Volume 24 Treatises 19: Finance and Economics

王者量地以制邑，度地以居人，總土地所生，料山澤之利，式遵行令，敬授人時，農商趣向，各本事業。書稱懋遷有無，言穀貨流通，咸得其所者也。周官太府，掌九貢九賦之法，王之經用，各有等差。所謂取之以道，用之有節，故能養百官之政，勗戰士之功，救天災，服方外，活國安人之大經也。爰自軒、頊，至于堯、舜，皆因其所利而勸之，因其所欲而化之。不奪其時，不窮其力，輕其征，薄其賦，此五帝三皇不易之教也。古語曰：「善為人者，愛其力而成其財。」若使之不以道，斂之如不及，財盡則怨，力盡則叛。昔禹制九等而康歌興，周人十一而頌聲作。於是東周遷洛，諸侯不軌，魯宣初稅畝，鄭產為丘賦，先王之制，靡有孑遺。秦氏起自西戎，力正天下，驅之以刑罰，棄之以仁恩，以太半之收，長城絕於地脉，以頭會之斂，屯戍窮於嶺外。漢高祖承秦凋敝，十五稅一，中元繼武，府廪彌殷。世宗得之，用成雄侈，開邊擊胡，蕭然咸罄。宮宇捫於天漢，巡遊跨於海表，旱歲除道，凶年嘗秣，戶口以之減半，盜賊以之公行。於是譎詭賦稅，異端俱起，賦及童齓，算至船車。光武中興，聿遵前事，成賦單薄，足稱經遠。靈帝開鴻都之牓，通賣官之路，公卿州郡，各有等差。漢之常科，土貢方物，帝又遣先輸中署，名為導行，天下賄成，人受其敝。自魏、晉二十一帝，宋、齊十有五主，雖用度有眾寡，租賦有重輕，大抵不能傾人產業，道關政亂。 [1]

The sovereign measures land to lay out towns, assesses terrain to settle the people, tallies what the soil yields, estimates the bounty of hills and marshes, reverently upholds and enforces the laws, dutifully grants the seasons to the people, and farmers and merchants each pursue their calling according to their trade. The Book of Documents speaks of 'diligently moving abundance to where there is want'—that is, grain and goods circulate so that each reaches its proper place. In the Rites of Zhou, the Grand Steward oversaw the methods of the nine tributes and nine levies; the king's routine expenditures were graded by rank. This is what is meant by taking through proper means and spending with restraint: only thus can one sustain the administration of officials, reward the achievements of soldiers, relieve natural disasters, bring distant lands to submission, and preserve the state and secure the people—the great principle of governance. From the Yellow Emperor and Zhuanxu down to Yao and Shun, each ruler encouraged the people through what benefited them and transformed them through what they desired. Not seizing their seasons, not exhausting their strength, lightening levies, and reducing taxes—this is the unchanging teaching of the Five Emperors and Three Sovereigns. An old saying runs: 'A good ruler cherishes the people's strength and builds up their wealth.' But if one employs them unjustly and levies taxes as though never satisfied, when wealth is exhausted resentment follows, and when strength is exhausted rebellion follows. In antiquity Yu established the nine grades of land, and songs of contentment arose; the Zhou took one part in eleven, and hymns of praise were composed. Then the Eastern Zhou moved to Luoyang, the feudal lords fell into disorder, Duke Xuan of Lu first taxed fields by the mu, and Zichan of Zheng instituted the hill levy—of the ancient kings' institutions scarcely a trace survived. The Qin rose from the western borderlands and by force brought the realm to order; they drove the people with punishments and cast aside benevolence, taking more than half the harvest, building the Great Wall across the land's veins, and levying taxes to the last coin while garrison labor exhausted men beyond the frontier passes. Emperor Gaozu of Han inherited Qin's exhaustion and taxed at one part in fifteen; under the Zhongyuan reign martial glory continued and the state granaries grew ever fuller. Emperor Wu inherited this prosperity and turned it to grandeur and extravagance; he opened the frontiers to strike the Xiongnu until the treasury was utterly drained. Palaces reached toward the Milky Way, imperial tours crossed the seas; in drought years roads were cleared for the emperor, in famine years fodder was procured for his horses—the registered population was halved, and banditry flourished openly. Then devious taxes and irregular levies multiplied; tribute was exacted even from infants in swaddling clothes, and the poll tax reached boats and carts. Emperor Guangwu restored the dynasty, reverently followed precedent, kept levies light and thin, and earned a reputation for enduring principle. Emperor Ling posted the Hongdu placard and opened the way to selling offices; ranks for dukes, ministers, provinces, and commanderies each had their price. Han's regular tribute included local products and regional goods; the emperor also required them sent first to the inner palace under the name of 'guiding the procession,' until bribery pervaded the realm and the people bore the cost. From Wei's and Jin's twenty-one emperors through Song's and Qi's fifteen rulers, though expenditures varied in scale and rent and levies in weight, for the most part they did not ruin people's livelihoods or bring governance to ruin. [Textual note: the character for 'governance' should read 'order and disorder'; altered under Tang dynastic taboo.]

隋文帝既平江表，天下大同，躬先儉約，以事府帑。開皇十七年，戶口滋盛，中外倉庫，無不盈積。所有賚給，不踰經費，京司帑屋既充，積於廊廡之下，高祖遂停此年正賦，以賜黎元。煬皇嗣守鴻基，國家殷富，雅愛宏玩，肆情方騁，初造東都，窮諸巨麗。帝昔居藩翰，親平江左，兼以梁、陳曲折，以就規摹。曾雉踰芒，浮橋跨洛，金門象闕，咸竦飛觀，頹巖塞川，構成雲綺，移嶺樹以為林藪，包芒山以為苑囿。長城御河，不計於人力，運驢武馬，指期於百姓，天下死於役而家傷於財。既而一討渾庭，三駕遼澤，天子親伐，師兵大舉，飛糧輓秣，水陸交至。疆埸之所傾敗，勞敝之所殂殞，雖復太半不歸，而每年興發，比屋良家之子，多赴於邊陲，分離哭泣之聲，連響於州縣。老弱耕稼，不足以救飢餒，婦工紡績，不足以贍資裝。九區之內，鸞和歲動，從行宮掖，常十萬人，所有供須，皆仰州縣。租賦之外，一切徵斂，趣以周備，不顧元元，吏因割剝，盜其太半。遐方珍膳，必登庖厨，翔禽毛羽，用為玩飾，買以供官，千倍其價。人愁不堪，離棄室宇，長吏叩扉而達曙，猛犬迎吠而終夕。自燕、趙跨於齊、韓，江、淮入於襄、鄧，東周洛邑之地，西秦隴山之右，僭偽交侵，盜賊充斥。宮觀鞠為茂草，鄉亭絕其煙火，人相啖食，十而四五。關中癘疫，炎旱傷稼，代王開永豐之粟，以振飢人，去倉數百里，老幼雲集。吏在貪殘，官無攸次，咸資鏹貨，動移旬月，頓臥墟野，欲返不能，死人如積，不可勝計。雖復皇王撫運，天祿有終，而隋氏之亡，亦由於此。

After Emperor Wen of Sui pacified the lands south of the Yangtze and unified the realm, he personally led the way in frugality to fill the treasury. In Kaihuang year 17 the registered population surged; granaries and storehouses throughout the empire overflowed with grain. All grants and gifts stayed within regular expenditure; when the capital treasuries were full and grain piled beneath the corridors, Gaozu suspended that year's regular levy and bestowed it upon the people. Emperor Yang inherited the great foundation when the state was rich and abundant; he loved grand curiosities and indulged his desires without restraint; he first built the Eastern Capital and pursued every extravagance. While still a prince on the frontier, the emperor had personally pacified the lands east of the Yangtze, and he also drew on Liang and Chen's architectural styles to shape his design. Battlements rose higher than Mang Hill, floating bridges spanned the Luo River, the Golden Gate and Elephant Watchtower soared in flying towers; crumbling cliffs dammed rivers into brocade clouds; trees from the ridges were transplanted to form groves, and Mang Hill was enclosed as an imperial park. The Great Wall and Imperial Canal paid no heed to human cost; transport of mules and war horses was scheduled at the people's expense—the realm perished in corvée labor and households were ruined in wealth. Then came one campaign against the Tujue court and three imperial tours to Liaozhe; the emperor personally took the field, armies were raised on a vast scale, grain and fodder were rushed by land and water together. Where the frontier collapsed and exhaustion claimed lives—even though more than half never returned, levies were raised every year; sons from every respectable household were sent to the borders, and cries of parting echoed through province after county. The old and weak tilled the fields but could not stave off hunger; women spun and wove but could not supply travel expenses. Within the nine regions the imperial carriage moved every year; the palace women in attendance regularly numbered a hundred thousand, and all supplies depended on the provinces and counties. Beyond rent and regular levies, every sort of exaction was imposed to make supplies complete, with no regard for the people; officials extorted and kept more than half for themselves. Rare delicacies from distant lands always reached the imperial kitchens; the feathers of wild birds served as ornaments; purchases for the court cost a thousandfold the ordinary price. People, crushed by their burdens, abandoned their homes; district officials knocked on doors until dawn, and fierce dogs barked at visitors through the night. From Yan and Zhao across Qi and Han, from the Jiang and Huai into Xiang and Deng, from the lands of Eastern Zhou's Luoyang to western Qin beyond Longshan—usurpers and rebels clashed, and bandits filled the land. Palaces and temples turned to rank weeds; village posts lost their cooking smoke; people ate one another—four or five in ten. Plague struck Guanzhong and scorching drought ruined the harvest; Prince Dai opened the Yongfeng granary to feed the hungry; old and young gathered like clouds hundreds of li from the granary. Officials were greedy and cruel, government had no order; all demanded bribes; journeys took months; people collapsed in the wilderness, unable to return; the dead piled in heaps beyond counting. Though sage kings receive Heaven's mandate and heavenly fortune must end, the fall of the Sui dynasty also came from this.

馬遷為平準書，班固述食貨志，上下數千載，損益粗舉。自此史官曾無概見。夫厥初生人，食貨為本。聖王割廬井以業之，通貨財以富之。富而教之，仁義以之興，貧而為盜，刑罰不能止。故為食貨志，用編前書之末云。

Sima Qian wrote the Treatise on the Equalization of Goods and Ban Gu the Treatise on Food and Money; spanning several thousand years, they roughly set forth what was gained and lost. Since then the official historians never produced a comprehensive survey. When people first arose, food and goods were the foundation of life. The sage kings divided land into huts and wells to give the people their occupations and circulated goods and wealth to enrich them. When the people are enriched, teach them—benevolence and righteousness then flourish; when they are poor they turn to banditry, and punishments cannot stop them. Therefore this Treatise on Food and Money is compiled to conclude the preceding books.

