Volume 94 Biographies 82: Goryeo, Baekje, Silla, Wuji, Xi, Khitan, Shiwei, Doumolou, Didouyu, Wuluohou, Liuqiu, Japan

高麗百濟新羅勿吉奚契丹室韋豆莫婁地豆幹烏洛侯流求倭

Goryeo, Baekje, Silla, Wuji, Xi, Khitan, Shiwei, Doumolou, Didougan, Wuluohou, Liuqiu, and Japan

蓋天地之所覆載至大，日月之所照臨至廣。萬物之內，生靈寡而禽獸多；兩儀之間，中土局而殊俗曠。人寓形天地，稟氣陰陽，愚智本于自然，剛柔系於水土。故霜露所會，風氣所通，九川爲紀，五嶽作鎮，此之謂諸夏，生其地者，則仁義所出；昧穀嵎夷，孤竹北戶，限以丹徼紫塞，隔以滄海交河，此之謂荒裔，感其氣者，則凶德行稟。若夫九夷、八狄，種落繁熾，七戎、六蠻，充牣邊鄙，雖風土殊俗，嗜欲不同，至於貪而無厭，狠而好亂，強則旅拒，弱則稽服，其揆一也。

Heaven and Earth embrace all that is greatest in extent; the sun and moon illuminate all that is broadest in reach. Among all creatures, humankind is scarce and beasts plentiful. Between yin and yang, the Middle Kingdom is bounded and narrow, while alien lands stretch wide. Human beings take bodily form under Heaven and Earth and draw breath from yin and yang; wit and folly arise from nature itself, while temperament follows the waters and soils of one's homeland. Where frost and dew gather and prevailing winds flow, where the nine rivers mark the bounds and the five peaks stand as pillars—this is the realm of the Chinese peoples; those born there are the wellspring of benevolence and propriety. In distant corners such as Miegu, Juyi, Gushu, and Beihu, hemmed in by red frontiers and purple ramparts, cut off by blue seas and the Jiao River—these are the outer wastes; those who breathe their air inherit cruelty and vice. The nine Yi and eight Di peoples teem in their clans; the seven Rong and six Man pack the frontier marches. Customs and appetites may differ, yet all alike are insatiably greedy, fierce, and prone to turmoil—defiant in alliance when strong, obsequious when weak; the principle is the same.

秦皇鞭笞天下，黷武于遐方；漢武士馬強盛，肆志於遠略。匈奴已卻，其國乃虛；天馬既來，其人亦困。是知雁海龍堆，天所以絕夷夏也；炎方朔漠，地所以限內外也。況乎時非秦、漢，志甚嬴、劉，逆天道以求其功，殫人力而從所欲，顛墜之釁，固不旋踵。是以先王設教，內諸夏而外夷狄；往哲垂範，美樹德而鄙廣地。雖禹跡之東漸西被，不過海及流沙；《王制》之自北徂南，裁猶穴居交趾。豈非道貫三古，義高百代者乎！自魏至隋，市朝屢革，其四夷朝享，亦各因時。今各編次，備《四夷傳》云。

The First Emperor of Qin scourged the empire and squandered arms on far-off campaigns. Han deployed mighty armies and cavalry, pursuing grand ambitions far beyond its borders. After the Xiongnu were driven back, their realm lay emptied. When the heavenly horses arrived from the west, the Han people themselves were worn down. Thus one sees that the wild goose seas and dragon mounds are Heaven's barrier between barbarian and Chinese. The torrid south and northern wastes are Earth's divide between the civilized center and the outer world. All the more when the times were not those of Qin or Han, yet rulers harbored ambitions to match the Tyrant of Qin or the founder Liu—defying Heaven's way for glory, draining the people to satisfy their will: ruin would follow almost at once. Hence the ancient kings set down teaching: the Chinese peoples within, the barbarians without. Wise predecessors left lasting examples, prizing moral cultivation and scorning mere territorial expansion. Even where Yu's domain extended east and west, it went no farther than the sea and the shifting sands. The Royal Regulations, moving from north to south, scarcely extended to cave-dwelling peoples and Jiaozhi. Is this not a Way that runs through three ages and a righteousness that stands above a hundred generations! From Wei through Sui, capitals and regimes changed again and again, and the tribute and audiences of the four quarters shifted with each age. Here they are arranged in order, completing the Treatise on the Four Barbarians.

