Treatise on the Dayuan

大宛之跡，見自張騫。張騫，漢中人。建元中為郎。是時天子問匈奴降者，皆言匈奴破月氏王，以其頭為飲器，月氏遁逃而常怨仇匈奴，無與共擊之。漢方欲事滅胡，聞此言，因欲通使。道必更匈奴中，乃募能使者。騫以郎應募，使月氏，與堂邑氏（故）胡奴甘父俱出隴西。經匈奴，匈奴得之，傳詣單于。單于留之，曰：「月氏在吾北，漢何以得往使？吾欲使越，漢肯聽我乎？」留騫十餘歲，與妻，有子，然騫持漢節不失。

What we know of Dayuan first came to light through Zhang Qian. Zhang Qian was a native of Hanzhong. During the Jianyuan era, he served as a Gentleman at court. At that time, the Emperor questioned Xiongnu defectors, who all told the same story: the Xiongnu had defeated the king of the Yuezhi and fashioned his skull into a drinking vessel. The Yuezhi had fled, but they nursed an enduring hatred of the Xiongnu, though they had found no ally willing to join them in a strike against their enemy. The Han were then seeking to destroy the Xiongnu. Upon hearing this, the court resolved to open diplomatic contact with the Yuezhi. Since the route necessarily passed through Xiongnu territory, the court put out a call for a man capable of undertaking the mission. Zhang Qian, then serving as a Gentleman, volunteered for the mission. He was dispatched to the Yuezhi and set out from Longxi together with Ganfu, a former Xiongnu slave of the Tangyi clan. As they crossed Xiongnu territory, they were captured and brought before the Chanyu. The Chanyu detained them, saying, "The Yuezhi lie to my north. By what right does Han send envoys through my domain? If I wished to send envoys to Yue, would Han permit it?" Zhang Qian was held captive for over ten years. He was given a wife and fathered children, yet through it all he kept hold of the Han envoy's tally and never relinquished it.

居匈奴中，益寬，騫因與其屬亡鄉月氏，西走數十日至大宛。大宛聞漢之饒財，欲通不得，見騫，喜，問曰：「若欲何之？」騫曰：「為漢使月氏，而為匈奴所閉道。今亡，唯王使人導送我。誠得至，反漢，漢之賂遺王財物不可勝言。」大宛以為然，遣騫，為發導繹，抵康居，康居傳致大月氏。大月氏王已為胡所殺，立其太子為王。既臣大夏而居，地肥饒，少寇，志安樂，又自以遠漢，殊無報胡之心。騫從月氏至大夏，竟不能得月氏要領。

As his captivity among the Xiongnu grew more relaxed, Zhang Qian seized an opportunity to escape with his attendants toward the Yuezhi. They fled westward for some tens of days before reaching Dayuan. The people of Dayuan had long heard of the wealth of Han and wished to establish contact, though they had been unable to do so. When they saw Zhang Qian, they were delighted and asked, "Where are you headed?" Zhang Qian replied, "I was sent by the Han court as an envoy to the Yuezhi, but the Xiongnu blocked my passage. Now I have escaped. I ask only that Your Majesty send guides to escort me on my way. If I succeed in reaching them and return to Han, the gifts and treasures the court will bestow upon Your Majesty will be beyond reckoning." The king of Dayuan agreed and sent Zhang Qian on his way with guides and interpreters, who brought him to Kangju. From there, Kangju passed him onward to the Great Yuezhi. The king of the Great Yuezhi had already been killed by the Xiongnu, and the people had installed his crown prince as the new king. Having already subjugated Bactria and settled in its territory, they found the land fertile and rich, with few threats from raiders. Content in their new prosperity and considering themselves far removed from Han, they had no desire whatsoever to seek vengeance against the Xiongnu. Zhang Qian traveled from the Yuezhi to Bactria, but in the end he could not win the Yuezhi over to his proposal.

留歲餘，還，并南山，欲從羌中歸，復為匈奴所得。留歲餘，單于死，左谷蠡王攻其太子自立，國內亂，騫與胡妻及堂邑父俱亡歸漢。漢拜騫為太中大夫，堂邑父為奉使君。

After remaining there for over a year, he set out for home, following the line of the Southern Mountains and intending to pass through Qiang territory. But once again the Xiongnu captured him. He was held for over a year before the Chanyu died. The Left Luli King attacked the heir apparent and seized the throne for himself, plunging the realm into chaos. In the turmoil, Zhang Qian escaped with his Xiongnu wife and Ganfu and made his way back to Han. The Han court appointed Zhang Qian as Grand Palace Grandee, and conferred on Ganfu the title of Lord Who Accompanied the Envoy.

騫為人彊力，寬大信人，蠻夷愛之。堂邑父故胡人，善射，窮急射禽獸給食。初，騫行時百餘人，去十三歲，唯二人得還。

Zhang Qian was a man of great physical strength, generous in spirit and true to his word. The peoples of the frontier held him in deep affection. Ganfu, originally a Xiongnu, was a skilled archer. Whenever they were in dire straits, he would hunt game to keep them fed. When Zhang Qian first set out, his party numbered over a hundred men. Thirteen years later, only two of them returned.

騫身所至者大宛、大月氏、大夏、康居，而傳聞其旁大國五六，具為天子言之。曰：

The lands Zhang Qian had visited in person were Dayuan, the Great Yuezhi, Bactria, and Kangju. He had also gathered reports of five or six other great states in the region, all of which he presented in full to the Emperor. He reported as follows:

大宛在匈奴西南，在漢正西，去漢可萬里。其俗土著，耕田，田稻麥。有蒲陶酒。多善馬，馬汗血，其先天馬子也。有城郭屋室。其屬邑大小七十餘城，眾可數十萬。其兵弓矛騎射。其北則康居，西則大月氏，西南則大夏，東北則烏孫，東則扜穼、于窴。于窴之西，則水皆西流，注西海；其東水東流，注鹽澤。鹽澤潛行地下，其南則河源出焉。多玉石，河注中國。而樓蘭、姑師邑有城郭，臨鹽澤。鹽澤去長安可五千里。匈奴右方居鹽澤以東，至隴西長城，南接羌，鬲漢道焉。

Dayuan lies to the southwest of the Xiongnu and due west of Han, roughly ten thousand li distant. The people are settled farmers who cultivate rice and wheat. They produce grape wine. They possess many fine horses whose coats sweat blood, said to be descended from the heavenly horses. They have walled cities and proper dwellings. Their territory encompasses over seventy towns and cities of various sizes, with a total population of several hundred thousand. Their soldiers fight with bows, spears, and mounted archery. To the north lies Kangju; to the west, the Great Yuezhi; to the southwest, Bactria; to the northeast, the Wusun; and to the east, Yumi and Khotan. West of Khotan, all the rivers flow westward into the Western Sea. To the east of Khotan, the rivers flow eastward into the Salt Marsh. The waters of the Salt Marsh sink beneath the earth and flow underground, and to the south the source of the Yellow River emerges from them. The region abounds in jade. The river flows onward into China. The towns of Loulan and Gushi are walled settlements situated on the shores of the Salt Marsh. The Salt Marsh lies roughly five thousand li from Chang'an. The right wing of the Xiongnu occupies the territory east of the Salt Marsh all the way to the Great Wall at Longxi, with the Qiang bordering them to the south. This effectively blocks the road from Han.