晉自中原喪亂，元帝寓居江左，百姓之自拔南奔者，並謂之僑人。皆取舊壤之名，僑立郡縣，往往散居，無有土著。而江南之俗，火耕水耨，土地卑濕，無有蓄積之資。諸蠻陬俚洞，霑沐王化者，各隨輕重，收其賧物，以裨國用。又嶺外酋帥，因生口翡翠明珠犀象之饒，雄於鄉曲者，朝廷多因而署之，以收其利。歷宋、齊、梁、陳，皆因而不改。其軍國所須雜物，隨土所出，臨時折課市取，乃無恒法定令。列州郡縣，制其任土所出，以為徵賦。

After Jin lost the Central Plains to chaos, Emperor Yuan established his court east of the Yangtze; common people who fled south on their own were all called émigrés. They took names from their old homelands and established émigré commanderies and counties; they often lived scattered, with no fixed native registration. But Jiangnan custom was slash-and-burn and water-rice cultivation; the land was low and damp, with little capacity for accumulation. Among the various Man tribes, Li settlements, and Dong communities touched by royal civilization, tribute was collected according to rank to supplement state revenue. Chieftains beyond the passes, enriched by captives, jadeite, pearls, rhinoceros horn, and elephants and powerful in their districts, were often appointed by the court to collect tribute for the state. Through Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen, this practice continued unchanged. Miscellaneous goods needed for military and state use were purchased locally according to regional products through temporary assessments—there were no fixed statutes. Provinces, commanderies, and counties were assigned fixed products of their soil as the basis for levies and tribute.

其無貫之人，不樂州縣編戶者，謂之浮浪人，樂輸亦無定數，任量，准所輸，[2]終優於正課焉。都下人多為諸王公貴人左右、佃客、典計、衣食客之類，皆無課役。官品第一第二，佃客無過四十戶。第三品三十五戶。第四品三十戶。第五品二十五戶。第六品二十戶。第七品十五戶。第八品十戶。第九品五戶。其佃穀，皆與大家量分。其典計，官品第一第二，置三人。第三第四，置二人。第五第六及公府參軍、殿中監、監軍、長史、司馬、部曲督、關外侯、材官、議郎已上，一人。皆通在佃客數中。官品第六已上，并得衣食客三人。第七第八二人。第九品及轝輦、跡禽、前驅、由基強弩司馬、羽林郎、殿中冗從武賁、殿中武賁、持椎斧武騎武賁、持鈒冗從武賁、命中武賁武騎，一人。客皆注家籍。其課，丁男調布絹各二丈，絲三兩，綿八兩，祿絹八尺，祿綿三兩二分，租米五石，祿米二石。丁女並半之。男女年十六已上至六十，為丁。男年十六，亦半課，年十八正課，六十六免課。女以嫁者為丁，若在室者，年二十乃為丁。其男丁，每歲役不過二十日。又率十八人出一運丁役之。其田，畝稅米二斗。蓋大率如此。其度量，斗則三斗當今一斗，稱則三兩當今一兩，尺則一尺二寸當今一尺。

Those without registration who refused provincial and county household rolls were called floating drifters; their voluntary contributions had no fixed amount but were assessed by quantity—[Note: the Tongdian reads 'only' for 'according to']—yet still ultimately lighter than the regular levy. Many in the capital served princes, dukes, and nobles as attendants, tenant clients, stewards, and provision clients—all exempt from levies and corvée. For ranks one and two, tenant clients could not exceed forty households. Third rank: thirty-five households. Fourth rank: thirty households. Fifth rank: twenty-five households. Sixth rank: twenty households. Seventh rank: fifteen households. Eighth rank: ten households. Ninth rank: five households. Grain from tenant fields was divided by measure with the great families. For stewards, ranks one and two were allotted three persons. Third and fourth ranks, two persons. Fifth and sixth ranks, and ducal-house staff officers, palace supervisors, army supervisors, chief administrators, marshals, commanders of private troops, marquises outside the passes, materiel officers, and advisory gentlemen and above—one person each. All were counted within the tenant-client quota. From rank six and above, each also received three provision clients. Seventh and eighth ranks, two persons. Ninth rank and imperial carriage attendants, trace-hunters, vanguard runners, Youji strong-crossbow marshals, Forest Guard gentlemen, palace supernumerary warrior guards, palace warrior guards, mace-and-axe cavalry warrior guards, supernumerary warrior guards with iron clubs, and marksmanship cavalry warrior guards—one person each. All clients were registered on their masters' household rolls. The levy on adult males: two zhang each of cloth and silk, three liang of silk thread, eight liang of cotton, eight chi of salary silk, three liang two fen of salary cotton, five shi of rent grain, and two shi of salary grain. Adult females paid half. Males and females from age sixteen to sixty were counted as adult laborers. Males at sixteen paid half the levy; at eighteen the full levy; at sixty-six they were exempt. Married women counted as adult laborers; unmarried women only at age twenty. Adult males owed no more than twenty days of corvée per year. Also, one transport corvée laborer was levied from every eighteen persons. Fields were taxed two dou of grain per mu. Generally the overall rate was as described. For measures: three dou equaled one present-day dou; three liang equaled one present-day liang; one chi two cun equaled one present-day chi.

其倉，京都有龍首倉，即石頭津倉也，臺城內倉，南塘倉，常平倉，東、西太倉，東宮倉，所貯總不過五十餘萬。在外有豫章倉、釣磯倉、錢塘倉，並是大貯備之處。自餘諸州郡臺傳，亦各有倉。大抵自侯景之亂，國用常褊。京官文武，月別唯得廪食，多遙帶一郡縣官而取其祿秩焉。揚、徐等大州，比令、僕班。寧、桂等小州，比參軍班。丹陽、吳郡、會稽等郡，同太子詹事、尚書班。高涼、晉康等小郡，三班而已。大縣六班，小縣兩轉方至一班。品第既殊，不可委載。 [3]州郡縣祿米絹布絲綿，當處輸臺傳倉庫。若給刺史守令等，先准其所部文武人物多少，由敕而裁。凡如此祿秩，既通所部兵士給之，其家所得蓋少。諸王諸主，出閤就第婚冠所須，及衣裳服飾，并酒米魚鮭香油紙燭等，並官給之。王及主婿外祿者，不給。解任還京，仍亦公給云。

In the capital there were Longshou Granary (that is, Shitoujin Granary), Inner City Granary, Nantang Granary, Ever-Normal Granary, East and West Great Granaries, and Eastern Palace Granary; total storage did not exceed five hundred thousand-plus. Outside the capital were Yuzhang Granary, Diaoji Granary, and Qiantang Granary—all major reserve depots. Other provinces, commanderies, and relay stations each also had granaries. Generally from Hou Jing's rebellion onward, state revenue was constantly strained. Capital civil and military officials received only monthly grain rations; many remotely held a commandery or county post and drew its salary and rank. Large provinces like Yang and Xu ranked with ministers. Small provinces like Ning and Gui ranked with staff officers. Commanderies like Danyang, Wu, and Kuaiji ranked with the Crown Prince's household superintendent and ministers. Small commanderies like Gaoliang and Jinkang ranked only three grades. Large counties ranked six grades; small counties required two promotions to reach one grade. Since the grades differed, they cannot all be listed in detail. [Note: 'cannot all be wrongly listed' in the preceding sentence should read 'cannot all be listed in detail; corrected per the Tongdian.] Province, commandery, and county salary grain, silk, cloth, thread, and cotton were delivered locally to relay granaries and storehouses. When supplying prefects, magistrates, and the like, allocations were first determined by the number of civil and military personnel in their jurisdiction, as decided by imperial order. Since such salaries also had to supply garrison soldiers in the jurisdiction, what the official's household actually received was very little. Princes and princesses, when leaving the palace for their estates for marriage and capping ceremonies, and for clothing, adornments, wine, grain, fish, salmon, fragrant oil, paper, candles, and the like, were all supplied by the state. Princes and princesses' husbands who held external salaries received no such provision. When relieved of office and returning to the capital, they were still publicly supplied.

魏自永安之後，政道陵夷，寇亂實繁，農商失業。官有征伐，皆權調於人，猶不足以相資奉，乃令所在迭相糾發，百姓愁怨，無復聊生。尋而六鎮擾亂，相率內徙，寓食於齊、晉之郊。齊神武因之，以成大業。魏武西遷，連年戰爭，河、洛之間，又並空竭。天平元年，遷都於鄴，出粟一百三十萬石，以振貧人。是時六坊之眾，從武帝而西者，不能萬人，餘皆北徙，並給常廪，春秋二時賜帛，以供衣服之費。常調之外，逐豐稔之處，折絹糴粟，以充國儲。於諸州緣河津濟，皆官倉貯積，以擬漕運。於滄、瀛、幽、青四州之境，傍海置鹽官，以煮鹽，每歲收錢，軍國之資，得以周贍。自是之後，倉廪充實，雖有水旱凶饑之處，皆仰開倉以振之。元象、興和之中，頻歲大穰。穀斛至九錢。是時法網寬弛，百姓多離舊居，闕於徭賦。神武乃命孫騰、高隆之，分括無籍之戶，得六十餘萬。於是僑居者各勒還本屬，是後租調之入有加焉。及文襄嗣業，侯景背叛，河南之地，困於兵革。尋而侯景亂梁，乃命行臺辛術，略有淮南之地。其新附州郡，覊縻輕稅而已。

After Wei's Yong'an era, governance declined, banditry and chaos multiplied, and farmers and merchants lost their livelihoods. When the state launched campaigns, levies were imposed on the people; even these were insufficient for support, so localities were ordered to requisition in rotation—the people groaned in resentment and could barely survive. Soon the Six Garrisons fell into turmoil; garrison soldiers migrated inward in waves and lived as dependents in the Qi and Jin borderlands. Gao Huan of Northern Qi seized on this to build his great enterprise. When Emperor Xiaowu of Wei moved west, war continued year after year; the lands between the Yellow and Luo rivers were utterly exhausted. In Tianping year 1 the capital moved to Ye; 1.3 million shi of grain was issued to relieve the poor. Of the Six Camps masses who followed Emperor Wu west, fewer than ten thousand could go; the rest moved north and received regular rations, with silk bestowed in spring and autumn for clothing. Beyond the regular levy, in regions of abundant harvest silk was assessed and grain purchased to fill the state stores. At river crossings along provincial borders, official granaries were established to store grain for canal transport. In Cang, Ying, You, and Qing along the coast, salt offices were established to boil salt; revenue collected each year fully supplied military and state expenses. From this time granaries were full; even where flood, drought, and famine struck, relief came from opening the granaries. In the Yuanxiang and Xinghe periods harvests were abundant year after year. Grain sold for as little as nine cash per hu. At that time the legal net was loose; many common people left their old homes and evaded corvée and levies. Gao Huan then ordered Sun Teng and Gao Longzhi to investigate unregistered households and found more than six hundred thousand. Émigrés were then compelled to return to their original jurisdictions, and rent and levy revenue increased. When Gao Cheng succeeded, Hou Jing rebelled and the Henan region was ravaged by war. Soon Hou Jing threw Liang into chaos; the mobile headquarters under Xin Shu was ordered to seize parts of Huainan. Newly attached provinces and commanderies were only loosely controlled with light taxes.

