles are honored in the world, then the comforts of excess and license will be abandoned. An enlightened ruler excludes all three of these and wields the techniques of sovereignty alone to command obedient ministers, enforcing his clear laws. Thus his person is honored and his authority unassailable. Every worthy sovereign must be able to defy the world and reshape its customs, abolish what he despises and establish what he desires. In life he commands respect and authority; in death he receives the posthumous title of a wise ruler. The enlightened sovereign therefore decides alone, ensuring that power never falls into the hands of his ministers. Only then can he block the avenues of benevolence and righteousness, silence the mouths of glib persuaders, frustrate the deeds of principled warriors, and close off all channels of independent judgment so that he alone sees and hears. Thus from without he cannot be toppled by acts of righteous valor, and from within he cannot be undermined by the arguments of quarrelsome remonstrators. Thus he can stride forth alone, following his every whim, and none dare stand against him. Only then can a ruler truly be said to have mastered the arts of Shen Buhai and Han Fei and to have perfected the laws of Lord Shang. A realm in which the laws are sound and the techniques of rule are clear, yet chaos reigns—such a thing has never been heard of. Thus it is said: 'The way of the sovereign is simple and easy to grasp.' Only an enlightened ruler is capable of putting it into practice. This is what is meant by the 'sincerity' of supervision and accountability. When accountability is sincere, ministers harbor no treachery. When ministers harbor no treachery, the realm is at peace. When the realm is at peace, the sovereign is honored with awe. When the sovereign is thus honored, accountability is assured. When accountability is assured, all that is sought is obtained. When all is obtained, the state grows wealthy. When the state is wealthy, the sovereign's pleasures are abundant. Once the system of supervision and accountability is established, there is nothing the sovereign desires that he cannot obtain. The ministers and common people will be so occupied trying to save themselves from their own faults that they will have no time to plot rebellion. When this is achieved, the way of the emperor is complete, and one may truly be said to have mastered the art of sovereign and minister. Even if Shen Buhai and Han Fei were to return from the dead, they could not improve upon it.

書奏，二世悅。於是行督責益嚴，稅民深者為明吏。二世曰：「若此則可謂能督責矣。」刑者相半於道，而死人日成積於市。殺人眾者為忠臣。二世曰：「若此則可謂能督責矣。」

The memorial was presented, and the Second Emperor was delighted. From then on, supervision and accountability were enforced with ever greater severity. Officials who wrung the people hardest in taxation were deemed the most capable. The Second Emperor said, 'Now this is what I call supervision and accountability!' Half the people on the roads were convicts, and the dead piled up daily in the marketplaces. Those who killed the most were hailed as the most loyal ministers. The Second Emperor said, 'Now this is what it means to truly supervise and hold to account.'

初，趙高為郎中令，所殺及報私怨眾多，恐大臣入朝奏事毀惡之，乃說二世曰：「天子所以貴者，但以聞聲，群臣莫得見其面，故號曰『朕』。且陛下富於春秋，未必盡通諸事，今坐朝廷，譴舉有不當者，則見短於大臣，非所以示神明於天下也。且陛下深拱禁中，與臣及侍中習法者待事，事來有以揆之。如此則大臣不敢奏疑事，天下稱聖主矣。」二世用其計，乃不坐朝廷見大臣，居禁中。趙高常侍中用事，事皆決於趙高。

From the time Zhao Gao became Prefect of the Gentlemen of the Palace, the number he had killed or taken private vengeance upon was vast. Fearing that ministers who entered court to present memorials might denounce him, he persuaded the Second Emperor, saying, 'The reason the Son of Heaven is esteemed is that only his voice is heard—none of the ministers may look upon his face. That is why he styles himself "We." Moreover, Your Majesty is young and may not yet be fully versed in all affairs. If you sit in open court and your rebukes or appointments prove improper, your shortcomings will be exposed before the ministers. This is no way to display divine wisdom to the realm. Better that Your Majesty withdraw deep within the forbidden palace, where I and the attendants trained in law can handle affairs as they arise and judge each case on its merits. In this way, no minister will dare present doubtful matters, and the world will hail you as a sage.' The Second Emperor adopted his plan. He no longer held court or received ministers, but remained sequestered in the inner palace. Zhao Gao attended at the Emperor's side at all times, managing affairs. Every decision of state was made by Zhao Gao.