烏孫在大宛東北可二千里，行國，隨畜，與匈奴同俗。控弦者數萬，敢戰。故服匈奴，及盛，取其羈屬，不肯往朝會焉。

The Wusun live roughly two thousand li northeast of Dayuan. They are a nomadic people who follow their herds from pasture to pasture, with customs similar to those of the Xiongnu. They can muster tens of thousands of mounted archers, and they are fierce in battle. In earlier times they had been subjects of the Xiongnu, but as they grew in strength they cast off this vassalage and refused to attend the Xiongnu court assemblies.

康居在大宛西北可二千里，行國，與月氏大同俗。控弦者八九萬人。與大宛鄰國。國小，南羈事月氏，東羈事匈奴。

Kangju lies roughly two thousand li northwest of Dayuan. It is a nomadic state whose customs closely resemble those of the Yuezhi. They can muster eighty to ninety thousand mounted archers. The state borders Dayuan. It is a small state, nominally subject to the Yuezhi to the south and to the Xiongnu to the east.

奄蔡在康居西北可二千里，行國，與康居大同俗。控弦者十餘萬。臨大澤，無崖，蓋乃北海云。

Yancai lies roughly two thousand li northwest of Kangju. It is a nomadic state with customs very similar to those of Kangju. They can field over a hundred thousand mounted archers. They border a vast body of water with no visible shore, which is said to be the Northern Sea.

大月氏在大宛西可二三千里，居媯水北。其南則大夏，西則安息，北則康居。行國也，隨畜移徙，與匈奴同俗。控弦者可一二十萬。故時彊，輕匈奴，及冒頓立，攻破月氏，至匈奴老上單于，殺月氏王，以其頭為飲器。始月氏居敦煌、祁連閒，及為匈奴所敗，乃遠去，過宛，西擊大夏而臣之，遂都媯水北，為王庭。其餘小眾不能去者，保南山羌，號小月氏。

The Great Yuezhi are situated some two to three thousand li west of Dayuan, dwelling north of the Oxus River. To the south lies Bactria, to the west Parthia, and to the north Kangju. They are a nomadic people who move with their herds, following customs similar to those of the Xiongnu. They can muster between one and two hundred thousand mounted archers. In former times the Yuezhi were powerful and held the Xiongnu in contempt. But after Maodun rose to power, he attacked and defeated the Yuezhi. Under the Laoshang Chanyu, the Yuezhi king was slain and his skull fashioned into a drinking vessel. Originally, the Yuezhi had dwelt in the region between Dunhuang and the Qilian Mountains. After their defeat by the Xiongnu, they migrated far to the west, crossed through Dayuan, conquered Bactria and made it a vassal state, and established their royal court north of the Oxus River. A remnant too small to make the journey took refuge among the Qiang of the Southern Mountains and became known as the Lesser Yuezhi.

安息在大月氏西可數千里。其俗土著，耕田，田稻麥，蒲陶酒。城邑如大宛。其屬小大數百城，地方數千里，最為大國。臨媯水，有市，民商賈用車及船，行旁國或數千里。以銀為錢，錢如其王面，王死輒更錢，效王面焉。畫革旁行以為書記。其西則條枝，北有奄蔡、黎軒。

Parthia lies several thousand li to the west of the Great Yuezhi. The people are settled farmers who cultivate rice and wheat, and they produce grape wine. Their cities and towns resemble those of Dayuan. They govern several hundred cities of various sizes, and their territory stretches across several thousand li, making Parthia the greatest state in the region. The country borders the Oxus River and has bustling markets. The merchants travel by cart and boat to neighboring states, sometimes covering distances of several thousand li. They mint silver coins bearing the face of their king. When a king dies, the coins are recast with the likeness of his successor. They write horizontally on leather for their records. To the west lies Tiaozhi, and to the north are Yancai and Lijian.

條枝在安息西數千里，臨西海。暑溼。耕田，田稻。有大鳥，卵如甕。人眾甚多，往往有小君長，而安息役屬之，以為外國。國善眩。安息長老傳聞條枝有弱水、西王母，而未嘗見。

Tiaozhi lies several thousand li west of Parthia, on the shore of the Western Sea. The climate is hot and humid. The people farm the land and cultivate rice. There are great birds whose eggs are the size of earthen jars. The population is very large, and there are petty chieftains scattered throughout, but Parthia has subjugated them all and treats the land as an outlying dependency. The people of this land are skilled in the art of conjuring. The elders of Parthia speak of legends that beyond Tiaozhi lie the Weak Water and the Queen Mother of the West, though none has ever laid eyes on them.

大夏在大宛西南二千餘里媯水南。其俗土著，有城屋，與大宛同俗。無大（王）［君］長，往往城邑置小長。其兵弱，畏戰。善賈市。及大月氏西徙，攻敗之，皆臣畜大夏。大夏民多，可百餘萬。其都曰藍市城，有市販賈諸物。其東南有身毒國。

Bactria lies over two thousand li to the southwest of Dayuan, on the southern bank of the Oxus River. The people are settled, with walled cities and houses, and their customs resemble those of Dayuan. They have no paramount ruler. Instead, each city and town appoints its own petty chief. Their military is weak, and the people are averse to warfare. They are skilled in commerce. When the Great Yuezhi migrated westward, they attacked and defeated Bactria, reducing the entire land to vassalage. Bactria has a large population, numbering over a million. Their capital is called Lanshi, a city with thriving markets where all manner of goods are traded. To the southeast lies the kingdom of India.

騫曰：「臣在大夏時，見邛竹杖、蜀布。問曰：『安得此？』大夏國人曰：『吾賈人往市之身毒。身毒在大夏東南可數千里。其俗土著，大與大夏同，而卑溼暑熱云。其人民乘象以戰。其國臨大水焉。』以騫度之，大夏去漢萬二千里，居漢西南。今身毒國又居大夏東南數千里，有蜀物，此其去蜀不遠矣。今使大夏，從羌中，險，羌人惡之；少北，則為匈奴所得；從蜀宜徑，又無寇。」天子既聞大宛及大夏、安息之屬皆大國，多奇物，土著，頗與中國同業，而兵弱，貴漢財物；其北有大月氏、康居之屬，兵彊，可以賂遺設利朝也。且誠得而以義屬之，則廣地萬里，重九譯，致殊俗，威德遍於四海。天子欣然，以騫言為然，乃令騫因蜀犍為發閒使，四道并出：出駹，出冉，出徙，出邛、僰，皆各行一二千里。其北方閉氐、筰，南方閉巂、昆明。昆明之屬無君長，善寇盜，輒殺略漢使，終莫得通。然聞其西可千餘里有乘象國，名曰滇越，而蜀賈姦出物者或至焉，於是漢以求大夏道始通滇國。初，漢欲通西南夷，費多，道不通，罷之。及張騫言可以通大夏，乃復事西南夷。