高句麗，其先出夫餘。王嘗得河伯女，因閉於室內，爲日所照，引身避之，日影又逐，既而有孕，生一卵，大如五升。夫餘王棄之與犬，犬不食；與豕，豕不食；棄于路，牛馬避之；棄於野，衆鳥以毛茹之。王剖之不能破，遂還其母。母以物裹置暖處，有一男破而出。及長，字之曰硃蒙。其俗言「硃蒙」者，善射也。夫餘人以硃蒙非人所生，請除之。王不聽，命之養馬。硃蒙私試，知有善惡，駿者減食令瘦，駑者善養令肥。夫餘王以肥者自乘，以瘦者給硃蒙。後狩于田，以硃蒙善射，給之一矢。硃蒙雖一矢，殪獸甚多。夫餘之臣，又謀殺之，其母以告硃蒙，硃蒙乃與焉違等二人東南走。中道遇一大水，欲濟無梁。夫餘人追之甚急，硃蒙告水曰：「我是日子，河伯外孫，今追兵垂及，如何得濟？」於是魚鱉爲之成橋，硃蒙得度。魚鱉乃解，追騎不度。硃蒙遂至普述水，遇見三人，一著麻衣，一著衲衣，一著水藻衣，與硃蒙至紇升骨城，遂居焉。號曰高句麗，因以高爲氏。其在夫餘妻懷孕，硃蒙逃後，生子始閭諧。及長，知硃蒙爲國王，即與母亡歸之。名曰閭達，委之國事。

Goguryeo traced its origins to Buyeo. A king once received the River Lord's daughter and kept her confined indoors; when sunlight struck her she turned away, but the sun's shadow followed. She conceived and laid an egg the size of a five-sheng measure. The King of Buyeo threw it to the dogs, but they would not touch it. He gave it to pigs, but they would not eat it either. Cast on the road, cattle and horses shunned it. Left in the wilderness, flocks of birds warmed it with their plumage. The king tried to cut it open but could not break it, and returned it to the mother. The mother wrapped it in cloth and set it somewhere warm; a boy burst out from the shell. When he came of age, they gave him the name Jumong. In their tongue, "Jumong" meant a skilled archer. The Buyeo people, holding that Jumong was not born of human parents, petitioned that he be killed. The king refused and set him to tending horses. Jumong secretly tested the horses and sorted good from bad: he cut the rations of the swift so they grew lean, while feeding the slow ones well until they grew fat. The King of Buyeo kept the fat horses for himself and gave Jumong only the lean ones. Later, on a hunt, because Jumong was a fine archer, they gave him a single arrow. With that one arrow Jumong nevertheless brought down many beasts. Buyeo ministers plotted again to kill him; his mother warned Jumong, and he fled southeast with Yaweon and two companions. On the way they came to a great river and wished to cross, but there was no bridge. Buyeo pursuers pressed hard upon them; Jumong called to the water: "I am the son of the sun, grandson of the River Lord—the pursuers are almost upon me; how can I cross?" Then fish and turtles formed a bridge, and Jumong crossed. The fish and turtles then broke apart, and the pursuers could not follow across. Jumong came to the Pusu River and met three men—one in hemp, one in monastic robes, one in waterweed—and with Jumong they went to Kesunggol City and made their home there. They named the state Goguryeo and took Gao as their surname. His wife had been pregnant in Buyeo; after Jumong fled, she gave birth to a son named Yuri. When Yuri grew up and learned Jumong had become king, he went with his mother to rejoin him. He was called Yuri and was entrusted with the affairs of state.

硃蒙死，子如栗立。如栗死，子莫來立，乃並夫餘。

When Jumong died, his son Yuri-li succeeded to the throne. When Yuri-li died, his son Marau took the throne and absorbed Buyeo.