高聞李斯以為言，乃見丞相曰：「關東群盜多，今上急益發繇治阿房宮，聚狗馬無用之物。臣欲諫，為位賤。此真君侯之事，君何不諫？」李斯曰：「固也，吾欲言之久矣。今時上不坐朝廷，上居深宮，吾有所言者，不可傳也，欲見無閒。」趙高謂曰：「君誠能諫，請為君候上閒語君。」於是趙高待二世方燕樂，婦女居前，使人告丞相：「上方閒，可奏事。」丞相至宮門上謁，如此者三。二世怒曰：「吾常多閒日，丞相不來。吾方燕私，丞相輒來請事。丞相豈少我哉？且固我哉？」趙高因曰：「如此殆矣！夫沙丘之謀，丞相與焉。今陛下已立為帝，而丞相貴不益，此其意亦望裂地而王矣。且陛下不問臣，臣不敢言。丞相長男李由為三川守，楚盜陳勝等皆丞相傍縣之子，以故楚盜公行，過三川，城守不肯擊。高聞其文書相往來，未得其審，故未敢以聞。且丞相居外，權重於陛下。」二世以為然。欲案丞相，恐其不審，乃使人案驗三川守與盜通狀。李斯聞之。

When Zhao Gao heard that Li Si had been complaining, he went to see the Chancellor and said, 'Bandits are multiplying east of the passes, yet the Emperor urgently presses more corvée laborers into building the Epang Palace and amassing dogs, horses, and useless extravagances. I would like to remonstrate, but my rank is too low. This is truly a matter for someone of your station, my lord. Why do you not remonstrate?' Li Si said, 'Indeed. I have long wished to address this. But the Emperor no longer holds court. He resides deep in the palace. What I have to say cannot be relayed through intermediaries, and I wish to see him but there is no opportunity.' Zhao Gao said, 'If my lord truly intends to remonstrate, allow me to watch for a moment when the Emperor is at leisure and I will let you know.' Zhao Gao then deliberately waited until the Second Emperor was in the midst of a feast, surrounded by women, and sent word to the Chancellor: 'The Emperor is at leisure. You may present your memorial now.' The Chancellor came to the palace gate and requested an audience. This happened three times. The Second Emperor flew into a rage: 'I have plenty of idle days when the Chancellor does not come. Yet whenever I am enjoying myself in private, the Chancellor arrives to pester me with business. Does the Chancellor hold me in contempt? Does he take me for a fool?' Zhao Gao seized the moment and said, 'This is indeed perilous! The Chancellor was a party to the plot at Shaqiu. Now Your Majesty has been installed as Emperor, yet the Chancellor's rank has not been raised. I suspect that in his heart he hopes to carve out a territory and make himself a king. If Your Majesty had not asked, I would not have dared speak of it. The Chancellor's eldest son, Li You, is Governor of Sanchuan. The rebels Chen Sheng and his confederates all hail from counties near the Chancellor's own home. That is why the Chu bandits roam freely, passing through Sanchuan while the garrison makes no effort to stop them. I have heard that letters are being exchanged between them, but as I have not yet confirmed the details, I did not dare bring it to Your Majesty's attention. Moreover, the Chancellor sits outside the palace, and his power already rivals Your Majesty's own.' The Second Emperor believed him. Wishing to build a case against the Chancellor but fearing it might not hold up, he dispatched agents to investigate the Governor of Sanchuan's alleged collusion with the rebels. Li Si got wind of the investigation.

是時二世在甘泉，方作觳抵優俳之觀。李斯不得見，因上書言趙高之短曰：「臣聞之，臣疑其君，無不危國；妾疑其夫，無不危家。今有大臣於陛下擅利擅害，與陛下無異，此甚不便。昔者司城子罕相宋，身行刑罰，以威行之，朞年遂劫其君。田常為簡公臣，爵列無敵於國，私家之富與公家均，布惠施德，下得百姓，上得群臣，陰取齊國，殺宰予於庭，即弒簡公於朝，遂有齊國。此天下所明知也。今高有邪佚之志，危反之行，如子罕相宋也；私家之富，若田氏之於齊也。兼行田常、子罕之逆道而劫陛下之威信，其志若韓玘為韓安相也。陛下不圖，臣恐其為變也。」二世曰：「何哉？夫高，故宦人也，然不為安肆志，不以危易心，絜行修善，自使至此，以忠得進，以信守位，朕實賢之，而君疑之，何也？且朕少失先人，無所識知，不習治民，而君又老，恐與天下絕矣。朕非屬趙君，當誰任哉？且趙君為人精廉彊力，下知人情，上能適朕，君其勿疑。」李斯曰：「不然。夫高，故賤人也，無識於理，貪欲無厭，求利不止，列勢次主，求欲無窮，臣故曰殆。」二世已前信趙高，恐李斯殺之，乃私告趙高。高曰：「丞相所患者獨高，高已死，丞相即欲為田常所為。」於是二世曰：「其以李斯屬郎中令！」