及文宣受禪，多所創革。六坊之內徙者，更加簡練，每一人必當百人，任其臨陣必死，然後取之，謂之百保鮮卑。又簡華人之勇力絕倫者，謂之勇士，以備邊要。始立九等之戶，富者稅其錢，貧者役其力。北興長城之役，南有金陵之戰。其後南征諸將，頻歲陷沒，士馬死者，以數十萬計。重以修創臺殿，所役甚廣。而帝刑罰酷濫，吏道因而成姦，豪黨兼并，戶口益多隱漏。舊制，未娶者輸半牀租調，陽翟一郡，戶至數萬，籍多無妻。有司劾之，帝以為生事。由是姦欺尤甚。戶口租調，十亡六七。

When Emperor Wenxuan received the abdication, many institutions were newly created and reformed. Those of the Six Camps who migrated inward were further selected and trained; each man had to equal a hundred ordinary soldiers and was taken only if willing to die in battle—they were called the Hundred-Strong Xianbei. Han men of unmatched courage were also selected as warriors to guard the frontier posts. The nine-grade household system was first established: the rich paid in money, the poor in labor. In the north the Great Wall corvée was raised; in the south there was the Jinling campaign. Afterward southern expedition generals were defeated year after year; soldiers and horses lost numbered in the hundreds of thousands. Added to this was the repair and construction of terraces and halls; corvée labor was very extensive. But the emperor's punishments were cruel and excessive; officials grew corrupt; powerful cliques merged holdings and household registration had ever more hidden omissions. Under the old system the unmarried paid half a bed's rent and levy; in Yangdi Commandery alone households reached tens of thousands, yet registers mostly listed no wives. Responsible officials impeached this; the emperor considered it meddling. From this fraud and deception grew especially severe. Of household registration rent and levies, six or seven tenths were lost.

是時用度轉廣，賜與無節，府藏之積，不足以供，乃減百官之祿，撤軍人常廪，併省州郡縣鎮戍之職。又制刺史守宰行兼者，並不給幹，以節國之費用焉。

Expenditures grew ever broader and grants had no limit; treasury stores could not supply them; officials' salaries were reduced, soldiers' regular rations cut, and provincial, commandery, county, and garrison posts merged or eliminated. It was also instituted that prefects and magistrates holding concurrent posts received no clerks, to economize state expenses.

天保八年，議徙冀、定、瀛無田之人，謂之樂遷，於幽州范陽寬鄉以處之。百姓驚擾。屬以頻歲不熟，米糴踊貴矣。廢帝乾明中，尚書左丞蘇珍芝，議修石鼈等屯，歲收數萬石。自是淮南軍防，糧廪充足。孝昭皇建中，平州刺史嵇曄建議，開幽州督亢舊陂，長城左右營屯，歲收稻粟數十萬石，北境得以周贍。又於河內置懷義等屯，以給河南之費。自是稍止轉輸之勞。

In Tianbao year 8 it was proposed to move landless people of Ji, Ding, and Ying—called 'joyful migrants'—to the wide districts of Fangyang in Youzhou. The common people were alarmed and disturbed. Harvests failed year after year and grain prices soared. In Emperor Fei's Qianming era, Left Assistant Director Su Zhenzhi proposed repairing the Shibie and other garrison farms, yielding tens of thousands of shi each year. From this the Huainan military defenses had abundant grain stores. In Emperor Xiaozhao's Huangjian era, Pingzhou Prefect Ji Ye proposed reopening Youzhou's old Dukang embankments and garrison farms along the Great Wall, yielding hundreds of thousands of shi of rice each year; the northern border was thereby supplied. Huaiyi and other garrison farms were also established in Henei to supply Henan expenses. From this transport labor was somewhat reduced.

至河清三年定令，乃命人居十家為比鄰，五十家為閭里，百家為族黨。男子十八以上，六十五已下為丁；十六已上，十七已下為中；六十六已上為老；十五已下為小。率以十八受田，輸租調，二十充兵，六十免力役，六十六退田，免租調。

By Heqing year 3 when the statutes were fixed, people were organized: ten households formed a ward, fifty a neighborhood, a hundred a clan association. Males eighteen and above, sixty-five and below, were adult laborers; Sixteen and above, seventeen and below, were middling; Sixty-six and above were elderly; Fifteen and below were minors. Generally at eighteen one received fields and paid rent and levies; at twenty one entered military service; at sixty one was exempt from labor corvée; at sixty-six one returned fields and was exempt from rent and levies.

京城四面，諸坊之外三十里內為公田。受公田者，三縣代遷戶執事官一品已下，逮于羽林武賁，各有差。其外畿郡，華人官第一品已下，羽林武賁已上，各有差。

Within thirty li outside the capital's four sides and beyond the wards was public land. Those receiving public land: within three counties, rotating households of officials from rank one down to Forest Guard warrior guards each had their allotted shares. In the outer capital districts, Han officials from rank one down to Forest Guard warrior guards and above each had their allotted shares.

職事及百姓請墾田者，名為永業田。 [4]奴婢受田者，親王止三百人；嗣王止二百人；第二品嗣王已下及庶姓王，止一百五十人；正三品已上及皇宗，止一百人；七品已上，限止八十人；八品已下至庶人，限止六十人。奴婢限外不給田者，皆不輸。其方百里外及州人，一夫受露田八十畝，婦四十畝。奴婢依良人，限數與在京百官同。丁牛一頭，受田六十畝，限止四牛。 [5]又每丁給永業二十畝，為桑田。其中種桑五十根，榆三根，棗五根。不在還受之限。非此田者，悉入還受之分。土不宜桑者，給麻田，如桑田法。

Functional officials and common people who requested reclaimed land were granted perpetual-estate fields. [Note: 'perpetual fields' should read 'perpetual-estate fields'; corrected per the Cefu and Tongdian.] Princes of the blood receiving fields through slaves were limited to three hundred persons; Successor princes were limited to two hundred persons; Second-rank successor princes and below and princes of commoner surname were limited to one hundred fifty persons; Regular third rank and above and imperial clansmen were limited to one hundred persons; Seventh rank and above were limited to eighty persons; Eighth rank and below to commoners were limited to sixty persons. Slaves beyond the limit who received no fields paid no levies. Outside the hundred-li square and for state residents, one adult male received eighty mu of land, women forty mu. Slaves followed common people; limits matched those for capital officials. One adult ox received sixty mu of land, limited to four oxen. [Note: 'years' should read 'oxen'; corrected per the Tongdian.] Each adult laborer was also given twenty mu of perpetual estate as mulberry fields. Among them were planted fifty mulberry roots, three elm roots, and five jujube roots. These were not subject to return and reassignment. All other fields entered the pool for return and reassignment. Where soil was unsuitable for mulberry, hemp fields were granted under the mulberry-field rules.

率人一牀，調絹一疋，綿八兩，凡十斤綿中，折一斤作絲，墾租二石，義租五斗。奴婢各准良人之半。牛調二尺，墾租一斗，義租五升。墾租送臺，義租納郡，以備水旱。墾租皆依貧富為三梟。其賦稅常調，則少者直出上戶，中者及中戶，多者及下戶。上梟輸遠處，中梟輸次遠，下梟輸當州倉。三年一校焉。租入臺者，五百里內輸粟，五百里外輸米。入州鎮者，輸粟。人欲輸錢者，准上絹收錢。諸州郡皆別置富人倉。初立之日，准所領中下戶口數，得支一年之糧，逐當州穀價賤時，斟量割當年義租充入。穀貴，下價糶之；賤則還用所糶之物，依價糴貯。

Generally per bed: one bolt of silk for the levy, eight liang of cotton; of every ten jin of cotton one jin was converted to silk thread; reclaimed rent two shi, charity rent five dou. Male and female slaves each paid half the common rate. Ox levy two chi, reclaimed rent one dou, charity rent five sheng. Reclaimed rent was sent to the capital; charity rent was delivered to the commandery for flood and drought reserves. Reclaimed rent was assessed in three grades according to wealth. For regular levies and taxes, the lightest burden fell on upper households, moderate on middle households, and heaviest on lower households. The upper grade delivered to distant places, the middle to intermediate distances, the lower to the local provincial granary. Verification was conducted every three years. Rent entering the capital: within five hundred li grain was delivered, beyond five hundred li husked rice. Entering provinces and garrisons: grain was delivered. Those wishing to pay in coin were charged according to upper-grade silk prices. All provinces and commanderies separately established rich-household granaries. When first established, according to middle and lower household counts under jurisdiction, enough for one year's grain was allotted; when local grain prices were low, that year's charity rent was assessed and deposited. When grain was expensive, it was sold at low price; When cheap, proceeds from sales were used to purchase and store grain at market price.

每歲春月，各依鄉土早晚，課人農桑。 [6]自春及秋，男十五已上，皆布田畝。桑蠶之月，婦女十五已上，皆營蠶桑。孟冬，刺史聽審邦教之優劣，定殿最之科品。人有人力無牛，或有牛無力者，須令相便，皆得納種。使地無遺利，人無遊手焉。

Every spring, according to each region's season, people were assigned to farming and sericulture. [Note: 'enter' should read 'people'; corrected per the Cefu and Tongdian.] From spring through autumn, males fifteen and above all inspected the fields. In the mulberry and silkworm month, women fifteen and above all tended mulberry and silkworms. In the first month of winter, prefects reviewed the quality of local instruction and fixed grades of achievement. If people had labor but no ox, or ox but no labor, they had to assist one another; all could contribute seed grain. Thus no land went unused and no hands idle.

緣邊城守之地，堪墾食者，皆營屯田，置都使子使以統之。一子使當田五十頃，歲終考其所入，以論褒貶。

Frontier garrison lands suitable for reclamation were all turned to garrison farms, with chief and sub-agents placed to command them. One sub-agent managed fifty qing of fields; at year's end intake was examined to determine praise or censure.

是時頻歲大水，州郡多遇沉溺，穀價騰踊。朝廷遣使開倉，從貴價以糶之，而百姓無益，饑饉尤甚。重以疾疫相乘，死者十四五焉。

At that time floods struck year after year; many provinces and commanderies were submerged and grain prices soared. The court sent envoys to open granaries and sell at high prices, yet the common people gained nothing and famine grew worse. Epidemic disease compounded the disaster; four or five in ten died.

至天統中，[7]又毀東宮，造修文、偃武、隆基嬪嬙諸院，起玳瑁樓。又於遊豫園穿池，周以列館，中起三山，構臺，以象滄海，并大修佛寺，勞役鉅萬計。財用不給，乃減朝士之祿，斷諸曹糧膳，及九州軍人常賜以供之。武平之後，權幸並進，賜與無限，加之旱蝗，國用轉屈。乃料境內六等富人，調令出錢。而給事黃門侍郎顏之推奏請立關市邸店之稅，開府鄧長顒贊成之，後主大悅。於是以其所入，以供御府聲色之費，軍國之用不豫焉。未幾而亡。

By the Tiantong period—[Note: 'great' should read 'heaven'; corrected per the Tongdian]—the Eastern Palace was destroyed again and the Xiuyang, Yanwu, Longji, and Pinqiang courtyards built, along with the Tortoiseshell Tower. In the Youyu Garden a pond was dug surrounded by lodges; three mountains and terraces were raised in the center to imitate the sea; Buddhist temples were also greatly repaired; corvée labor numbered in the tens of thousands. Funds ran short; court officials' salaries were reduced, bureau grain meals cut, and the Nine Provinces' soldiers' regular grants diverted to supply them. After Wuping, favorites advanced together and grants had no limit; drought and locusts compounded the strain and state revenue tightened. Then wealthy people in six grades within the borders were assessed and ordered to pay money. Attendant Gentleman of the Yellow Gate Yan Zhitui memorialized requesting market and inn taxes; Grand Master of the Palace Deng Changyuan approved; the Later Lord was greatly pleased. Thereupon its revenue supplied the inner palace's music and beauty expenses; military and state needs were excluded. Before long the dynasty perished.