Zhang Qian reported, "When I was in Bactria, I saw bamboo staffs from Qiong and cloth from Shu. I asked, 'Where did you obtain these?' The Bactrians replied, 'Our merchants travel to India to purchase them.' India lies several thousand li to the southeast of Bactria. The people are settled, with customs largely resembling those of Bactria, though the land is low-lying, humid, and hot. The people ride elephants into battle. Their country borders a great river.' By Zhang Qian's reckoning, Bactria lies twelve thousand li from Han, to the southwest. Now, India lies several thousand li to the southeast of Bactria and possesses goods from Shu. It follows that India cannot be far from Shu. At present, sending envoys to Bactria through Qiang territory is perilous, for the Qiang are hostile. Veering even slightly to the north means falling into the hands of the Xiongnu. But a route from Shu should be more direct, and free from raiders." The Emperor, having heard that Dayuan, Bactria, Parthia, and their like were all great states, rich in rare goods, with settled populations and industries much like those of China, yet militarily weak and eager for Han merchandise; and that to the north the Great Yuezhi, Kangju, and others commanded powerful armies that might be won over as allies through gifts and inducements. If these nations could truly be brought into the fold through righteous diplomacy, the Empire's reach would extend ten thousand li, drawing in peoples of many tongues and exotic customs, and spreading the imperial prestige to the four seas. The Emperor was delighted and accepted Zhang Qian's proposal. He ordered Zhang Qian to dispatch covert envoys from Shu and Jianwei along four simultaneous routes: through Mang, through Ran, through Xi, and through Qiong and Bo. Each party traveled one to two thousand li. To the north they were blocked by the Di and Zuo peoples; to the south, by the Sui and Kunming. The Kunming and their kin had no paramount chiefs. They were notorious raiders and brigands who invariably killed and robbed the Han envoys, and in the end no route could be forced through. Nevertheless, it was reported that over a thousand li to the west lay a land of elephant-riders called Dianyue, and that Shu merchants smuggling goods had sometimes reached it. In this way, Han's search for a route to Bactria first opened relations with the kingdom of Dian. Earlier, the Han court had attempted to establish contact with the southwestern tribes, but the expense was enormous and the routes impassable, so the effort was abandoned. But when Zhang Qian argued that a route to Bactria could be opened this way, the court revived its efforts to reach the southwestern tribes.

騫以校尉從大將軍擊匈奴，知水草處，軍得以不乏，乃封騫為博望侯。是歲元朔六年也。其明年，騫為衛尉，與李將軍俱出右北平擊匈奴。匈奴圍李將軍，軍失亡多；而騫後期當斬，贖為庶人。是歲漢遣驃騎破匈奴西（城）［域］數萬人，至祁連山。其明年，渾邪王率其民降漢，而金城、河西西并南山至鹽澤空無匈奴。匈奴時有候者到，而希矣。其後二年，漢擊走單于於幕北。

Zhang Qian served as a Colonel under the Grand General in the campaign against the Xiongnu. His knowledge of where to find water and pasture kept the army well supplied, and for this he was enfeoffed as the Marquis of Bowang. This was the sixth year of the Yuanshuo era. The following year, Zhang Qian held the post of Commandant of the Guards and marched out from Youbeiping alongside General Li to attack the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu encircled General Li's forces, and the army suffered heavy casualties and desertions. Zhang Qian had failed to arrive by the appointed date, a crime punishable by death. He ransomed his life and was stripped of his title, reduced to the status of a commoner. That same year, the Han dispatched the General of Swift Cavalry, who defeated tens of thousands of Xiongnu in the Western Regions and advanced as far as the Qilian Mountains. The following year, the Hunye King led his people in surrender to the Han, and from Jincheng through the Hexi Corridor, westward along the Southern Mountains to the Salt Marsh, the land was emptied of the Xiongnu. Xiongnu scouts still appeared from time to time, but they had become rare. Two years later, the Han drove the Chanyu beyond the northern desert.

是後天子數問騫大夏之屬。騫既失侯，因言曰：「臣居匈奴中，聞烏孫王號昆莫，昆莫之父，匈奴西邊小國也。匈奴攻殺其父，而昆莫生棄於野。烏嗛肉蜚其上，狼往乳之。單于怪以為神，而收長之。及壯，使將兵，數有功，單于復以其父之民予昆莫，令長守於西（城）［域］。昆莫收養其民，攻旁小邑，控弦數萬，習攻戰。單于死，昆莫乃率其眾遠徙，中立，不肯朝會匈奴。匈奴遣奇兵擊，不勝，以為神而遠之，因羈屬之，不大攻。今單于新困於漢，而故渾邪地空無人。蠻夷俗貪漢財物，今誠以此時而厚幣賂烏孫，招以益東，居故渾邪之地，與漢結昆弟，其勢宜聽，聽則是斷匈奴右臂也。既連烏孫，自其西大夏之屬皆可招來而為外臣。」天子以為然，拜騫為中郎將，將三百人，馬各二匹，牛羊以萬數，齎金幣帛直數千巨萬，多持節副使，道可使，使遺之他旁國。

After this, the Emperor repeatedly consulted Zhang Qian about Bactria and the other western states. Having lost his marquisate, Zhang Qian seized the opportunity to speak: "When I lived among the Xiongnu, I heard that the king of the Wusun is called Kunmo. Kunmo's father had been the ruler of a small state on the western frontier of the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu attacked and killed his father, and the infant Kunmo was abandoned in the wilderness. A raven carried meat and hovered over him, and a she-wolf came and nursed him. The Chanyu was astonished, believed the child was blessed by the spirits, and took him in to raise as his own. When Kunmo came of age, he was given command of troops and distinguished himself in battle on several occasions. The Chanyu then restored his father's people to him and charged him with guarding the Western Regions. Kunmo rallied his people, conquered the neighboring small states, and built up a force of tens of thousands of mounted archers well trained in the arts of war. When the Chanyu died, Kunmo led his people far away, declared his independence, and refused to attend the Xiongnu court assemblies. The Xiongnu dispatched crack troops against him but could not prevail. Believing him to be under divine protection, they kept their distance, maintaining only nominal suzerainty and refraining from further major attacks. Now the Chanyu has recently been pressed hard by the Han, and the former territory of the Hunye King lies empty and abandoned. The frontier peoples have always coveted the wealth of Han. If we seize this moment to lavish gifts upon the Wusun and entice them to move eastward into the former Hunye territory, forging a fraternal alliance with Han, the circumstances strongly favor their acceptance. And if they accept, it would be like severing the right arm of the Xiongnu. Once we are allied with the Wusun, all the states to their west, including Bactria and its neighbors, can be drawn in as outer vassals." The Emperor agreed and appointed Zhang Qian as General of the Gentlemen of the Household, placing three hundred men under his command, each with two horses. He was furnished with cattle and sheep numbering in the tens of thousands, along with gold, coins, and silk worth thousands of millions. Numerous deputy envoys bearing official tallies accompanied him, so that along the route they could be dispatched as envoys to neighboring states.

騫既至烏孫，烏孫王昆莫見漢使如單于禮，騫大慚，知蠻夷貪，乃曰：「天子致賜，王不拜則還賜。」昆莫起拜賜，其他如故。騫諭使指曰：「烏孫能東居渾邪地，則漢遣翁主為昆莫夫人。」烏孫國分，王老，而遠漢，未知其大小，素服屬匈奴日久矣，且又近之，其大臣皆畏胡，不欲移徙，王不能專制。騫不得其要領。昆莫有十餘子，其中子曰大祿，彊，善將眾，將眾別居萬餘騎。大祿兄為太子，太子有子曰岑娶，而太子蚤死。臨死謂其父昆莫曰：「必以岑娶為太子，無令他人代之。」昆莫哀而許之，卒以岑娶為太子。大祿怒其不得代太子也，乃收其諸昆弟，將其眾畔，謀攻岑娶及昆莫。昆莫老，常恐大祿殺岑娶，予岑娶萬餘騎別居，而昆莫有萬餘騎自備，國眾分為三，而其大總取羈屬昆莫，昆莫亦以此不敢專約於騫。