漢武帝元封四年，滅朝鮮，置玄菟郡，以高句麗爲縣以屬之。漢時賜衣幘朝服鼓吹，常從玄菟郡受之。後稍驕，不復詣郡，但於東界築小城受之，遂名此城爲幟溝漊。「溝漊婁」者，句麗「城」名也。王莽初，發高句麗兵以伐胡，而不欲行，莽強迫遣之，皆出塞爲寇盜。州郡歸咎于句麗侯騶，嚴尤誘而斬之。莽大悅，更名高句麗，高句麗侯。光武建武八年，高句麗遣使朝貢。

In the fourth year of Yuanfeng under Emperor Wu of Han, Joseon was destroyed, the Xuantu commandery was established, and Goguryeo was made a county under it. Under Han they were granted robes, caps, court dress, and ceremonial music, which they regularly received from the Xuantu commandery. Later they grew proud and ceased visiting the commandery, building a small town on the eastern frontier to receive the gifts instead—hence the name Baichaolou for that town. In Goguryeo, "Baichaolou" meant "city." Early in Wang Mang's reign Goguryeo troops were conscripted to fight the northern peoples; unwilling to go, they were driven out by force and all turned to raiding beyond the passes. The provincial authorities blamed the Goguryeo marquis Chou; Yan You lured him in and executed him. Wang Mang was delighted and renamed the state and its ruler Gaoligou and Marquis of Gaoligou. In the eighth year of Jianwu under Emperor Guangwu, Goguryeo sent envoys with tribute.

至殤、安之間，莫來裔孫宮，建寇遼東。玄菟太守蔡風討之，不能禁。

Between the reigns of Shangdi and Andi, Marau's descendant Gong launched raids into Liaodong. The Xuantu governor Cai Feng attacked him but could not stop the raids.

宮死，子伯固立。順、和之間，復數犯遼東，寇抄。靈帝建寧二年，玄菟太守耿臨討之，斬首虜數百級，伯固乃降，屬遼東。公孫度之雄海東也，伯固與之通好。

When Gong died, his son Bojigu took the throne. During the reigns of Shundi and Hedi they again raided Liaodong repeatedly. In the second year of Jianning under Emperor Ling, Xuantu governor Geng Lin attacked them, taking several hundred heads; Bojigu surrendered and was placed under Liaodong. When Gongsun Du held sway over the eastern sea, Bojigu kept friendly ties with him.

伯固死，子伊夷摸立。伊夷摸自伯固時，已數寇遼東，又受亡胡五百餘戶。建安中，公孫康出軍擊之，破其國，焚燒邑落，降胡亦叛。伊夷摸更作新國。其後伊夷摸復擊玄菟，玄菟與遼東合擊，大破之。

When Bojigu died, his son Yayemo succeeded. Yayemo had raided Liaodong many times even under Bojigu, and took in more than five hundred households of fugitive Hu. In the Jian'an era Gongsun Kang marched against them, broke their state, burned their settlements, and the surrendered Hu rebelled as well. Yayemo founded a new capital and state. Later Yayemo attacked Xuantu again; Xuantu and Liaodong joined forces and inflicted a crushing defeat.

伊夷摸死，子位宮立。始位宮曾祖宮，生而目開能視，國人惡之。及長凶虐，國以殘破。及位宮亦生而視人，高麗呼相似爲「位「，以爲似其曾祖宮，故名位宮。位宮亦有勇力，便鞍馬，善射獵。魏景初二年，遣太傅、司馬宣王率衆討公孫文懿，位宮遣主簿、大加將數千人助軍。正始三年，位宮寇遼西安平。五年，幽州刺史毋丘儉將萬人出玄菟，討位宮，大戰於沸流。敗走，儉追至赬峴，懸車束馬登丸都山，屠其所都。位宮單將妻息遠竄。六年，儉復討之，位宮輕將諸加奔沃沮。儉使將軍王頎追之，絕沃沮千餘里，到肅慎南，刻石紀功。又刊丸都山、銘不耐城而還。其後，復通中夏。