後周太祖作相，創制六官。載師掌任土之法，辨夫家田里之數，會六畜車乘之稽，審賦役斂弛之節，制畿疆修廣之域，頒施惠之要，審牧產之政。司均掌田里之政令。凡人口十已上，宅五畝；口九已上，[8]宅四畝；口五已下，宅三畝。有室者，田百四十畝，丁者田百畝。司賦掌功賦之政令。凡人自十八以至六十有四，與輕癃者，皆賦之。其賦之法，有室者，歲不過絹一疋，綿八兩，粟五斛；丁者半之。其非桑土，有室者，布一疋，麻十斤；丁者又半之。豐年則全賦，中年半之，下年一之，皆以時徵焉。若艱凶札，則不徵其賦。司役掌力役之政令。凡人自十八以至五十有九，皆任於役。豐年不過三旬，中年則二旬，下年則一旬。凡起徒役，無過家一人。其人有年八十者，一子不從役，百年者，家不從役。廢疾非人不養者，一人不從役。若凶札，又無力征。掌鹽掌四鹽之政令。一曰散鹽，煑海以成之；二曰盬鹽，引池以化之；三曰形鹽，物地以出之；四曰飴鹽，於戎以取之。凡盬鹽形鹽，每地為之禁，百姓取之，皆稅焉。司倉掌辨九穀之物，以量國用。國用足，即蓄其餘，以待凶荒；不足則止。餘用足，則以粟貸人。春頒之，秋斂之。

Later Zhou's Taizu, while serving as Chancellor, created the Six Offices. The Director of Lands oversaw methods of assigning soil, counted households, fields, and hamlets, totaled livestock and vehicles, regulated levies and corvée, defined the inner and outer domains, and promulgated policies of favor and pastoral production. The Director of Equalization oversaw policies of fields and hamlets. Generally for households of ten or more, five mu of dwelling; Households of nine or more—[Note: text should read 'nine and below' to connect with the following clause]—four mu of dwelling; Households of five or below, three mu of dwelling. Households with wives received one hundred forty mu of fields; adult laborers one hundred mu. The Director of Levies oversaw policies of labor levies. Generally all people from eighteen to sixty-four, and the lightly disabled, paid levies. The levy method: households with wives paid each year no more than one bolt of silk, eight liang of cotton, and five hu of millet; Adult laborers paid half. Where soil was not suited to mulberry, households with wives paid one bolt of cloth and ten jin of hemp; Adult laborers again paid half. In abundant years the full levy was paid, in moderate years half, in poor years one part in ten—all collected according to season. In hardship and pestilence, levies were not collected. The Director of Corvée oversaw policies of labor corvée. Generally all people from eighteen to fifty-nine bore corvée. In abundant years corvée did not exceed thirty days, in moderate years twenty, in poor years ten. When raising corvée labor, no household contributed more than one person. If a person was eighty, one son was exempt from corvée; if a hundred, the whole household was exempt. The severely disabled with no one to support them—one person was exempt from corvée. In famine and pestilence, no labor was levied. The Salt Director oversaw policies of the four salts. First, loose salt—made by boiling seawater; Second, brine salt—made by drawing brine pools; Third, shape salt—produced from the earth; Fourth, sweet salt—obtained from the frontier Rong. For brine salt and shape salt, each region had its monopoly; common people who took it all paid tax. The Granary Director distinguished the nine grains to measure state consumption. When state needs were met, the remainder was stored against flood and famine; When insufficient, collection stopped. When surplus was sufficient, grain was lent to the people. Distributed in spring, collected in autumn.

閔帝元年，初除市門稅。及宣帝即位，復興入市之稅。武帝保定元年，改八丁兵為十二丁兵，率歲一月役。建德二年，改軍士為侍官，募百姓充之，除其縣籍。是後夏人半為兵矣。宣帝時，發山東諸州，增一月功為四十五日役，以起洛陽宮。并移相州六府於洛陽，稱東京六府。

In Emperor Min's first year, market gate tax was first abolished. When Emperor Xuan succeeded, market-entry tax was restored. In Emperor Wu's Baoding year 1, the eight-adult-soldier corvée was changed to twelve-adult-soldier corvée, generally one month of corvée per year. In Jiande year 2, garrison soldiers became attendant officials; common people were recruited to fill the ranks and removed from county registration. From this half the people of the realm became soldiers. Under Emperor Xuan, the eastern Shandong provinces were mobilized; one month of labor was increased to forty-five days of corvée to build the Luoyang palace. The six offices of Xiangzhou were also moved to Luoyang, called the Eastern Capital Six Offices.

武帝保定二年正月，初於蒲州開河渠，同州開龍首渠，以廣溉灌。

In Emperor Wu's Baoding year 2, first month, the river canal at Puzhou and Longshou Canal at Tongzhou were opened to expand irrigation.

高祖登庸，罷東京之役，除入市之稅。是時尉迥、王謙、司馬消難，相次叛逆，興師誅討，賞費鉅萬。及受禪，又遷都，發山東丁，毀造宮室。仍依周制，役丁為十二番，匠則六番。及頒新令，制人五家為保，保有長。保五為閭，閭四為族，皆有正。畿外置里正，比閭正，黨長比族正，以相檢察焉。男女三歲已下為黃，十歲已下為小，十七已下為中，十八已上為丁。丁從課役，六十為老，乃免。自諸王已下，至于都督，皆給永業田，各有差。多者至一百頃，少者至四十畝。其丁男、中男永業露田，皆遵後齊之制。並課樹以桑榆及棗。其園宅，率三口給一畝，奴婢則五口給一畝。丁男一牀，租粟三石。桑土調以絹絁，麻土以布絹。絁以疋，加綿三兩。布以端，加麻三斤。單丁及僕隸各半之。未受地者皆不課。有品爵及孝子順孫義夫節婦，並免課役。京官又給職分田。一品者給田五頃。每品以五十畝為差，至五品，則為田三頃，六品二頃五十畝。其下每品以五十畝為差，至九品為一頃。外官亦各有職分田。又給公廨田，以供公用。

When Gaozu assumed power, Eastern Capital corvée was abolished and market-entry tax removed. At that time Wei Cong, Wang Qian, and Sima Xiaonan rebelled in succession; armies were raised to suppress them at enormous cost. Upon receiving the abdication the capital was moved again; Shandong corvée laborers were mobilized to destroy and build palaces. Still following Zhou institutions, corvée laborers had twelve rotations, artisans six. When the new statutes were promulgated, five households formed a bao, each with a chief. Five bao formed a lin, four lin a zu—all with chiefs. Outside the capital li chiefs were placed, equivalent to lin chiefs; dang chiefs equivalent to zu chiefs—to inspect one another. Males and females three and below were 'yellow,' ten and below 'minor,' seventeen and below 'middling,' eighteen and above adult laborers. Adult laborers bore levies and corvée; at sixty one became elderly and was exempt. From princes down to governors, all were granted perpetual-estate fields, each according to rank. The highest received up to one hundred qing, the lowest down to forty mu. Adult and middling males' perpetual-estate and open fields all followed Later Qi's system. All were required to plant mulberry, elm, and jujube. For gardens and dwellings, generally three persons received one mu; slaves five persons one mu. Adult males per bed paid three shi rent grain. Mulberry soil paid silk levy; hemp soil paid cloth and silk. Silk by the bolt, plus three liang of cotton. Cloth by the end, plus three jin of hemp. Single adult laborers and servants each paid half. Those who had not received land paid no levies. Those with rank and titles, filial sons, dutiful grandsons, righteous husbands, and chaste wives were all exempt from levies and corvée. Capital officials were also given functional allotment fields. First rank received five qing of fields. Each rank differed by fifty mu, down to fifth rank three qing; sixth rank two qing fifty mu. Below that each rank differed by fifty mu, down to ninth rank one qing. Outer officials also each had functional allotment fields. Public office fields were also granted for public use.

開皇三年正月，帝入新宮。初令軍人以二十一成丁。減十二番每歲為二十日役，減調絹一疋為二丈。先是尚依周末之弊，官置酒坊收利，鹽池鹽井，皆禁百姓採用。至是罷酒坊，通鹽池鹽井與百姓共之。遠近大悅。

In Kaihuang year 3, first month, the emperor entered the new palace. Soldiers were first ordered to become adult laborers at twenty-one. Twelve corvée rotations were reduced to twenty days per year; silk levy was reduced from one bolt to two zhang. Previously still following Zhou-end abuses, offices set wine monopolies for profit; salt pools and salt wells all forbade common use. Wine monopolies were abolished; salt pools and salt wells were opened to common use. Near and far all rejoiced.

是時突厥犯塞，吐谷渾寇邊，軍旅數起，轉輸勞敝。帝乃令朔州總管趙仲卿，於長城以北，大興屯田，以實塞下。又於河西，勒百姓立堡，營田積穀。京師置常平監。

At that time the Turks violated the frontier and Tuyuhun raided the border; armies rose repeatedly and transport labor was exhausted. The emperor ordered Shuo Province Governor Zhao Zhongqing to greatly expand garrison farms north of the Great Wall to supply the frontier. In Hexi common people were ordered to establish forts and garrison farms to accumulate grain. In the capital the Ever-Normal Directorate was established.

是時山東尚承齊俗，機巧姦偽，避役惰遊者十六七。四方疲人，或詐老詐小，規免租賦。高祖令州縣大索貌閱，戶口不實者，正長遠配，而又開相糾之科。大功已下，兼令析籍，各為戶頭，以防容隱。於是計帳進四十四萬三千丁，新附一百六十四萬一千五百口。

Shandong still inherited Qi customs; the crafty and idle who evaded corvée were six or seven in ten. Exhausted people from all directions feigned old age or youth to evade rent and levies. Gaozu ordered provinces and counties to conduct a great household inspection; false registration brought distant assignment for ward chiefs; mutual impeachment statutes were also opened. Below great-mourning kin, households were also ordered split into separate heads to prevent concealment. Registered accounts thereby advanced by 443,000 adult laborers; newly attached persons numbered 1,641,500.

高熲又以人間課輸，雖有定分，年常徵納，除注恒多，長吏肆情，文帳出沒，復無定簿，難以推校，乃為輸籍定樣，請徧下諸州。每年正月五日，縣令巡人，各隨便近，五黨三黨，共為一團，依樣定戶上下。帝從之。自是姦無所容矣。

Gao Jiong also, because though levies had fixed shares yearly collection always had many extra entries and district officials manipulated accounts with no fixed register, made a fixed pattern for submission registers and requested dispatch to all provinces. Every year on the fifth day of the first month, magistrates inspected people by neighborhood; five or three dang formed one group, fixing household grades according to the pattern. The emperor approved this. From this fraud had nowhere to hide.