When Zhang Qian arrived among the Wusun, King Kunmo received the Han envoy with the same protocol he used for the Chanyu. Zhang Qian was deeply humiliated. Knowing the frontier peoples' covetousness, he declared, "The Emperor has bestowed these gifts. If the King does not bow to receive them, the gifts will be taken back." Kunmo rose and bowed to accept the gifts, though in all other respects his manner remained unchanged. Zhang Qian conveyed the purpose of his mission: "If the Wusun will move east and settle in the former Hunye territory, the Han will send a princess to be Kunmo's consort." But the Wusun kingdom was divided, and the king was old. They were far from Han and had no sense of its size. Having been accustomed to Xiongnu overlordship for generations and living in close proximity to them, all the senior ministers feared the Xiongnu and were unwilling to relocate. The king could not act on his own authority. Zhang Qian was unable to win their commitment. Kunmo had over ten sons. His middle son, Dalu, was powerful and skilled in command. He lived apart with a personal force of over ten thousand cavalry. Dalu's elder brother had been the Crown Prince. The Crown Prince had a son named Cenqu, but the Crown Prince died young. On his deathbed, the Crown Prince said to his father Kunmo, "You must make Cenqu the heir. Let no one else take his place." Kunmo was grief-stricken and consented, ultimately naming Cenqu as the Crown Prince. Dalu was furious at being passed over for the succession. He rallied his brothers, led his followers into open rebellion, and plotted to attack both Cenqu and Kunmo. Kunmo, now old, lived in constant fear that Dalu would kill Cenqu. He gave Cenqu a separate force of over ten thousand cavalry and kept another ten thousand for his own protection. The kingdom was thus split into three factions, though all nominally owed allegiance to Kunmo. For this reason, Kunmo did not dare commit himself exclusively to Zhang Qian's proposal.

騫因分遣副使使大宛、康居、大月氏、大夏、安息、身毒、于窴、扜穼及諸旁國。烏孫發導譯送騫還，騫與烏孫遣使數十人，馬數十匹報謝，因令窺漢，知其廣大。

Zhang Qian accordingly dispatched his deputy envoys to Dayuan, Kangju, the Great Yuezhi, Bactria, Parthia, India, Khotan, Yumi, and various other neighboring states. The Wusun provided guides and interpreters to escort Zhang Qian home. Accompanying him were several dozen Wusun envoys with as many horses, sent to offer thanks and to observe the Han Empire firsthand and appreciate its vastness.

騫還到，拜為大行，列於九卿。歲餘，卒。

Upon his return, Zhang Qian was appointed Director of Foreign Relations, a post ranked among the Nine Ministers. A little over a year later, he died.

烏孫使既見漢人眾富厚，歸報其國，其國乃益重漢。其後歲餘，騫所遣使通大夏之屬者皆頗與其人俱來，於是西北國始通於漢矣。然張騫鑿空，其後使往者皆稱博望侯，以為質於外國，外國由此信之。

When the Wusun envoys saw the vast population and great wealth of the Han Empire, they returned and reported to their own court, after which the Wusun held Han in considerably higher regard. Over a year later, the deputy envoys Zhang Qian had dispatched to Bactria and the other states all returned, bringing foreign envoys back with them. From this point on, the states of the northwest first established diplomatic relations with Han. Thus Zhang Qian blazed the trail into the unknown. All envoys who followed invoked the name of the Marquis of Bowang as a pledge of good faith to the foreign states, and through his reputation those states came to trust them.

自博望侯騫死後，匈奴聞漢通烏孫，怒，欲擊之。及漢使烏孫，若出其南，抵大宛、大月氏相屬，烏孫乃恐，使使獻馬，願得尚漢女翁主為昆弟。天子問群臣議計，皆曰「必先納聘，然後乃遣女」。初，天子發書易，云「神馬當從西北來」。得烏孫馬好，名曰「天馬」。及得大宛汗血馬，益壯，更名烏孫馬曰「西極」，名大宛馬曰「天馬」云。而漢始筑令居以西，初置酒泉郡以通西北國。因益發使抵安息、奄蔡、黎軒、條枝、身毒國。而天子好宛馬，使者相望於道。諸使外國一輩大者數百，少者百餘人，人所齎操大放博望侯時。其后益習而衰少焉。漢率一歲中使多者十餘，少者五六輩，遠者八九歲，近者數歲而反。

After the death of the Marquis of Bowang, the Xiongnu learned that the Han had established relations with the Wusun. Enraged, they planned to attack the Wusun. Moreover, as Han envoys to the Wusun also traveled south to Dayuan, the Great Yuezhi, and their neighbors in succession, the Wusun grew alarmed. They dispatched envoys bearing tribute horses and requested the hand of a Han princess to seal a fraternal alliance. The Emperor consulted his ministers, who all agreed: "The bride-price must be received first, and only then should the princess be sent." Earlier, the Emperor had consulted the Book of Changes, which foretold: "Divine horses shall come from the northwest." When the fine horses of the Wusun arrived, the Emperor named them the "Heavenly Horses." When the blood-sweating horses of Dayuan were later obtained and proved even more magnificent, the Wusun horses were downgraded to "Horses of the Western Extremity," and the Dayuan horses were given the title "Heavenly Horses." The Han then began construction west of Lingju and established the Jiuquan Commandery for the first time, to open a corridor to the northwestern states. Accordingly, even more envoys were dispatched to Parthia, Yancai, Lijian, Tiaozhi, and India. The Emperor was enamored of the horses of Dayuan, and the envoys dispatched to obtain them were so numerous that each could see the next on the road ahead. Each embassy to the foreign states numbered between one and several hundred men, and the gifts they carried were modeled on those of the Marquis of Bowang's missions. Later, as such missions became routine, the scale gradually diminished. On average, the Han dispatched as many as ten or more embassies a year, and at least five or six. The most distant missions took eight or nine years to return, and even the nearer ones took several years.

是時漢既滅越，而蜀、西南夷皆震，請吏入朝。於是置益州、越巂、牂柯、沈黎、汶山郡，欲地接以前通大夏。乃遣使柏始昌、呂越人等歲十餘輩，出此初郡抵大夏，皆復閉昆明，為所殺，奪幣財，終莫能通至大夏焉。於是漢發三輔罪人，因巴蜀士數萬人，遣兩將軍郭昌、衛廣等往擊昆明之遮漢使者，斬首虜數萬人而去。其後遣使，昆明復為寇，竟莫能得通。而北道酒泉抵大夏，使者既多，而外國益厭漢幣，不貴其物。

At this time, the Han had already destroyed the kingdoms of Yue. The peoples of Shu and the southwestern tribes were all shaken, and they sent envoys to attend the imperial court. The commanderies of Yizhou, Yuesui, Zangke, Shenli, and Wenshan were established, with the aim of linking up the territory and opening a route to Bactria. Envoys such as Bo Shichang and Lu Yueren were dispatched, over ten groups a year, setting out from these new commanderies toward Bactria. But all were blocked by the Kunming, who killed them and seized their gifts. In the end, none could get through to Bactria. The Han then mobilized convicts from the Three Adjuncts and tens of thousands of troops from Ba and Shu, dispatching Generals Guo Chang and Wei Guang to attack the Kunming who had been waylaying Han envoys. They killed or captured tens of thousands before withdrawing. When envoys were sent again afterward, the Kunming resumed their raiding, and in the end the route still could not be forced through. Meanwhile, on the northern route from Jiuquan to Bactria, envoys had become so numerous that the foreign states grew weary of Han gifts and no longer prized their goods.