At this time the Second Emperor was at the Ganquan Palace, amusing himself with wrestling matches and performances by jesters and entertainers. Unable to gain an audience, Li Si submitted a memorial denouncing Zhao Gao's failings: 'I have heard that when a minister usurps his sovereign's trust, the state is inevitably endangered. When a wife subverts her husband, the household is inevitably imperiled. Now a great minister has arrogated to himself the power to bestow benefit and inflict harm, making himself indistinguishable from Your Majesty. This is exceedingly dangerous. In former times, Zi Han served as chancellor of Song. He personally administered punishments, ruling through terror, and within a year he had seized power from his lord. Tian Chang served as minister to Duke Jian of Qi. His rank was unmatched in the state and his private wealth rivaled the public treasury. He scattered favors and bestowed kindness, winning the common people below and the ministers above. In secret he seized power over Qi, slew Zai Yu in the courtyard, assassinated Duke Jian in the audience hall, and thus took possession of the state of Qi. These are facts well known to all the world. Now Zhao Gao harbors treacherous and dissolute ambitions, and his conduct tends toward rebellion, just as when Zi Han served as chancellor of Song. His private wealth rivals that of the Tian family in Qi. He combines the treacherous methods of Tian Chang and Zi Han to usurp Your Majesty's authority and credibility. His ambitions mirror those of Han Kui when he served as chancellor to Marquis An of Han. If Your Majesty does not act, I fear he will make his move.' The Second Emperor said, 'What nonsense! Zhao Gao was once a mere eunuch, yet he did not grow complacent in times of safety, nor did his heart waver in times of peril. He purified his conduct and cultivated virtue, rising to his present station through his own efforts. He advanced through loyalty and holds his position through trustworthiness. I truly regard him as a worthy man, and yet you suspect him. Why? Moreover, I lost my father young and know nothing of the world. I am unpracticed in governing, and you are growing old. I fear I would be utterly cut off from my realm. If I do not rely on Lord Zhao, upon whom should I depend? Lord Zhao is a man of keen integrity and great ability. He understands the ways of the people below and knows how to serve me above. Do not suspect him.' Li Si said, 'That is not so. Zhao Gao is a man of base origin, without understanding of principle. His greed knows no satisfaction, his pursuit of profit no limit. He has risen to a position of power second only to the sovereign himself, and his ambitions are boundless. That is why I say he is dangerous.' The Second Emperor already trusted Zhao Gao implicitly and feared that Li Si might harm him. He secretly informed Zhao Gao of the memorial. Zhao Gao said, 'The only obstacle the Chancellor fears is me. Once I am removed, the Chancellor will do exactly what Tian Chang did.' The Second Emperor then said, 'Hand Li Si over to the Prefect of the Gentlemen of the Palace!'

趙高案治李斯。李斯拘執束縛，居囹圄中，仰天而嘆曰：「嗟乎，悲夫！不道之君，何可為計哉！昔者桀殺關龍逢，紂殺王子比干，吳王夫差殺伍子胥。此三臣者，豈不忠哉，然而不免於死，身死而所忠者非也。今吾智不及三子，而二世之無道過於桀、紂、夫差，吾以忠死，宜矣。且二世之治豈不亂哉！日者夷其兄弟而自立也，殺忠臣而貴賤人，作為阿房之宮，賦斂天下。吾非不諫也，而不吾聽也。凡古聖王，飲食有節，車器有數，宮室有度，出令造事，加費而無益於民利者禁，故能長久治安。今行逆於昆弟，不顧其咎；侵殺忠臣，不思其殃；大為宮室，厚賦天下，不愛其費：三者已行，天下不聽。今反者已有天下之半矣，而心尚未寤也，而以趙高為佐，吾必見寇至咸陽，麋鹿游於朝也。」