時百姓承平日久，雖數遭水旱，而戶口歲增。諸州調物，每歲河南自潼關，河北自蒲坂，達于京師，相屬於路，晝夜不絕者數月。帝既躬履儉約，六宮咸服澣濯之衣。乘輿供御有故敝者，隨令補用，皆不改作。非享燕之事，所食不過一肉而已。有司嘗進乾薑，以布袋貯之，帝用為傷費，大加譴責。後進香，復以氊袋，因笞所司，以為後誡焉。由是內外率職，府帑充實，百官祿賜及賞功臣，皆出於豐厚焉。九年陳平，帝親御朱雀門勞凱旋師，[9]因行慶賞。自門外，夾道列布帛之積，達于南郭，以次頒給。所費三百餘萬段。帝以江表初定，給復十年。自餘諸州，並免當年租賦。十年五月，又以宇內無事，益寬徭賦。百姓年五十者，輸庸停防。十一年，江南又反，越國公楊素討平之，師還，賜物甚廣。其餘出師命賞，亦莫不優隆。十二年，有司上言，庫藏皆滿。帝曰：「朕既薄賦於人，又大經賜用，何得爾也？」對曰：「用處常出，納處常入。略計每年賜用，至數百萬段，曾無減損。」於是乃更闢左藏之院，構屋以受之。下詔曰：「既富而教，方知廉恥，寧積於人，無藏府庫。河北、河東今年田租，三分減一，兵減半，功調全免。」

The people, having long enjoyed peace, though suffering flood and drought several times, saw household registration increase yearly. Provincial tribute each year—from Tong Pass in Henan and Puyuan in Hebei to the capital—filled the roads day and night for months. The emperor personally practiced frugality; the six palaces all wore washed clothes. Worn imperial carriage fittings and supplies were patched as needed—nothing was remade. For non-feast affairs, meals did not exceed one meat dish. Officials once presented dried ginger in a cloth bag; the emperor considered it wasteful and reprimanded them severely. Later incense was again presented in a felt bag; he flogged the responsible officials as a warning. From this inner and outer offices all attended to duty; treasuries were full; officials' salaries, gifts, and rewards to meritorious ministers all came from abundance. In year 9 when Chen was pacified, the emperor personally attended at the [Note: the Annals read Guangyang Gate] Vermilion Bird Gate to reward the victorious army and held celebratory grants. From outside the gate, cloth and silk piled along the road to the southern suburb were distributed in order. The expense exceeded three million bolts. Because the Jiang region was newly pacified, the emperor granted ten years' remission. The remaining provinces all exempted that year's rent and levies. In the fifth month of year 10, because the realm was at peace, corvée and levies were further relaxed. Common people aged fifty paid corvée substitute and were exempt from frontier guard duty. In year 11 Jiangnan rebelled again; Duke of Yue Yang Su suppressed it; the army returned with extensive rewards. Other expedition orders and rewards were also generous. In year 12 responsible officials reported that treasury stores were all full. The emperor said: 'I have both lightly taxed the people and greatly granted and spent—how can this be?' They replied: 'Expenditure constantly goes out and intake constantly comes in. Roughly calculated, yearly grants and use reached several million bolts without ever diminishing.' Thereupon the Left Treasury courtyard was opened again and buildings erected to receive the overflow. An edict said: 'When the people are enriched, then teach them—then they know shame and honor; better to accumulate among the people than hide in treasury stores. This year's field rent in Hebei and Hedong is reduced by one-third; soldiers halved; labor levies entirely exempted.'

時天下戶口歲增，京輔及三河，地少而人眾，衣食不給。議者咸欲徙就寬鄉。其年冬，帝命諸州考使議之。又令尚書，以其事策問四方貢士，竟無長算。帝乃發使四出，均天下之田。其狹鄉，每丁纔至二十畝，老小又少焉。

Registered population increased yearly; the capital region and Three Rivers had little land and many people; food and clothing were insufficient. Discussants all wished to migrate people to wide districts. That winter the emperor ordered provincial inspection envoys to discuss it. The Ministry of Revenue also posed the matter to tribute scholars from all directions—ultimately no long-term plan emerged. The emperor then sent envoys in four directions to equalize fields throughout the realm. In narrow districts each adult laborer received only twenty mu; old and young even less.

十三年，帝命楊素出，於岐州北造仁壽宮。素遂夷山堙谷，營構觀宇，崇臺累榭，宛轉相屬。役使嚴急，丁夫多死，疲敝顛仆者，推填坑坎，覆以土石，因而築為平地。死者以萬數。宮成，帝行幸焉。時方暑月，而死人相次於道，素乃一切焚除之。帝頗知其事，甚不悅。及入新宮遊觀，乃喜，又謂素為忠。後帝以歲暮晚日，登仁壽殿，周望原隰，見宮外燐火彌漫，又聞哭聲。令左右觀之，報曰：「鬼火。」帝曰：「此等工役而死，既屬年暮，魂魄思歸耶？」乃令灑酒宣敕，以呪遣之。自是乃息。

In year 13 the emperor ordered Yang Su to build Renshou Palace north of Qizhou. Yang Su leveled mountains and filled valleys, constructing halls, lofty terraces, and piled pavilions that wound and connected. Corvée was strict and urgent; many laborers died; the exhausted who collapsed were pushed into pits, covered with earth and stone, and built over as level ground. The dead numbered in the tens of thousands. When the palace was complete the emperor traveled there. It was midsummer and corpses lined the road; Yang Su then burned them all. The emperor learned of this and was deeply displeased. Upon entering the new palace to tour and view, he was pleased and again considered Yang Su loyal. Later at year's end the emperor ascended Renshou Hall, looked around the plains, saw ghost fires spreading outside the palace, and heard weeping. He ordered attendants to investigate; they reported: 'Ghost fires. The emperor said: 'These corvée laborers who died—at year's end their souls wish to return home?' He ordered wine sprinkled and an edict proclaimed to exorcise and send them away. After this it ceased.

開皇三年，朝廷以京師倉廪尚虛，議為水旱之備，於是詔於蒲、陝、虢、熊、伊、洛、鄭、懷、邵、衞、汴、許、汝等水次十三州，置募運米丁。又於衞州置黎陽倉，洛州置河陽倉，陝州置常平倉，華州置廣通倉，轉相灌注。漕關東及汾、晉之粟，以給京師。又遣倉部侍郎韋瓚，向蒲、陝以東，募人能於洛陽運米四十石，經砥柱之險，達于常平者，免其征戍。其後以渭水多沙，流有深淺，漕者苦之。四年，詔曰：

In Kaihuang year 3, because capital granaries were still empty, flood and drought reserves were discussed; corvée laborers to transport rice were placed at thirteen provinces along water routes. Liyang Granary was placed at Weizhou, Heyang at Luozhou, Ever-Normal at Shanzhou, Guangtong at Huazhou—mutually pouring and filling. Shandong and Fen-Jin grain was canal-transported to supply the capital. Ministry of Granaries Vice Director Wei Zan was sent east of Pu and Shan to recruit people who could transport forty shi of rice from Luoyang through the Jishi rapids to Ever-Normal and be exempt from frontier garrison. Afterward because the Wei River had much sand and uneven depth, canal transporters suffered. In year 4 an edict said:

京邑所居，五方輻湊，重關四塞，水陸艱難。大河之流，波瀾東注，百川海瀆，萬里交通。雖三門之下，或有危慮，但發自小平，陸運至陝，還從河水，入於渭川，兼及上流，控引汾、晉，舟車來去，為益殊廣。而渭川水力，大小無常，流淺沙深，即成阻閡。計其途路，數百而已，動移氣序，不能往復，汎舟之役，人亦勞止。朕君臨區宇，興利除害，公私之弊，情實愍之。故東發潼關，西引渭水，因藉人力，開通漕渠，量事計功，易可成就。已令工匠，巡歷渠道，觀地理之宜，審終久之義，一得開鑿，萬代無毀。可使官及私家。方舟巨舫，晨昏漕運，沿泝不停，旬日之功，堪省億萬。誠知時當炎暑，動致疲勤，然不有暫勞，安能永逸。宣告人庶，知朕意焉。

The capital's residence is where the five directions converge; heavy passes guard four sides; land and water routes are difficult. The great river rolls east; the hundred streams and sea routes connect ten thousand li. Though below Sanmen there may be peril, yet from Xiaoping by land to Shan, then by river into the Wei, reaching upper streams and drawing on Fen and Jin—boats and carts coming and going bring especially broad benefit. But Wei channel water power varies without constancy; shallow flow and deep sand immediately become obstruction. The route is only several hundred li; seasons change and boats cannot go and return; floating boats weary the people. I rule the realm, raise benefit and remove harm; public and private abuses truly move pity. Therefore east from Tong Pass, west drawing Wei water, by human labor opening the canal—easily accomplished. Artisans have been ordered to traverse the channel, observe terrain, examine long-term meaning—once opened, ten thousand generations undestroyed. It can serve officials and private households alike. Great boats and giant ships, morning and evening canal transport, upstream and downstream unceasing—in ten days' labor, saving hundreds of millions. Truly knowing the season is hot summer and labor brings exhaustion—but without temporary labor, how can there be lasting ease? Proclaim to the people and let them know my intent.

於是命宇文愷率水工鑿渠，引渭水，自大興城東至潼關，三百餘里，名曰廣通渠。轉運通利，關內賴之。諸州水旱凶饑之處，亦便開倉賑給。

Yuwen Kai was ordered to lead water engineers to dig a channel drawing Wei water from east of Daxing to Tong Pass, more than three hundred li, named Guangtong Canal. Canal transport was smooth and convenient; Guanzhong relied on it. Provinces struck by flood, drought, and famine also opened granaries for relief.