自博望侯開外國道以尊貴，其後從吏卒皆爭上書言外國奇怪利害，求使。天子為其絕遠，非人所樂往，聽其言，予節，募吏民毋問所從來，為具備人眾遣之，以廣其道。來還不能毋侵盜幣物，及使失指，天子為其習之，輒覆案致重罪，以激怒令贖，復求使。使端無窮，而輕犯法。其吏卒亦輒復盛推外國所有，言大者予節，言小者為副，故妄言無行之徒皆爭效之。其使皆貧人子，私縣官齎物，欲賤市以私其利外國。外國亦厭漢使人人有言輕重，度漢兵遠不能至，而禁其食物以苦漢使。漢使乏絕積怨，至相攻擊。而樓蘭、姑師小國耳，當空道，攻劫漢使王恢等尤甚。而匈奴奇兵時時遮擊使西國者。使者爭遍言外國災害，皆有城邑，兵弱易擊。於是天子以故遣從驃侯破奴將屬國騎及郡兵數萬，至匈河水，欲以擊胡，胡皆去。其明年，擊姑師，破奴與輕騎七百餘先至，虜樓蘭王，遂破姑師。因舉兵威以困烏孫、大宛之屬。還，封破奴為浞野侯。王恢數使，為樓蘭所苦，言天子，天子發兵令恢佐破奴擊破之，封恢為浩侯。於是酒泉列亭鄣至玉門矣。

Ever since the Marquis of Bowang had opened the road to the foreign states and won great honor, attendants and soldiers all scrambled to submit memorials describing the wonders and opportunities of foreign lands, seeking appointment as envoys. Because the destinations were so remote and no one went willingly, the Emperor accepted their proposals, granted them envoy's tallies, and recruited officials and commoners of any background, outfitting them with men and provisions before sending them on their way to expand the network of routes. Upon returning, these envoys invariably proved to have embezzled gifts and goods or to have failed in their mission's purpose. The Emperor, accustomed to such behavior, would order investigations and press serious charges, provoking the offenders to ransom themselves. Afterward, they would simply seek another envoy appointment. The pretexts for new missions were inexhaustible, and the envoys thought nothing of breaking the law. Officials and soldiers, for their part, eagerly promoted the wonders of the foreign states. Those who made the grandest claims were granted envoy tallies, and those who made lesser claims were appointed as deputies. In this way, all manner of boasters and scoundrels competed to follow their example. The envoys were generally men of humble origins who embezzled the goods supplied by the government, intending to sell them cheaply in foreign lands and pocket the profit. The foreign states, for their part, grew weary of the Han envoys, each of whom made different and contradictory claims. Reckoning that the Han armies were too far away to pose any real threat, they withheld food and provisions to make life miserable for the Han envoys. Deprived of supplies and seething with accumulated grievances, the Han envoys resorted to attacking one another. Loulan and Gushi were mere petty states, but they sat astride the desert route and were especially aggressive in attacking and robbing Han envoys, with Wang Hui among those who suffered most. Meanwhile, Xiongnu raiding parties regularly intercepted and attacked envoys bound for the western states. The returning envoys all competed to report that the foreign states were troublesome but that they all had walled cities, their armies were weak, and they would be easy to conquer. The Emperor accordingly dispatched Zhao Ponu, the Marquis of Congpiao, at the head of cavalry from the dependent states and commandery troops numbering tens of thousands, to the Xionghe River with the intention of attacking the Xiongnu. But the Xiongnu withdrew before battle. The following year, in the campaign against Gushi, Zhao Ponu rode ahead with over seven hundred light cavalry, captured the King of Loulan, and went on to crush Gushi. He then used the momentum of his victory to cow the Wusun, Dayuan, and the surrounding states into submission. Upon his return, Zhao Ponu was enfeoffed as the Marquis of Zhuoye. Wang Hui, who had suffered greatly at the hands of Loulan on his many missions, petitioned the Emperor. The Emperor dispatched troops and ordered Hui to assist Zhao Ponu in crushing Loulan. For his role, Wang Hui was enfeoffed as the Marquis of Hao. A chain of watchtowers and barriers was then erected stretching from Jiuquan all the way to the Jade Gate.

烏孫以千匹馬聘漢女，漢遣宗室女江都翁主往妻烏孫，烏孫王昆莫以為右夫人。匈奴亦遣女妻昆莫，昆莫以為左夫人。昆莫曰「我老」，乃令其孫岑娶妻翁主。烏孫多馬，其富人至有四五千匹馬。

The Wusun offered a thousand horses as bride-price. The Han court sent the Princess of Jiangdu, a daughter of the imperial clan, to marry among the Wusun. King Kunmo made her his right consort. The Xiongnu likewise sent a woman to wed Kunmo, and he made her his left consort. Kunmo declared, "I am old," and had his grandson Cenqu marry the princess in his stead. The Wusun possess great numbers of horses. Their wealthiest families own as many as four to five thousand head.

初，漢使至安息，安息王令將二萬騎迎於東界。東界去王都數千里。行比至，過數十城，人民相屬甚多。漢使還，而後發使隨漢使來觀漢廣大，以大鳥卵及黎軒善眩人獻于漢。及宛西小國驩潛、大益，宛東姑師、扜穼、蘇薤之屬，皆隨漢使獻見天子。天子大悅。

When the first Han envoy reached Parthia, the Parthian king dispatched a cavalry escort of twenty thousand to meet them at the eastern frontier. The eastern frontier lay several thousand li from the royal capital. Along the way they passed through scores of cities, with populous settlements stretching in an unbroken chain. When the Han envoy departed, Parthia dispatched its own envoys to accompany him back to observe the vastness of the Han Empire. They presented ostrich eggs and skilled conjurers from Lijian as tribute to the Han court. The small states west of Dayuan, such as Huanqian and Dayi, and those to the east, including Gushi, Yumi, and Suxie, all sent envoys to accompany the Han ambassadors and present tribute to the Emperor. The Emperor was greatly pleased.

而漢使窮河源，河源出于窴，其山多玉石，采來，天子案古圖書，名河所出山曰崑崙云。

Han envoys traced the Yellow River to its source and found that it emerged from the mountains of Khotan, which were rich in jade. They gathered specimens and brought them back. The Emperor consulted the ancient maps and texts and proclaimed the mountain from which the river issued to be Kunlun.

是時上方數巡狩海上，乃悉從外國客，大都多人則過之，散財帛以賞賜，厚具以饒給之，以覽示漢富厚焉。於是大觳抵，出奇戲諸怪物，多聚觀者，行賞賜，酒池肉林，令外國客遍觀（名）［各］倉庫府藏之積，見漢之廣大，傾駭之。及加其眩者之工，而觳抵奇戲歲增變，甚盛益興，自此始。

At this time, the Emperor was making frequent tours along the coast. He brought all the foreign guests in his entourage, parading through the largest and most populous cities, lavishing them with gifts of wealth and silk and generous provisions, all to display the magnificence of the Han Empire. Grand wrestling matches were staged, along with acrobatic displays and exotic spectacles, drawing vast crowds. Rewards were lavished, with pools of wine and forests of meat. The foreign guests were given a tour of the storehouses and treasury reserves so they could witness firsthand the wealth of the Han Empire, which left them awed and astonished. The conjurers added their art to the spectacles, and the wrestling matches and exotic performances grew more elaborate with each passing year, flourishing ever more grandly. It all began from this time.