When Yayemo died, his son Weigong took the throne. Weigong's great-grandfather Gong had been born with his eyes open and able to see—the people loathed him for it. When he grew up he was savage and cruel, and the realm was laid waste. Weigong too was born staring at people; in Goguryeo "similar" was pronounced wei—they took him to resemble his great-grandfather Gong, and named him Weigong. Weigong too was brave and strong, handy in the saddle, and skilled at archery and the hunt. In the second year of Jingchu under Wei, Grand Tutor Sima Yi marched against Gongsun Wenyi; Weigong sent his chief clerk and a grand general with several thousand troops to aid him. In the third year of Zhengshi, Weigong raided Liaoxi and Anping. In the fifth year, Youzhou inspector Guanqiu Jian led ten thousand men from Xuantu against Weigong; they fought a great battle at Beiliu. Weigong fled in defeat; Jian pursued to Chixian, dismantled his wagons to lead horses up Mount Wandu, and sacked the capital. Weigong fled far off with only his wife and children. In the sixth year Jian campaigned again; Weigong fled with light troops and his nobles to Woju. Jian sent General Wang Qi in pursuit more than a thousand li through Woju to south of Sushen, where he carved a stone to commemorate the victory. He also inscribed Mount Wandu and engraved Naiburu before turning back. Afterward they resumed relations with the central realm.

晉永嘉之亂，鮮卑慕容廆據昌黎大棘城，元帝授平州刺史。位宮玄孫乙弗利頻寇遼東，廆不能制。

In the Yongjia upheaval of Jin, the Xianbei Murong Hui seized Great Jicheng in Changli; Emperor Yuan appointed him inspector of Pingzhou. Weigong's great-grandson Yifuli raided Liaodong repeatedly, and Hui could not restrain him.

弗利死，子釗代立。魏建國四年，慕容廆子晃伐之，入自南陝，戰於木底，大破釗軍。追至丸都。釗單馬奔竄，晃掘釗父墓，掠其母妻、珍寶、男女五萬餘口，焚其室，毀丸都城而還。釗後爲百濟所殺。

When Yifuli died, his son Chao succeeded him. In the fourth year of the Wei founding state, Murong Hui's son Huang attacked them, entering by the southern pass and crushing Chao's army at Mudi. The pursuit reached Wandu. Chao fled alone on horseback; Huang opened Chao's father's tomb, seized his mother and wife along with treasures and more than fifty thousand captives, burned their dwellings, razed Wandu, and withdrew. Chao was later killed by Baekje.

及晉孝武太元十年，句麗攻遼東、玄菟郡。後燕慕容垂遣其弟農伐句麗，復二郡。垂子寶以句麗王安爲平州牧，封遼東、帶方二國王，始置長史、司馬、參軍官。後略有遼東郡。

In the tenth year of Taiyuan under Emperor Xiaowu of Jin, Goguryeo attacked the Liaodong and Xuantu commanderies. Murong Chui of Later Yan sent his brother Nong against Goguryeo and recovered the two commanderies. Chui's son Bao made the Goguryeo king An governor of Pingzhou, enfeoffed him as king of Liaodong and Daifang, and first appointed chief clerk, major, and staff officer posts. Later they gradually seized Liaodong commandery.

太武時，釗曾孫璉始遣使者詣安東，奉表貢方物，並請國諱。太武嘉其誠款，詔下帝系名諱于其國。使員外散騎侍郎李敖拜璉爲都督遼海諸軍事、征東將軍、領東夷中郎將、遼東郡公、高句麗王。敖至其所，居平壤城，訪其方事，云：去遼東南一千餘里，東至柵城，南至小海，北至舊夫餘，人戶參倍于前魏時。後貢使相尋。歲致黃金二百斤、白銀四百斤。時馮弘率衆奔之，太武遣散騎常侍封撥詔璉，令送弘。璉上書稱當與弘俱奉王化，竟不遣。太武怒，將往討之。樂平王丕等議等後舉，太武乃止。而弘亦壽爲璉所殺。