五年五月，工部尚書、襄陽縣公長孫平奏曰：「古者三年耕而餘一年之積，九年作而有三年之儲，雖水旱為災，而人無菜色，皆由勸導有方，蓄積先備故也。去年亢陽，關內不熟，陛下哀愍黎元，甚於赤子。運山東之粟，置常平之官，開發倉廪，普加賑賜。少食之人，莫不豐足。鴻恩大德，前古未比。其強宗富室，家道有餘者，皆競出私財，遞相賙贍。此乃風行草偃，從化而然。但經國之理，須存定式。」於是奏令諸州百姓及軍人，勸課當社，共立義倉。收穫之日，隨其所得，勸課出粟及麥，於當社造倉窖貯之。即委社司，執帳檢校，每年收積，勿使損敗。若時或不熟，當社有饑饉者，即以此穀賑給。自是諸州儲峙委積。其後關中連年大旱，而青、兗、汴、許、曹、亳、陳、仁、譙、豫、鄭、洛、伊、潁、邳等州大水，百姓饑饉。高祖乃命蘇威等，分道開倉賑給。又命司農丞王亶，發廣通之粟三百餘萬石，以拯關中。又發故城中周代舊粟，賤糶與人。買牛驢六千餘頭，分給尤貧者，令往關東就食。其遭水旱之州，皆免其年租賦。

In the fifth month of year 5, Minister of Works Sun Changping memorialized: 'Anciently three years' plowing yielded one year's surplus; nine years' work yielded three years' stores—though flood and drought struck, people did not go hungry, all because guidance was sound and stores prepared beforehand. Last year drought scorched Guanzhong; Your Majesty pities the people more than an infant. Shandong grain was transported, Ever-Normal offices established, granaries opened, and relief universally granted. People with little food were all full and sufficient. Vast grace and great virtue unmatched in preceding antiquity. Powerful clans and rich houses with surplus resources all competed to give private wealth and aid one another. This is the wind moving grass—the people following transformation. But governing the state requires fixed forms. Thereupon he memorialized ordering common people and soldiers of all provinces to encourage assignment at their she and jointly establish charity granaries. On harvest days, according to what each obtained, millet and wheat were encouraged; cellar storage was built at each she. Entrusted to she officers for accounts and inspection; each year grain was accumulated without spoil. If seasons failed and the she faced famine, this grain was used for relief. From this all provinces' stores piled up. Afterward Guanzhong had drought year after year; Qing, Yan, Bian, Xu, and many other provinces had great flood; the people famished. Gaozu ordered Su Wei and others to open granaries in separate routes for relief. Ministry of Agriculture Assistant Director Wang Dan was ordered to issue more than three million shi from Guangtong to save Guanzhong. Old Zhou grain from the old city was also issued and sold cheaply to the people. Six thousand-plus oxen and donkeys were purchased and distributed to the extremely poor, ordering them to go to Shandong for food. Provinces suffering flood and drought all exempted that year's rent and levies.

十四年，關中大旱，人飢。上幸洛陽，因令百姓就食。從官並准見口賑給，不以官位為限。明年，東巡狩，因祠泰山。是時義倉貯在人間，多有費損。十五年二月，詔曰：「本置義倉，止防水旱，百姓之徒，不思久計，輕爾費損，於後乏絕。又北境諸州，異於餘處，雲、夏、長、靈、鹽、蘭、豐、鄯、涼、甘、瓜等州，所有義倉雜種，並納本州。若人有旱儉少糧，先給雜種及遠年粟。」十六年正月，又詔秦、疊、成、康、武、文、芳、宕、旭、洮、岷、渭、紀、河、廓、豳、隴、涇、寧、原、敷、丹、延、綏、銀、扶等州社倉，並於當縣安置。二月，又詔社倉，准上中下三等稅，上戶不過一石，中戶不過七斗，下戶不過四斗。其後山東頻年霖雨，杞、宋、陳、亳、曹、戴、譙、潁等諸州，達于滄海，皆困水災，所在沉溺。十八年，天子遣使，將水工，巡行川源，相視高下，發隨近丁以疏導之。困乏者，開倉賑給，前後用穀五百餘石。 [10]遭水之處，租調皆免。自是頻有年矣。

In year 14 Guanzhong had great drought; people were hungry. The emperor traveled to Luoyang and ordered the people to go for food. Follower officials all received relief according to registered mouths, without rank limit. The next year an eastern tour and hunt included sacrifice at Mount Tai. Charity granary stores among the people had much waste and loss. In the second month of year 15 an edict said: 'Charity granaries were originally set only against flood and drought; common people, not thinking long-term, lightly wasted them—afterward supplies were exhausted. Northern frontier provinces also differ; Yun, Xia, Chang, Ling, and other frontier provinces—all charity granary mixed grain was delivered to the local province. If people faced drought with little grain, mixed grain and old-year millet were given first. In the first month of year 16, she granaries of Qin, Die, Cheng, and many other frontier provinces were ordered placed in their counties. In the second month she granaries were ordered taxed in three grades: upper households not exceeding one shi, middle seven dou, lower four dou. Afterward Shandong had continuous rain year after year; Qi, Song, Chen, and other provinces reaching the sea all suffered flood and were submerged. In year 18 the emperor sent envoys with water engineers to traverse river sources, observe terrain, and mobilize nearby corvée laborers to dredge. The exhausted received granary relief; before and after more than five hundred shi of grain was used. [Note: text likely missing 'ten thousand'; should read five million-plus shi] Where flood was encountered, rent and levies were all exempted. From this good harvests were frequent.

開皇八年五月，高熲奏諸州無課調處，及課州管戶數少者，官人祿力，乘前已來，恒出隨近之州。但判官本為牧人，役力理出所部。請於所管戶內，計戶徵稅。帝從之。先是京官及諸州，並給公廨錢，廻易生利，以給公用。至十四年六月，工部尚書、安平郡公蘇孝慈等，以為所在官司，因循往昔，以公廨錢物，出舉興生，唯利是求，煩擾百姓，敗損風俗，莫斯之甚。於是奏皆給地以營農，廻易取利，一皆禁止。十七年十一月，詔在京及在外諸司公廨，在市廻易，及諸處興生，並聽之。唯禁出舉收利云。

In Kaihuang year 8, fifth month, Gao Jiong memorialized that provinces without levy districts and levy provinces with few registered households—officials' salary labor constantly came from nearby provinces. But magistrates were originally to shepherd people; corvée labor should come from their jurisdiction. He requested tax calculated by households within each jurisdiction. The emperor approved this. Previously capital officials and all provinces received public office money, revolving trade for profit to supply public use. By the fourteenth year's sixth month, Minister of Works Su Xiaoci and others considered that local offices, following past practice, used public office money for lending and profit, troubling the people and damaging customs—nothing exceeded this. They memorialized that all should be given land for farming; revolving trade for profit was prohibited. In the seventeenth year's eleventh month an edict permitted capital and outer offices' public offices to trade in markets—all permitted. Only lending for profit was prohibited.

煬帝即位，是時戶口益多，府庫盈溢，乃除婦人及奴婢部曲之課。男子以二十二成丁。始建東都，以尚書令楊素為營作大監，每月役丁二百萬人。徙洛州郭內人及天下諸州富商大賈數萬家，以實之。新置興洛及廻洛倉。又於皁澗營顯仁宮，苑囿連接，北至新安，南及飛山，西至澠池，周圍數百里。課天下諸州，各貢草木花果，奇禽異獸於其中。開渠，引穀、洛水，自苑西入，而東注于洛。又自板渚引河，達于淮海，謂之御河。河畔築御道，樹以柳。又命黃門侍郎王弘、上儀同於士澄，往江南諸州採大木，引至東都。所經州縣，遞送往返，首尾相屬，不絕者千里。而東都役使促迫，僵仆而斃者，十四五焉。每月載死丁，東至城臯，北至河陽，車相望於道。時帝將事遼、碣，增置軍府，掃地為兵。自是租賦之入益減矣。

When Emperor Yang succeeded, registered population grew and treasuries overflowed; levies on women, slave retainers, and private troops were removed. Males became adult laborers at twenty-two. The Eastern Capital was first built; Minister Over the Masses Yang Su served as construction grand supervisor with two million corvée laborers each month. People within Luozhou and wealthy merchants from all provinces numbering tens of thousands of households were moved to fill it. Xingluo and Huiluo granaries were newly established. Xianren Palace was also built at Zaojian; parks connected north to Xin'an, south to Fei Mountain, west to Mianchi, circumference several hundred li. All provinces were ordered to tribute grasses, trees, flowers, fruits, rare birds, and strange beasts therein. A channel was opened drawing Gu and Luo water from west of the park east into the Luo River. The Yellow River was also drawn from Banzhu to Huaihai, called the Imperial Canal. An imperial road was built along the riverbank, planted with willows. Yellow Gate Vice Director Wang Hong and Upper Palace Companion Yu Shicheng were ordered to Jiangnan provinces to collect great timber for the Eastern Capital. Provinces and counties relayed timber on the return journey, connecting head to tail unceasing for a thousand li. Eastern Capital corvée was urgent; those who collapsed and died were four or five in ten. Each month carts carrying dead corvée laborers stretched from Chenggao in the east to Heyang in the north. The emperor was about to campaign in Liaodong; military offices were increased and soldiers conscripted from every household. From this rent and levy revenue increasingly diminished.

又造龍舟鳳䑽，黃龍赤艦，樓船篾舫。募諸水工，謂之殿脚，衣錦行幐，執青絲纜挽船，以幸江都。帝御龍舟，文武官五品已上給樓船，九品已上給黃篾舫，舳艫相接，二百餘里。所經州縣，並令供頓，獻食豐辦者，加官爵，闕乏者，譴至死。又盛修車輿輦輅，旌旗羽儀之飾。課天下州縣，凡骨角齒牙，皮革毛羽，可飾器用，堪為氅毦者，皆責焉。徵發倉卒，朝命夕辦，百姓求捕，網罟徧野，水陸禽獸殆盡，猶不能給，而買於豪富蓄積之家，其價騰踊。是歲，翟雉尾一，直十縑，白鷺鮮半之。

Dragon boats and phoenix barges, yellow dragon and red warships, tower ships and bamboo rafts were also built. Water engineers were recruited as 'palace feet,' wearing brocade leggings and holding green silk cables to tow boats to Jiangdu. The emperor rode the dragon boat; civil and military officials fifth rank and above received tower ships, ninth rank and above yellow bamboo rafts; ships connected for more than two hundred li. Provinces and counties passed through were ordered to supply stations; those presenting abundant food were promoted, those deficient were condemned to death. Chariots, palanquins, imperial carriages, banners, flags, and feather insignia were also greatly repaired. All provinces and counties were ordered to levy bone, horn, tooth, tusk, leather, feather, and fur usable for ornaments and cloaks. Mobilization was hasty; morning orders demanded evening completion; people hunted until water and land birds and beasts were nearly exhausted—still insufficient, and purchases from rich hoarders at soaring prices followed. That year one pheasant tail was worth ten bolts of silk; half that for a white egret.

乃使屯田主事常駿使赤土國，致羅剎。又使朝請大夫張鎮州擊流求，俘虜數萬。士卒深入，蒙犯瘴癘，餒疾而死者十八九。又以西域多諸寶物，令裴矩往張掖，監諸商胡互市。啖之以利，勸令入朝。自是西域諸蕃，往來相繼，所經州郡，疲於送迎，縻費以萬萬計。

Garrison Farm Supervisor Chang Jun was sent as envoy to Chitu Kingdom to obtain rakshasa. Court Gentleman Zhang Zhenzhou was also sent to attack Liuqiu and capture tens of thousands. Soldiers went deep, braving miasma; hunger and disease killed eight or nine in ten. Because the Western Regions had many precious goods, Pei Ju was ordered to Zhangye to supervise mutual trade among merchant Hu. They were tempted with profit and encouraged to enter court. Western Region peoples came and went in succession; provinces and counties passed through were exhausted by escort at expense numbering in the tens of thousands.