西北外國使，更來更去。宛以西，皆自以遠，尚驕恣晏然，未可詘以禮羈縻而使也。自烏孫以西至安息，以近匈奴，匈奴困月氏也，匈奴使持單于一信，則國國傳送食，不敢留苦；及至漢使，非出幣帛不得食，不市畜不得騎用。所以然者，遠漢，而漢多財物，故必市乃得所欲，然以畏匈奴於漢使焉。宛左右以蒲陶為酒，富人藏酒至萬餘石，久者數十歲不敗。俗嗜酒，馬嗜苜蓿。漢使取其實來，於是天子始種苜蓿、蒲陶肥饒地。及天馬多，外國使來眾，則離宮別觀旁盡種蒲萄、苜蓿極望。自大宛以西至安息，國雖頗異言，然大同俗，相知言。其人皆深眼，多須髯，善市賈，爭分銖。俗貴女子，女子所言而丈夫乃決正。其地皆無絲漆，不知鑄錢器。及漢使亡卒降，教鑄作他兵器。得漢黃白金，輒以為器，不用為幣。

Envoys from the northwestern states came and went in a constant stream. From Dayuan westward, all the states considered themselves remote and remained arrogant and complacent. They could not yet be brought to heel through diplomacy and courtesy alone. From the Wusun westward to Parthia, because these states lay near the Xiongnu, who had crushed the Yuezhi, a single Xiongnu envoy bearing a letter from the Chanyu would be passed from state to state with food and provisions along the way, and none dared detain or mistreat him. But Han envoys received nothing unless they paid: without offering coins and silk they could not obtain food, and without purchasing animals they could not secure mounts. This was because they were far from Han and, though Han was rich in goods, they insisted on trade to obtain what they wanted. Moreover, they feared the Xiongnu far more than they respected the Han envoys. In and around Dayuan, grape wine is produced in abundance. The wealthy store wine numbering over ten thousand shi, and the finest vintages keep for decades without spoiling. The people are fond of wine, and the horses feed on alfalfa. The Han envoys brought seeds back with them, and the Emperor ordered alfalfa and grapes to be planted for the first time on the fertile lands of the capital region. As the Heavenly Horses multiplied and foreign envoys arrived in ever greater numbers, grapevines and alfalfa were planted around the detached palaces and lodges, stretching as far as the eye could see. From Dayuan westward to Parthia, although the states speak somewhat different languages, their customs are broadly similar and they can make themselves understood to one another. The people all have deep-set eyes and thick beards. They are shrewd in commerce and haggle over the smallest coin. Their custom holds women in high regard. The men make their decisions based on what the women say. Their lands produce neither silk nor lacquer, and they do not know the arts of casting coins or metal vessels. When Han deserters and surrendered soldiers arrived among them, they taught the local people how to cast weapons and other metal implements. Whenever they obtained Han gold and silver, they fashioned them into vessels rather than using them as currency.

而漢使者往既多，其少從率多進熟於天子，言曰：「宛有善馬在貳師城，匿不肯與漢使。」天子既好宛馬，聞之甘心，使壯士車令等持千金及金馬以請宛王貳師城善馬。宛國饒漢物，相與謀曰：「漢去我遠，而鹽水中數敗，出其北有胡寇，出其南乏水草。又且往往而絕邑，乏食者多。漢使數百人為輩來，而常乏食，死者過半，是安能致大軍乎？無柰我何。且貳師馬，宛寶馬也。」遂不肯予漢使。漢使怒，妄言，椎金馬而去。宛貴人怒曰：「漢使至輕我！」遣漢使去，令其東邊郁成遮攻殺漢使，取其財物。於是天子大怒。諸嘗使宛姚定漢等言宛兵弱，誠以漢兵不過三千人，彊弩射之，即盡虜破宛矣。天子已嘗使浞野侯攻樓蘭，以七百騎先至，虜其王，以定漢等言為然，而欲侯寵姬李氏，拜李廣利為貳師將軍，發屬國六千騎，及郡國惡少年數萬人，以往伐宛。期至貳師城取善馬，故號「貳師將軍」。趙始成為軍正，故浩侯王恢使導軍，而李哆為校尉，制軍事。是歲太初元年也。而關東蝗大起，蜚西至敦煌。

As Han envoys traveled west in great numbers, their junior attendants often sought to ingratiate themselves with the Emperor by reporting, "Dayuan has superb horses in the city of Ershi, but they hide them and refuse to hand them over to Han envoys." The Emperor, already enamored of the horses of Dayuan, was eager to act. He dispatched the warrior Che Ling and others, bearing a thousand catties of gold and a golden horse statue, to request the fine horses of Ershi from the King of Dayuan. The court of Dayuan, already well supplied with Han goods, deliberated among themselves: "Han is far from us. Their caravans have repeatedly come to grief crossing the Salt Desert. To the north lie Xiongnu raiders, and to the south there is neither water nor pasture. Moreover, there are long stretches without any settlements, and many travelers perish for want of food. When Han envoys come in parties of several hundred, they constantly run short of food and more than half of them perish. How could they possibly bring a great army against us? There is nothing they can do to us. Besides, the Ershi horses are the pride of Dayuan." And so they refused to hand the horses over to the Han envoy. The Han envoy flew into a rage, hurled insults, smashed the golden horse statue, and stormed off. The nobles of Dayuan were outraged, saying, "This Han envoy shows us utter contempt!" They let the Han envoy depart, then ordered the garrison at Yucheng on their eastern frontier to intercept and kill him and seize his goods. When word reached the capital, the Emperor was enraged. Former envoys to Dayuan, such as Yao Dinghan, assured the Emperor that the troops of Dayuan were weak. They claimed that no more than three thousand Han soldiers armed with powerful crossbows would be needed to conquer and destroy the whole of Dayuan. The Emperor recalled how the Marquis of Zhuoye had attacked Loulan with just seven hundred cavalry and captured its king. He therefore accepted these assurances as plausible. Moreover, wishing to ennoble the Li clan to which his favored consort belonged, he appointed Li Guangli as the General of Ershi, mobilized six thousand cavalry from the dependent states and tens of thousands of unruly young men from the commanderies and kingdoms, and dispatched them to conquer Dayuan. The objective was to reach Ershi and seize the fine horses, which is why he was styled the "General of Ershi." Zhao Shicheng served as Military Superintendent, the former Marquis of Hao, Wang Hui, was assigned to guide the army, and Li Duo served as Colonel in charge of military operations. This was the first year of the Taichu era. That year, a great plague of locusts arose east of the passes and swarmed westward as far as Dunhuang.

貳師將軍軍既西過鹽水，當道小國恐，各堅城守，不肯給食。攻之不能下。下者得食，不下者數日則去。比至郁成，士至者不過數千，皆饑罷。攻郁成，郁成大破之，所殺傷甚眾。貳師將軍與哆、始成等計：「至郁成尚不能舉，況至其王都乎？」引兵而還。往來二歲。還至敦煌，士不過什一二。使使上書言：「道遠多乏食；且士卒不患戰，患饑。人少，不足以拔宛。願且罷兵，益發而復往。」天子聞之，大怒，而使使遮玉門，曰軍有敢入者輒斬之！貳師恐，因留敦煌。

After the army of the General of Ershi crossed the Salt Desert heading west, the small states along the route took fright, fortified their cities, and refused to provide food. The Han attacked these cities but could not take them. Where they succeeded, they obtained food. Where they failed, they moved on after a few days. By the time they reached Yucheng, no more than a few thousand soldiers had made it through, all of them starving and exhausted. They attacked Yucheng, but the defenders inflicted a crushing defeat upon them, killing and wounding great numbers. The General of Ershi conferred with Li Duo and Zhao Shicheng: "We cannot even take Yucheng. What hope have we of reaching the royal capital?" They withdrew the army and turned back. The round trip had taken two years. By the time they straggled back to Dunhuang, no more than one or two soldiers in ten had survived. The General sent a messenger to submit a memorial to the throne: "The road is long and provisions scarce. The soldiers do not fear battle; they fear starvation. We have too few men to conquer Dayuan. I request that the army be recalled for now, that reinforcements be raised, and that we try again." The Emperor received this memorial and was enraged. He sent a messenger to bar the Jade Gate with orders: "Any soldier who dares pass through shall be executed!" The General of Ershi, terrified, remained at Dunhuang.