Zhao Gao took charge of the investigation and prosecution of Li Si. Li Si was arrested, bound, and thrown into prison. Gazing up at the heavens, he sighed, 'Alas! How tragic! For a ruler without principle, what counsel can avail? In ancient times, King Jie slew Guan Longfeng, King Zhou slew Prince Bigan, and King Fuchai of Wu slew Wu Zixu. Were these three ministers not loyal? And yet they could not escape death. They gave their lives, but the masters they served were unworthy. My own wisdom does not match theirs, yet the wickedness of the Second Emperor surpasses that of Jie, Zhou, and Fuchai. That I should die for my loyalty is only fitting. Is the Second Emperor's reign not utter chaos? He massacred his own brothers to seize the throne, executed loyal ministers and elevated the base, built the Epang Palace, and bled the realm dry with taxes. It is not that I failed to remonstrate—he simply refused to listen. All the sage kings of antiquity were moderate in food and drink, limited in their carriages and vessels, measured in their palaces. When issuing decrees or undertaking projects, they forbade any expenditure that added cost without benefiting the people. That is why they could endure in lasting peace. Now he has acted treacherously against his own brothers, heedless of the consequences. He has murdered loyal ministers without thought for the ruin it will bring. He has built vast palaces, imposed crushing taxes upon the realm, and squandered its resources without a thought. These three deeds are already done, and the empire will not submit. Now the rebels hold half the realm, yet still his heart has not awakened. With Zhao Gao as his chief aide, I shall surely live to see bandits reach Xianyang and deer roam through the court.'

於是二世乃使高案丞相獄，治罪，責斯與子由謀反狀，皆收捕宗族賓客。趙高治斯，榜掠千餘，不勝痛，自誣服。斯所以不死者，自負其辯，有功，實無反心，幸得上書自陳，幸二世之寤而赦之。李斯乃從獄中上書曰：「臣為丞相治民，三十餘年矣。逮秦地之陜隘。先王之時秦地不過千里，兵數十萬。臣盡薄材，謹奉法令，陰行謀臣，資之金玉，使游說諸侯，陰修甲兵，飾政教，官鬬士，尊功臣，盛其爵祿，故終以脅韓弱魏，破燕、趙，夷齊、楚，卒兼六國，虜其王，立秦為天子。罪一矣。地非不廣，又北逐胡、貉，南定百越，以見秦之彊。罪二矣。尊大臣，盛其爵位，以固其親。罪三矣。立社稷，修宗廟，以明主之賢。罪四矣。更剋畫，平斗斛度量文章，布之天下，以樹秦之名。罪五矣。治馳道，興游觀，以見主之得意。罪六矣。緩刑罰，薄賦斂，以遂主得眾之心，萬民戴主，死而不忘。罪七矣。若斯之為臣者，罪足以死固久矣。上幸盡其能力，乃得至今，願陛下察之！」書上，趙高使吏棄去不奏，曰：「囚安得上書！」

The Second Emperor then ordered Zhao Gao to investigate the case against the Chancellor, to prosecute the charge and establish that Li Si and his son Li You had conspired to rebel. All their clansmen and associates were arrested. Zhao Gao interrogated Li Si, flogging him over a thousand strokes. Unable to endure the agony, Li Si made a false confession. The reason Li Si did not take his own life was that he trusted in his own eloquence and his record of service. He truly harbored no rebellious intent. He hoped to submit a memorial explaining himself, and that the Second Emperor would come to his senses and pardon him. Li Si then submitted a memorial from prison: 'Your servant has served as Chancellor governing the people for more than thirty years. I came when Qin's territory was still narrow and confined. In the time of the former kings, the territory of Qin did not exceed a thousand li, and its troops numbered only a few hundred thousand. Your servant devoted his meager talents and scrupulously upheld the law. I secretly dispatched strategists, furnished them with gold and jade, and sent them to persuade the feudal lords. I secretly built up the army, refined the government and its teachings, appointed fighting men to office, honored ministers of merit, and enriched their ranks and emoluments. Thus I intimidated Han, weakened Wei, shattered Yan and Zhao, leveled Qi and Chu, and at last united the Six States, captured their kings, and established Qin as sovereign of the realm. This was my first crime. As if the territory were not broad enough, I drove the Hu and Mo barbarians from the north and pacified the Hundred Yue in the south, to make manifest the power of Qin. This was my second crime. I honored the great ministers and enriched their ranks and titles to cement their loyalty. This was my third crime. I established the altars of soil and grain and restored the ancestral temple to make the virtue of the sovereign plain to all. This was my fourth crime. I reformed the system of markings, standardized the measures, weights, and written script, and promulgated them throughout the realm to establish the name of Qin. This was my fifth crime. I built the imperial highways and raised pavilions for imperial excursions, to display the sovereign's grandeur. This was my sixth crime. I eased the punishments and lightened the taxes, so as to fulfill the sovereign's wish to win the hearts of the people. The common folk honored their ruler and remembered him even unto death. This was my seventh crime. A minister such as I, whose crimes are so great—I should by rights have been put to death long ago. Yet the former sovereign was gracious enough to allow me to exhaust my abilities, and so I have lived until this day. I beg Your Majesty to examine the matter!' When the memorial was submitted, Zhao Gao ordered a clerk to throw it away without presenting it to the emperor. 'How can a prisoner submit a memorial!' he said.