明年，帝北巡狩。又興眾百萬，北築長城，西距榆林，東至紫河，緜亘千餘里，死者太半。四年，發河北諸郡百餘萬眾，引沁水，南達于河，北通涿郡。自是以丁男不供，始以婦人從役。五年，西巡河右。西域諸胡，佩金玉，被錦罽，焚香奏樂，迎候道左。帝乃令武威、張掖士女，盛飾縱觀。衣服車馬不鮮者，州縣督課，以誇示之。其年，帝親征吐谷渾，破之於赤水。慕容佛允，[11]委其家屬，西奔青海。帝駐兵不出，遇天霖雨，經大斗拔谷，士卒死者十二三焉，馬驢十八九。於是置河源郡、積石鎮。又於西域之地，置西海、鄯善、且末等郡。讁天下罪人，配為戍卒，大開屯田，發西方諸郡運糧以給之。道里懸遠，兼遇寇抄，死亡相續。

The next year the emperor toured north. A million masses were also raised to build the Great Wall north, west from Yulin to Zi River, more than a thousand li continuous; more than half died. In year 4 more than a million masses from Hebei commanderies were mobilized to draw Qin water south to the river and north to Zhuo Commandery. Adult males were insufficient; women were first used for corvée. In year 5 a western tour of Hexi was held. Various Hu of the Western Regions, wearing gold and jade, draped in brocade rugs, burning incense and playing music, waited at the roadside. The emperor ordered Wuwei and Zhangye men and women to dress splendidly and watch freely. Those with unstylish clothes and horses were supervised and taxed by provinces and counties for display. That year the emperor personally campaigned against Tuyuhun and defeated them at Chishui. Murong Fuyun—[Note: the Tuyuhun Annals read a different character for the second syllable]—abandoned his family and fled west to Qinghai. The emperor stationed troops without advancing; encountering heavy rain and passing through Dadouba Valley, twelve or thirteen soldiers in ten died; eighteen or nineteen horses and donkeys in ten. Heyuan Commandery and Jishi Garrison were established. In Western Region lands Xihai, Shanshan, Qimo, and other commanderies were established. Criminals of the realm were assigned as garrison soldiers; garrison farms were greatly opened; western commanderies were mobilized to transport grain. Roads were distant and bandit raids frequent; deaths followed in succession.

六年，將征高麗，有司奏兵馬已多損耗。詔又課天下富人，量其貲產，出錢市武馬，填元數。限令取足。復點兵具器仗，皆令精新，濫惡則使人便斬。於是馬匹至十萬。七年冬，大會涿郡。分江淮南兵，配驍衞大將軍來護兒，別以舟師濟滄海，舳艫數百里。並載軍糧，期與大兵會平壤。是歲山東、河南大水，漂沒四十餘郡，重以遼東覆敗，死者數十萬。因屬疫疾，山東尤甚。所在皆以徵斂供帳軍旅所資為務，百姓雖困，而弗之恤也。每急徭卒賦，有所徵求，長吏必先賤買之，然後宣下，乃貴賣與人，旦暮之間，價盈數倍，裒刻徵斂，取辦一時。強者聚而為盜，弱者自賣為奴婢。九年，詔又課關中富人，計其貲產出驢，往伊吾、河源、且末運糧。多者至數百頭，每頭價至萬餘。又發諸州丁，分為四番，於遼西柳城營屯，往來艱苦，生業盡罄。盜賊四起，道路南絕，隴右牧馬，盡為奴賊所掠，楊玄感乘虛為亂。時帝在遼東，聞之，遽歸于高陽郡。及玄感平，帝謂侍臣曰：「玄感一呼而從者如市，益知天下人不欲多，多則為賊。不盡誅，後無以示勸。」乃令裴蘊窮其黨與，詔郡縣坑殺之，死者不可勝數。所在驚駭。舉天下之人十分，九為盜賊，皆盜武馬，始作長槍，攻陷城邑。帝又命郡縣置督捕以討賊。益遣募人征遼，馬少不充八馱，而許為六馱。又不足，聽半以驢充。在路逃者相繼，執獲皆斬之，而莫能止。帝不懌。遇高麗執送叛臣斛斯政，遣使求降，發詔赦之。囚政至于京師，於開遠門外，磔而射殺之。遂幸太原，為突厥圍於雁門。突厥尋散，遽還洛陽，募益驍果，以充舊數。

In year 6, about to campaign against Goguryeo, officials reported much wastage of soldiers and horses. An edict again assessed wealthy people, measuring property to pay for war horses to fill the original number. A deadline was set to obtain the full amount. Soldiers' equipment and weapons were again inspected—all ordered refined and new; shoddy ones caused immediate beheading of the responsible person. War horses thereby reached one hundred thousand. Winter of year 7, great assembly at Zhuo Commandery. Jiang-Huai southern soldiers were divided, assigning Brave Guard Grand General Lai Hu'er; separately naval forces crossed the sea; ships connected for several hundred li. All carried army grain, scheduled to meet the great army at Pyongyang. That year Shandong and Henan had great flood drowning more than forty commanderies; added to Liaodong defeat, dead numbered in the hundreds of thousands. Epidemic disease followed; Shandong was especially severe. Everywhere exactions supplying army travel expenses were the priority; though the people were distressed, they were not pitied. Whenever urgent corvée and levies were requisitioned, district officials first bought cheaply, then announced the order, then sold expensively to the people; between morning and evening prices multiplied several times. The strong gathered as bandits; the weak sold themselves as slaves. In year 9 an edict again assessed wealthy Guanzhong people, calculating property to produce donkeys for grain transport to Yiwu, Heyuan, and Qimo. Those with many reached several hundred head; each head's price exceeded ten thousand. Corvée laborers of all provinces were mobilized in four rotations for garrison farming at Liucheng in Liaoxi; travel was arduous and livelihoods exhausted. Banditry rose everywhere; southern roads were cut; Longyou pasture horses were plundered by slave bandits; Yang Xuan'gan seized the opportunity to rebel. The emperor was in Liaodong; hearing this, he hurriedly returned to Gaoyang Commandery. When Xuan'gan was pacified the emperor told ministers: 'Xuan'gan one call and followers like a market—I know the people do not wish to be many; too many and they become bandits. If not entirely executed, afterward there is no means to show encouragement. Pei Yun was ordered to exhaust Xuan'gan's faction; commanderies and counties were issued an edict to pit and kill them; dead beyond counting. Everywhere people were alarmed and terrified. Of all people under heaven nine in ten were bandits; all stole war horses, made long spears, and attacked cities and towns. The emperor again ordered commanderies and counties to place supervisors to suppress bandits. Further recruiters were sent for the Liaodong campaign; horses were few and did not fill eight pack animals—six were permitted. Again insufficient—half filling with donkeys was permitted. Fugitives on the road followed in succession; captured fugitives were beheaded—and still it could not be stopped. The emperor was displeased. Goguryeo escorted rebel minister Husizheng; envoys sought surrender and an edict pardoned them. Zheng was brought to the capital; outside Kaiyuan Gate he was dismembered and shot to death. Then he traveled to Taiyuan; Turks besieged him at Yanmen. Turks soon dispersed; he hurriedly returned to Luoyang and recruited elite soldiers to fill the old number.

是時百姓廢業，屯集城堡，無以自給。然所在倉庫，猶大充牣，吏皆懼法，莫肯賑救，由是益困。初皆剝樹皮以食之，漸及於葉，皮葉皆盡，乃煮土或擣藳為末而食之。其後人乃相食。十二年，帝幸江都。是時李密據洛口倉，聚眾百萬。越王侗與段達等守東都。東都城內糧盡，布帛山積，乃以絹為汲綆，然布以爨。代王侑與衞玄守京師，百姓饑饉，亦不能救。義師入長安，發永豐倉以賑之，百姓方蘇息矣。

People abandoned occupations, gathered in castles, unable to support themselves. Yet granaries everywhere were still full; officials feared the law and none granted relief—the people grew ever more distressed. At first all stripped tree bark to eat; gradually leaves; bark and leaves exhausted—then boiled earth or pounded straw into powder to eat. Afterward people ate one another. In year 12 the emperor traveled to Jiangdu. Li Mi held Luokou Granary and gathered masses of a million. Prince of Yue Yang Tong and Duan Da and others guarded the Eastern Capital. Within the Eastern Capital grain was exhausted; cloth and silk piled like mountains—silk was used for well ropes and cloth burned for cooking. Prince Dai Yang You and Wei Xuan guarded the capital; the people famished and could not be saved. The righteous army entered Chang'an, opened Yongfeng Granary to relieve them, and the people revived.

晉自過江，凡貨賣奴婢馬牛田宅，有文券，率錢一萬，輸估四百入官，賣者三百，買者一百。無文券者，隨物所堪，亦百分收四，名為散估。歷宋齊梁陳，如此以為常。以此人競商販，不為田業，故使均輸，欲為懲勵。雖以此為辭，其實利在侵削。又都西有石頭津，東有方山津，各置津主一人，賊曹一人，直水五人，以檢察禁物及亡叛者。其荻炭魚薪之類過津者，並十分稅一以入官。其東路無禁貨，故方山津檢察甚簡。淮水北有大市百餘，小市十餘所。大市備置官司，稅斂既重，時甚苦之。

After Jin crossed the river, all sales of slaves, horses, oxen, fields, and dwellings had written contracts; generally of ten thousand cash, four hundred cash appraisal tax entered office; seller three hundred, buyer one hundred. Without written contracts, according to goods' value, four percent was also collected—called scattered appraisal. Through Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen, this remained constant. Because of this people competed in commerce rather than farming; equal transport was intended as punishment and encouragement. Though this was the pretext, the real profit lay in encroachment and reduction. West of the capital was Shitou Ford, east Fangshan Ford; each had a ford chief, one bandit-catcher, and five water guards to inspect prohibited goods and fugitives. Reed, charcoal, fish, and firewood passing the ford paid one part in ten tax to office. The eastern route had no prohibited goods; Fangshan Ford inspection was therefore very light. North of the Huai were more than a hundred great markets and more than ten small markets. Great markets had full official offices; tax collection was heavy and deeply resented.