其夏，漢亡浞野之兵二萬餘於匈奴。公卿及議者皆願罷擊宛軍，專力攻胡。天子已業誅宛，宛小國而不能下，則大夏之屬輕漢，而宛善馬絕不來，烏孫、侖頭易苦漢使矣，為外國笑。乃案言伐宛尤不便者鄧光等，赦囚徒材官，益發惡少年及邊騎，歲餘而出敦煌者六萬人，負私從者不與。牛十萬，馬三萬餘匹，驢騾橐它以萬數。多齎糧，兵弩甚設，天下騷動，傳相奉伐宛，凡五十餘校尉。宛王城中無井，皆汲城外流水，於是乃遣水工徙其城下水空以空其城。益發戍甲卒十八萬，酒泉、張掖北，置居延、休屠以衛酒泉，而發天下七科適，及載糒給貳師。轉車人徒相連屬至敦煌。而拜習馬者二人為執驅校尉，備破宛擇取其善馬云。

That summer, the Han lost over twenty thousand men of the Marquis of Zhuoye's army to the Xiongnu. The ministers and court advisors all urged that the campaign against Dayuan be abandoned so that all efforts could be concentrated on the war with the Xiongnu. But the Emperor had already committed himself to punishing Dayuan. If a petty state like Dayuan could not be subdued, then Bactria and the other western states would hold Han in contempt, the fine horses of Dayuan would never be obtained, and the Wusun and Luntou would feel free to abuse Han envoys with impunity. Han would become the laughingstock of the western world. The Emperor therefore punished those like Deng Guang who had argued most forcefully against the campaign, pardoned convicts and skilled artisans for military service, and further mobilized unruly young men and frontier cavalry. After more than a year of preparation, the force that marched out from Dunhuang numbered sixty thousand, not counting the privately outfitted followers. The army was accompanied by a hundred thousand cattle, over thirty thousand horses, and tens of thousands of donkeys, mules, and camels. They carried ample provisions and were heavily armed with weapons and crossbows. The entire empire was in an uproar, with supplies relayed from station to station in support of the campaign. Over fifty Colonels commanded the various contingents. The Dayuan capital had no wells within its walls; the people all drew water from the river flowing outside. The Han therefore dispatched hydraulic engineers to divert the river away from the city and cut off their water supply. In addition, a hundred and eighty thousand garrison troops were stationed north of Jiuquan and Zhangye. The outposts of Juyan and Xiutu were established to guard Jiuquan. Convicts of the seven categories were conscripted from across the empire and put to work transporting dried grain to supply the General of Ershi. Supply wagons and laborers stretched in an unbroken chain all the way to Dunhuang. Two men skilled in horsemanship were appointed as Colonels of Horse Selection, in anticipation of choosing the finest horses once Dayuan was defeated.

於是貳師后復行，兵多，而所至小國莫不迎，出食給軍。至侖頭，侖頭不下，攻數日，屠之。自此而西，平行至宛城，漢兵到者三萬人。宛兵迎擊漢兵，漢兵射敗之，宛走入葆乘其城。貳師兵欲行攻郁成，恐留行而令宛益生詐，乃先至宛，決其水源，移之，則宛固已憂困。圍其城，攻之四十餘日，其外城壞，虜宛貴人勇將煎靡。宛大恐，走入中城。宛貴人相與謀曰：「漢所為攻宛，以王毋寡匿善馬而殺漢使。今殺王毋寡而出善馬，漢兵宜解；即不解，乃力戰而死，未晚也。」宛貴人皆以為然，共殺其王毋寡，持其頭遣貴人使貳師，約曰：「漢毋攻我。我盡出善馬，恣所取，而給漢軍食。即不聽，我盡殺善馬，而康居之救且至。至，我居內，康居居外，與漢軍戰。漢軍熟計之，何從？」是時康居候視漢兵，漢兵尚盛，不敢進。貳師與趙始成、李哆等計：「聞宛城中新得秦人，知穿井，而其內食尚多。所為來，誅首惡者毋寡。毋寡頭已至，如此而不許解兵，則堅守，而康居候漢罷而來救宛，破漢軍必矣。」軍吏皆以為然，許宛之約。宛乃出其善馬，令漢自擇之，而多出食食給漢軍。漢軍取其善馬數十匹。中馬以下牡牝三千餘匹，而立宛貴人之故待遇漢使善者名昧蔡以為宛王，與盟而罷兵。終不得入中城。乃罷而引歸。

The General of Ershi set out once more. This time the army was enormous, and every small state along the route came out to welcome them and provide provisions. When they reached Luntou, the city refused to surrender. After several days of siege, the Han put the city to the sword. From there they marched west without opposition to the walls of the Dayuan capital. The Han soldiers who arrived numbered thirty thousand. The Dayuan forces sallied forth to meet the Han in battle. The Han routed them with crossbow fire, and the defenders retreated behind their walls and fortifications. The General of Ershi's forces had intended to march on Yucheng first, but feared that any delay would give Dayuan time to devise new treachery. They therefore proceeded directly to the Dayuan capital, cut off its water supply and diverted it, leaving the city in dire distress. They laid siege to the city and attacked it for over forty days. The outer wall was breached, and the brave Dayuan general Jianmi, a nobleman, was captured. The people of Dayuan were terrified and withdrew into the inner city. The nobles of Dayuan conferred among themselves: "The reason Han attacked us is that King Wugua concealed the fine horses and killed the Han envoy. If we kill King Wugua now and bring out the fine horses, the Han army should withdraw. If they do not, we can still fight to the death. It will not be too late." The nobles all agreed. They killed King Wugua, took his head, and sent a nobleman to the General of Ershi with a proposal: "Cease your attack. We will bring out all the fine horses and let you choose freely, and we will provide food for the Han army. If you refuse, we will slaughter all the fine horses, and reinforcements from Kangju are on their way. When they arrive, we will hold the city from within while Kangju attacks from without, and together we will fight the Han army. Consider this carefully. Which will you choose?" At this time, Kangju scouts were watching the Han army. Seeing that the Han forces were still formidable, they dared not advance. The General of Ershi conferred with Zhao Shicheng and Li Duo: "I have heard that the Dayuan capital recently took in Chinese who know how to dig wells, and they still have ample food stores within. Our purpose in coming was to punish the chief offender, Wugua. Wugua's head has already been delivered. If we still refuse to accept the truce, they will defend to the last, and Kangju will wait until our army is exhausted and then come to their rescue. The destruction of our army would be all but certain." The military officers all concurred, and the terms proposed by Dayuan were accepted. Dayuan then brought out their fine horses and let the Han choose freely, while providing ample food to feed the Han army. The Han army selected several dozen of the finest horses. They also took over three thousand middle-grade and lesser horses, stallions and mares alike. They then installed a Dayuan nobleman named Meicai, who had previously shown goodwill toward Han envoys, as the new King of Dayuan. A treaty was concluded and the army withdrew. In the end, the Han never entered the inner city. The army then withdrew and marched home.