趙高使其客十餘輩詐為御史、謁者、侍中，更往覆訊斯。斯更以其實對，輒使人復榜之。後二世使人驗斯，斯以為如前，終不敢更言，辭服。奏當上，二世喜曰：「微趙君，幾為丞相所賣。」及二世所使案三川之守至，則項梁已擊殺之。使者來，會丞相下吏，趙高皆妄為反辭。

Zhao Gao sent more than ten of his retainers to impersonate imperial secretaries, palace ushers, and attendants, who took turns going to cross-examine Li Si. Whenever Li Si recanted and told the truth, they had him flogged again. Later, when the Second Emperor sent men to verify Li Si's case, Li Si assumed they were impostors as before and dared not recant again. He maintained his guilty plea. When the verdict was presented to the throne, the Second Emperor said with delight, 'Without Lord Zhao, I would have been deceived by the Chancellor.' When the Second Emperor's envoy sent to investigate the Governor of Sanchuan arrived, Xiang Liang had already attacked and killed the governor. When the envoy returned and reported, Zhao Gao used the occasion—while the Chancellor was already under arrest—to fabricate further evidence of rebellion.

二世二年七月，具斯五刑，論腰斬咸陽市。斯出獄，與其中子俱執，顧謂其中子曰：「吾欲與若復牽黃犬俱出上蔡東門逐狡兔，豈可得乎！」遂父子相哭，而夷三族。

In the seventh month of the Second Emperor's second year, Li Si was subjected to all five mutilating punishments and sentenced to be cut in two at the waist in the marketplace of Xianyang. As Li Si was led from prison, seized together with his second son, he turned to the boy and said, 'How I wish the two of us could once more take the yellow hound and go out through the east gate of Shangcai to chase the cunning hare! But that can never be again.' Father and son wept together. Then all three branches of his clan were exterminated.

李斯已死，二世拜趙高為中丞相，事無大小輒決於高。高自知權重，乃獻鹿，謂之馬。二世問左右：「此乃鹿也？」左右皆曰「馬也」。二世驚，自以為惑，乃召太卜，令卦之，太卜曰：「陛下春秋郊祀，奉宗廟鬼神，齋戒不明，故至于此。可依盛德而明齋戒。」於是乃入上林齋戒。日游弋獵，有行人入上林中，二世自射殺之。趙高教其女婿咸陽令閻樂劾不知何人賊殺人移上林。高乃諫二世曰：「天子無故賊殺不辜人，此上帝之禁也，鬼神不享，天且降殃，當遠避宮以禳之。」二世乃出居望夷之宮。

After Li Si's death, the Second Emperor appointed Zhao Gao as Chief Chancellor. All matters, great and small, were decided by Zhao Gao. Zhao Gao, knowing the full weight of his power, presented a deer to the emperor and called it a horse. The Second Emperor asked those around him, 'Is this not a deer?' Every one of the attendants said, 'It is a horse.' The Second Emperor was alarmed, believing himself confused. He summoned the Grand Diviner and ordered a divination. The Grand Diviner said, 'When Your Majesty performs the seasonal suburban sacrifices and serves the spirits and gods of the ancestral temple, you have not been sufficiently purified in your fasting. That is why it has come to this. You should cultivate your virtue and observe the rites of purification more carefully.' The Second Emperor thereupon withdrew to the Shanglin Park to observe a period of fasting and purification. Each day he went roaming and hunting. When a passerby wandered into the Shanglin grounds, the Second Emperor shot and killed the man himself. Zhao Gao instructed his son-in-law Yan Le, the Magistrate of Xianyang, to submit an accusation that some unknown person had murdered a man and left the body in the Shanglin Park. Zhao Gao then admonished the Second Emperor, saying, 'When the Son of Heaven kills an innocent man without cause, it violates the supreme prohibition of Heaven. The spirits and gods will refuse the offerings, and Heaven will send down disaster. You must withdraw far from the palace to perform rites of expiation.' The Second Emperor thereupon left and took up residence at the Wangyi Palace.