梁初，唯京師及三吳、荊、郢、江、湘、梁、益用錢。其餘州郡，則雜以穀帛交易。交、廣之域，全以金銀為貨。武帝乃鑄錢，肉好周郭，文曰「五銖」，重如其文。而又別鑄，除其肉郭，謂之女錢。二品並行。百姓或私以古錢交易，有直百五銖、五銖、女錢、太平百錢、定平一百、五銖雉錢、五銖對文等號。輕重不一。天子頻下詔書，非新鑄二種之錢，並不許用。而趣利之徒，私用轉甚。至普通中，乃議盡罷銅錢，更鑄鐵錢。人以鐵賤易得，並皆私鑄。及大同已後，所在鐵錢，遂如丘山，物價騰貴。交易者以車載錢，不復計數，而唯論貫。商旅姦詐，因之以求利。自破嶺以東，八十為百，名曰東錢。江、郢已上，七十為百，名曰西錢。京師以九十為百，名曰長錢。中大同元年，天子乃詔通用足陌。詔下而人不從，錢陌益少。至于末年，遂以三十五為百云。

At the beginning of Liang, only the capital and Three Wu, Jing, Ying, Jiang, Xiang, Liang, and Yi used coin. Remaining provinces and commanderies mixed grain and cloth for trade. Jiao and Guang regions entirely used gold and silver as currency. Emperor Wu cast coin with complete rim and hole, inscribed 'Five Zhu,' weight matching inscription. He also separately cast coins without the rim—called female coin. Both types circulated together. People sometimes privately used ancient coin: Zhibai Wuzhu, Wuzhu, female coin, Taiping Hundred Coin, Dingping Hundred, Wuzhu Pheasant Coin, Wuzhu Paired Inscription, and other types. Weight was not uniform. The emperor repeatedly issued edicts: except the two newly cast types, all others were forbidden. But profit-seekers used them privately ever more. By the Putong period it was proposed to abolish copper coin entirely and cast iron coin instead. Because iron was cheap and easily obtained, all privately cast coin. By the Datong period iron coin piled like hills everywhere and prices soared. Traders loaded coin by cart, no longer counting individual pieces—only discussing strings. Traveling merchants grew crafty and deceitful, seeking profit thereby. East of Poling, eighty counted as a hundred—called Eastern Coin. Jiang and Ying and above, seventy as a hundred—called Western Coin. The capital with ninety as a hundred—called Long Coin. In Zhongdatong year 1 the emperor issued an edict universal use of full strings. The edict was issued yet people did not follow; coin strings grew ever shorter. By the final years, thirty-five counted as a hundred.

陳初，承梁喪亂之後，鐵錢不行。始梁末又有兩柱錢及鵝眼錢，于時人雜用，其價同，但兩柱重而鵝眼輕。私家多鎔錢，又間以錫鐵，兼以粟帛為貨。至文帝天嘉五年，改鑄五銖。初出，一當鵝眼之十。宣帝太建十一年，又鑄大貨六銖，以一當五銖之十，與五銖並行。後還當一，人皆不便。乃相與訛言曰：「六銖錢有不利縣官之象。」未幾而帝崩，遂廢六銖而行五銖。竟至陳亡。其嶺南諸州，多以鹽米布交易，俱不用錢云。

At Chen's founding, inheriting Liang's post-chaos condition, iron coin did not circulate. At Liang's end there were also Two-Pillar Coin and Goose-Eye Coin; people mixed them at the same price—but Two-Pillar was heavy and Goose-Eye light. Private households mostly melted coin; also mixed tin and iron; millet and cloth were also used as currency. By Emperor Wen's Tiancheng year 5, Five Zhu was newly cast. At first issue, one equaled ten Goose-Eye. Emperor Xuan's Taijian year 11 also cast Great Currency Six Zhu, one equaling ten Five Zhu, circulating with Five Zhu. Later it returned to one-to-one; people all found it inconvenient. Then false rumors spread saying: 'Six Zhu coin has an omen unfavorable to the county office.' Before long the emperor died; Six Zhu was abolished and Five Zhu circulated. This continued until Chen's fall. Southern frontier provinces mostly used salt, rice, and cloth for trade—all without coin.

齊神武霸政之初，承魏猶用永安五銖。遷鄴已後，百姓私鑄，體制漸別，遂各以為名。有雍州青赤，梁州生厚、緊錢、吉錢，河陽生澀、天柱、赤牽之稱。冀州之北，錢皆不行，交貿者皆以絹布。神武帝乃收境內之銅及錢，仍依舊文更鑄，流之四境。未幾之間，漸復細薄，姦偽競起。文宣受禪，除永安之錢，改鑄常平五銖，重如其文。其錢甚貴，且制造甚精。至乾明、皇建之間，往往私鑄。鄴中用錢，有赤熟、青熟、細眉、赤生之異。河南所用，有青薄鉛錫之別。青、齊、徐、兗、梁、豫州，輩類各殊。武平已後，私鑄轉甚，或以生鐵和銅。至于齊亡，卒不能禁。

At the beginning of Gao Huan's hegemonic governance, Wei still used Yong'an Five Zhu. After moving to Ye, people privately cast coin; forms gradually differed; each region had its own name. There were Yong Province green-red, Liang Province raw-thick, tight coin, and Ji coin; Heyang raw-rough, Tianzhu, and Red-Qian names. North of Ji Province coin did not circulate; traders all used silk and cloth. Gao Huan collected copper and coin within the borders and recast according to the old inscription, flowing to the four borders. Before long coin again grew thin and light; fraud competed to arise. Wenxuan received the abdication; abolished Yong'an coin and cast Ever-Normal Five Zhu, weight matching inscription. The coin was very valuable and manufacture very refined. By the Qianming and Huangjian periods, private casting was common. Coin used in Ye had red-ripe, green-ripe, fine-brow, and red-raw varieties. Henan used green-thin and lead-tin varieties. Qing, Qi, Xu, Yan, Liang, and Yu provinces—types each differed. After Wuping, private casting grew severe; some mixed raw iron with copper. Until Qi's fall, it ultimately could not be prohibited.

高祖既受周禪，以天下錢貨輕重不等，乃更鑄新錢。背面肉好，皆有周郭，文曰「五銖」，而重如其文。每錢一千，重四斤二兩。是時錢既新出，百姓或私有鎔鑄。三年四月，詔四面諸關，各付百錢為樣。從關外來，勘樣相似，然後得過。樣不同者，即壞以為銅，入官。詔行新錢已後，前代舊錢，有五行大布、永通萬國及齊常平，所在用以貿易不止。四年，詔仍依舊不禁者，縣令奪半年祿。然百姓習用既久，尚猶不絕。五年正月，詔又嚴其制。自是錢貨始一，所在流布，百姓便之。是時見用之錢，皆須和以錫鑞。錫鑞既賤，求利者多，私鑄之錢，不可禁約。其年，詔乃禁出錫鑞之處，並不得私有採取。十年，詔晉王廣，聽於揚州立五鑪鑄錢。其後姦狡稍漸磨鑢錢郭，取銅私鑄，又雜以錫錢，遞相放效，錢遂輕薄。乃下惡錢之禁。京師及諸州邸肆之上，皆令立榜，置樣為准。不中樣者，不入於市。十八年，詔漢王諒，聽於并州立五鑢鑄錢。是時江南人間錢少，晉王廣又聽於鄂州白紵山有銅𨥥處，錮銅鑄錢。於是詔聽置十鑪鑄錢。又詔蜀王秀，聽於益州立五鑪鑄錢。是時錢益濫惡，乃令有司，括天下邸肆見錢，非官鑄者，皆毀之，其銅入官。而京師以惡錢貿易，為吏所執，有死者。數年之間，私鑄頗息。大業已後，王綱弛紊，巨姦大猾，遂多私鑄，錢轉薄惡。初每千猶重二斤，後漸輕至一斤。或翦鐵鍱，裁皮糊紙以為錢，相雜用之。貨賤物貴，以至於亡。

Gaozu having received Zhou's abdication, because realm coin varied in weight, newly cast standard coin. Obverse and reverse rim and hole all had complete rims; inscribed 'Five Zhu,' weight matching inscription. Each thousand coins weighed four jin two liang. When coin was newly issued, people sometimes privately melted and cast. Year 3, fourth month edict: four-side passes each given one hundred coins as sample. Coming from outside the pass, if the sample matched, passage was permitted. Where the sample differed, coin was destroyed for copper and confiscated. After the new coin circulated, former dynasty old coin—Wuxing Dabo, Yontong Wanguo, and Qi Ever-Normal—continued in trade everywhere. Year 4 edict: where still not prohibited, magistrates lost half a year's salary. Yet people long accustomed to old coin still did not cease. Year 5, first month edict again strictened the system. From this coin was first unified; it circulated everywhere and people found it convenient. Coin in use all had to be mixed with tin and lead. Tin and lead being cheap, profit-seekers were many; private casting could not be prohibited. That year an edict prohibited private extraction at tin and lead mining places. Year 10 edict permitted Prince of Jin Yang Guang to establish five furnaces casting coin at Yangzhou. Afterward the crafty gradually filed coin rims and took copper for private casting; also mixed tin coin; coin grew light and thin. Then prohibition of bad coin was issued. Capital and all provinces' market inns were ordered to erect placards with samples as standard. Coin not matching the sample did not enter the market. Year 18 edict permitted Prince of Han Yang Liang to establish five furnaces casting coin at Bingzhou. Jiangnan had little coin; Prince of Jin Yang Guang again permitted imprisoning copper at Ezhou Baiyu Mountain to cast coin. An edict permitted establishing ten furnaces casting coin. Prince of Shu Yang Xiu was also permitted to establish five furnaces casting coin at Yizhou. Coin grew increasingly debased; responsible offices were ordered to inventory all market coin—not officially cast—all destroyed and copper confiscated. Yet in the capital some died when caught trading bad coin. Within several years private casting somewhat ceased. After Daye, governance slackened; great scoundrels privately cast coin ever more; coin turned thin and bad. At first each thousand still weighed two jin; afterward gradually lightened to one jin. Some cut iron sheets or trimmed leather pasted with paper to make coin, mixed for use. Goods grew cheap and prices expensive, reaching collapse.

校勘記

Collation notes

道關政亂「政」當作「治」，唐人諱改。

Dao guan zheng luan: 'zheng' (governance) should read 'zhi' (order and disorder); altered under Tang dynastic taboo.

准所輸通典五，「准」作「惟」。

Zhun suo shu: the Tongdian, book 5, reads 'zhun' (according to) as 'wei' (only).

不可委載「委」原作「妄」，據通典三五改。

Bu ke wei zai: 'wei' (wrongly) originally read 'wang' (wildly); corrected according to Tongdian 35.

永業田原作「永田」，據冊府四九五、通典二改。

Yongye tian (perpetual fields): original read 'yong tian'; corrected according to Cefu 495 and Tongdian 2.

限止四牛「牛」原作「年」，據通典二改。

Xian zhi si niu (limited to four oxen): 'niu' originally read 'nian' (year); corrected according to Tongdian 2.

課人農桑「人」原作「入」，據冊府四九五、通典二改。

Ke ren nong sang (assign people to farming and sericulture): 'ren' originally read 'ru' (enter); corrected according to Cefu 495 and Tongdian 2.

至天統中「天」原作「大」，據通典五改。

Zhi tian tong zhong (by the Tiantong period): 'tian' originally read 'da' (great); corrected according to Tongdian 5.

口九已上按：應作「口九已下」，才能和下文「口五已下」相銜接。

Kou jiu yi shang (population nine and above): Note: should read 'nine and below' to connect with 'five and below' below.

朱雀門本書高祖紀下作「廣陽門」。

Zhuque Gate: the Annals of Gaozu, lower, read 'Guangyang Gate' instead.

前後用穀五百餘石陸錫熊炳爥偶鈔：按文當作「五百餘萬石」，疑脫「萬」字。

Qian hou yong gu wu bai yu shi (before and after used more than five hundred shi of grain): Lu Xixiong and Bing Juer's Collation Notes: the text should read 'five million-plus shi'; the character 'ten thousand' is likely missing.

慕容佛允本書吐谷渾傳，「佛」作「伏」，音譯異字。

Murong Fuyun: the Tuyuhun Biography reads a different character for the second syllable—transliteration variant.

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