初，貳師起敦煌西，以為人多，道上國不能食，乃分為數軍，從南北道。校尉王申生、故鴻臚壺充國等千餘人，別到郁成。郁成城守，不肯給食其軍。王申生去大軍二百里，（偵）［偩］而輕之，責郁成。郁成食不肯出，窺知申生軍日少，晨用三千人攻，戮殺申生等，軍破，數人脫亡，走貳師。貳師令搜粟都尉上官桀往攻破郁成。郁成王亡走康居，桀追至康居。康居聞漢已破宛，乃出郁成王予桀，桀令四騎士縛守詣大將軍。四人相謂曰：「郁成王漢國所毒，今生將去，卒失大事。」欲殺，莫敢先擊。上邽騎士趙弟最少，拔劍擊之，斬郁成王，齎頭。弟、桀等逐及大將軍。

Earlier, when the General of Ershi had set out west from Dunhuang, he realized that the army was too large for the states along the route to feed. He therefore divided it into several columns, some taking the northern route and others the southern. Colonel Wang Shensheng, the former Grand Herald Hu Chongguo, and over a thousand others arrived at Yucheng as a separate detachment. The defenders of Yucheng shut their gates and refused to provide food. Wang Shensheng, though two hundred li from the main army, acted arrogantly and bullied Yucheng, emboldened by the strength of the main force. Yucheng refused to provide food. Observing that Shensheng's forces were dwindling by the day, the defenders attacked at dawn with three thousand men, slaughtering Shensheng and his troops. The detachment was destroyed. Only a handful escaped and fled to the General of Ershi. The General of Ershi ordered Shangguan Jie, the Commandant of Grain Procurement, to march on Yucheng and crush it. The King of Yucheng fled to Kangju. Shangguan Jie pursued him there. Kangju, having heard that the Han had defeated Dayuan, surrendered the King of Yucheng. Shangguan Jie ordered four cavalrymen to bind the prisoner and escort him to the Grand General. The four cavalrymen said to one another, "The King of Yucheng is a sworn enemy of the Han. If we bring him back alive and something goes wrong, we will have botched the whole affair." They wanted to kill him, but none dared strike the first blow. Zhao Di, a cavalryman from Shanggui and the youngest of the four, drew his sword, struck the king down, and carried his head away. Zhao Di, Shangguan Jie, and the others then rejoined the Grand General.

初，貳師后行，天子使使告烏孫，大發兵并力擊宛。烏孫發二千騎往，持兩端，不肯前。貳師將軍之東，諸所過小國聞宛破，皆使其子弟從軍入獻，見天子，因以為質焉。貳師之伐宛也，而軍正趙始成力戰，功最多；及上官桀敢深入，李哆為謀計，軍入玉門者萬餘人，軍馬千餘匹。貳師后行，軍非乏食，戰死不能多，而將吏貪，多不愛士卒，侵牟之，以此物故眾。天子為萬里而伐宛，不錄過，封廣利為海西侯。又封身斬郁成王者騎士趙弟為新畤侯。軍正趙始成為光祿大夫，上官桀為少府，李哆為上黨太守。軍官吏為九卿者三人，諸侯相、郡守、二千石者百餘人，千石以下千餘人。奮行者官過其望，以適過行者皆絀其勞。士卒賜直四萬金。伐宛再反，凡四歲而得罷焉。

Earlier, when the General of Ershi set out on the second campaign, the Emperor had sent envoys urging the Wusun to mobilize their forces and join the attack on Dayuan. The Wusun dispatched two thousand cavalry but played both sides, refusing to commit to the advance. As the General of Ershi marched eastward, all the small states along the route, having heard of the defeat of Dayuan, sent their sons and younger brothers to accompany the army, present tribute, and appear before the Emperor. These were then held as hostages. In the campaign against Dayuan, Military Superintendent Zhao Shicheng fought with the greatest valor and earned the highest distinction. Shangguan Jie distinguished himself by his bold advance deep into enemy territory, and Li Duo served as chief strategist. The troops who passed back through the Jade Gate numbered over ten thousand, with over a thousand military horses. On the second campaign, the army did not lack for food, and relatively few fell in battle. But the generals and officers were greedy and showed no care for their men, exploiting and cheating them. It was this, more than anything, that accounted for the heavy losses. The Emperor, having launched an expedition across ten thousand li to punish Dayuan, chose to overlook past failures. He enfeoffed Li Guangli as the Marquis of Haixi. The cavalryman Zhao Di, who had personally beheaded the King of Yucheng, was enfeoffed as the Marquis of Xinzhi. Military Superintendent Zhao Shicheng was appointed Grand Master of Splendid Happiness, Shangguan Jie was made Privy Treasurer, and Li Duo was appointed Governor of Shangdang. Three military officers were promoted to the rank of Nine Ministers. Over a hundred were appointed as chancellors to nobles, commandery governors, or officials with salaries of two thousand shi, and over a thousand received posts at one thousand shi or below. Those who had volunteered eagerly received promotions beyond their expectations, while those who had gone as convicts all had their service recognized. The soldiers were awarded a total of forty thousand catties of gold. The two campaigns against Dayuan, there and back again, spanned a total of four years before the matter was finally concluded.

漢已伐宛，立昧蔡為宛王而去。歲餘，宛貴人以為昧蔡善諛，使我國遇屠，乃相與殺昧蔡，立毋寡昆弟曰蟬封為宛王，而遣其子入質於漢。漢因使使賂賜以鎮撫之。

After the Han had conquered Dayuan, they installed Meicai as king and departed. A little over a year later, the nobles of Dayuan concluded that Meicai was a sycophant whose fawning had brought slaughter upon their country. They conspired to kill him and installed Chanfeng, a kinsman of the former King Wugua, as king. They then sent his son to Han as a hostage. The Han sent envoys bearing gifts to pacify and reassure the new king.

而漢發使十餘輩至宛西諸外國，求奇物，因風覽以伐宛之威德。而敦煌置酒泉都尉；西至鹽水，往往有亭。而侖頭有田卒數百人，因置使者護田積粟，以給使外國者。

The Han dispatched over ten groups of envoys to the states west of Dayuan, seeking rare goods and spreading word of the power and prestige the Han had demonstrated in their conquest of Dayuan. A commandant of Jiuquan was stationed at Dunhuang. Watchtowers were erected at intervals all the way west to the Salt Desert. At Luntou, several hundred garrison soldiers were set to farming the land, and an official was appointed to oversee the cultivation and stockpiling of grain to supply the envoys traveling to the foreign states.

太史公曰：《禹本紀》言「河出崑崙。崑崙其高二千五百餘里，日月所相避隱為光明也。其上有醴泉、瑤池」。今自張騫使大夏之後也，窮河源，惡睹本紀所謂崑崙者乎？故言九州山川，《尚書》近之矣。至《禹本紀》、《山海經》所有怪物，余不敢言之也。

The Grand Historian remarks: The Basic Annals of Yu states, "The Yellow River issues from Kunlun." "Kunlun rises over two thousand five hundred li, and it is from behind this mountain that the sun and moon alternately hide to create light and darkness." "Upon its summit lie the Sweet Spring and the Jade Pool." Now that Zhang Qian's mission to Bactria has traced the Yellow River to its source, where is this Kunlun of which the Annals speak? When it comes to the mountains and rivers of the Nine Provinces, the Book of Documents comes closest to the truth. As for the fantastic creatures described in the Basic Annals of Yu and the Classic of Mountains and Seas, I dare not speak of them.

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