留三日，趙高詐詔衛士，令士皆素服持兵內鄉，入告二世曰：「山東群盜兵大至！」二世上觀而見之，恐懼，高既因劫令自殺。引璽而佩之，左右百官莫從；上殿，殿欲壞者三。高自知天弗與，群臣弗許，乃召始皇弟，授之璽。

After three days, Zhao Gao issued a false decree to the palace guards, ordering the soldiers to don plain white garments, take up weapons, and face inward. He then entered and announced to the Second Emperor, 'A great host of rebels from east of the mountains has arrived!' The Second Emperor climbed to a vantage point and saw the armed men. He was seized with terror. Zhao Gao then coerced him into taking his own life. Zhao Gao took the imperial seal and hung it at his own waist, but not one of the attendants or officials would follow him. When he ascended to the throne hall, the building shuddered as if about to collapse, three times over. Zhao Gao knew then that Heaven would not grant him the throne and that the ministers would not accept him. He summoned a grandson of the First Emperor, Ziying, and handed the seal to him.

子嬰既位，患之，乃稱疾不聽事，與宦者韓談及其子謀殺高。高上謁，請病，因召入，令韓談刺殺之，夷其三族。

Once Ziying was enthroned, he was deeply troubled by Zhao Gao's power. He feigned illness and refused to attend to affairs of state, secretly plotting with the eunuch Han Tan and his own son to assassinate Zhao Gao. When Zhao Gao came to pay his respects and inquire after the king's illness, Ziying summoned him inside and ordered Han Tan to stab him to death. All three branches of Zhao Gao's clan were exterminated.

子嬰立三月，沛公兵從武關入，至咸陽，群臣百官皆畔，不適。子嬰與妻子自系其頸以組，降軹道旁。沛公因以屬吏。項王至而斬之。遂以亡天下。

Three months after Ziying's enthronement, the Duke of Pei led his forces through Wuguan Pass and reached Xianyang. The ministers and officials all defected, and none would fight. Ziying, together with his wife and sons, tied cords around their own necks and surrendered by the side of the Zhi Road. The Duke of Pei turned them over to his officials. When King Xiang arrived, he had them executed. And so the empire was lost.

太史公曰：李斯以閭閻歷諸侯，入事秦，因以瑕釁，以輔始皇，卒成帝業，斯為三公，可謂尊用矣。斯知六藝之歸，不務明政以補主上之缺，持爵祿之重，阿順茍合，嚴威酷刑，聽高邪說，廢適立庶。諸侯已畔，斯乃欲諫爭，不亦末乎！人皆以斯極忠而被五刑死，察其本，乃與俗議之異。不然，斯之功且與周、召列矣。

The Grand Historian remarks: Li Si rose from humble origins, traveled among the feudal lords, and entered the service of Qin. Seizing upon the weaknesses of the rival states, he assisted the First Emperor in at last completing the imperial enterprise. Li Si attained the rank of one of the Three Excellencies—he may truly be called one who was honored and employed to the fullest. Li Si understood the true purpose of the Six Arts, yet he did not devote himself to wise governance or remedy the failings of his sovereign. Instead, clinging to the weight of his rank and salary, he resorted to flattery and compliance, enforced cruel punishments with harsh authority, heeded the wicked counsel of Zhao Gao, and set aside the legitimate heir in favor of a lesser son. By the time the feudal lords had risen in revolt and Li Si at last sought to remonstrate, was it not already too late? People generally believe that Li Si was supremely loyal and yet suffered the five mutilating punishments and death. But when one examines the root of the matter, the truth is quite different from the common opinion. Had it been otherwise, his achievements might have placed him alongside the Duke of Zhou and the Duke of Shao.

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