Under Emperor Taiwu, Chao's great-grandson Lian first sent envoys to Andong with a memorial, tribute, and a request for the imperial taboo names. Emperor Taiwu was pleased with his sincerity and ordered the imperial lineage taboos sent to Goguryeo. He dispatched Supernumerary Palace Attendant Li Ao to invest Lian as commander of all military affairs on the Liaohai coast, General Who Conquers the East, colonel of the Eastern Yi, duke of Liaodong commandery, and king of Goguryeo. When Ao reached their capital at Pyongyang and asked about their domain, they said it lay more than a thousand li south of Liaodong, east to Zhacheng, south to the lesser sea, and north to old Buyeo—with households nearly triple those of Former Wei times. Tribute missions followed in steady succession thereafter. Each year they sent two hundred jin of gold and four hundred jin of silver in tribute. At that time Feng Hong led his followers in flight to Goguryeo; Emperor Taiwu sent Palace Attendant Feng Bo to issue an edict to Lian demanding that he surrender Hong. Lian memorialized that he and Hong would together submit to the imperial civilizing influence, but in the end he did not hand Hong over. Emperor Taiwu was furious and prepared to lead a campaign against him in person. The Prince of Leping, Pi, and others urged that the campaign be deferred; Emperor Taiwu then abandoned the plan. Hong's son Shou was also killed by Lian.

後文明太后以獻文六宮未備，敕璉令薦其女。璉奉表云：女已出，求以弟女應旨。朝廷許焉，乃遣安樂王真、尚書李敷等至境送幣。璉惑其左右之說，云朝廷昔與馮氏婚姻，未幾而滅其國。殷鑒不遠，宜以方便辭之。璉遂上書，妄稱女死。朝廷疑其矯拒，又遣假散騎常侍程駿切責之，若女審死，聽更選宗淑。璉云：「若天子恕其前愆，謹當奉詔。」會獻文崩，乃止。至孝文時，璉貢獻倍前，其報賜亦稍加焉。時光州於海中得璉遣詣齊使餘奴等，送闕。孝文詔責曰：「道成親殺其君，竊號江左，朕方欲興滅國於舊邦，繼絕世于劉氏。而卿越境外鄉，交通篡賊，豈是籓臣守節之義？今不以一過掩舊款，即送還籓。其感恕思愆，祗承明憲，輯寧所部，動靜以聞。」

Later, because Emperor Xianwen's six palaces were not yet staffed, Empress Dowager Wenming ordered Lian to present his daughter for the harem. Lian submitted a memorial saying his daughter had already been married and asking that his younger brother's daughter answer the imperial summons instead. The court assented and dispatched the Prince of Anle, Zhen, Minister Li Fu, and others to the frontier with betrothal gifts. Lian was swayed by his advisers, who said that when the court had once arranged a marriage with the Feng clan, their kingdom had been destroyed not long afterward. The warning of recent history was close at hand; he ought to decline on some convenient pretext. Lian then memorialized, falsely reporting that his daughter had died. The court suspected a feigned refusal and again sent Acting Palace Attendant Cheng Jun to rebuke him sharply, saying that if the girl had truly died, he might choose another worthy woman of the clan. Lian said, "If the Son of Heaven pardons my earlier faults, I shall dutifully obey the edict." But Emperor Xianwen died just then, and the matter was dropped. Under Emperor Xiaowen, Lian's tribute doubled what it had been, and the court's return gifts increased somewhat as well. At that time Guangzhou seized at sea envoys Lian had dispatched to Qi, including Yu Nu and others, and sent them to the capital. Emperor Xiaowen issued a reprimand: "Daocheng murdered his sovereign with his own hand and usurped a title south of the Yangzi; We intend to restore extinguished states in their former lands and continue the broken line of the Liu house. Yet you have crossed your borders to court another power and deal with a usurper—how is this the conduct befitting a frontier subject who keeps his integrity? We do not let a single fault efface your long-standing loyalty; send him back to your frontier at once. Take Our mercy to heart and reflect on your fault; reverently uphold Our clear laws, bring peace to your domain, and report all your affairs."

太和十五年，璉死，年百餘歲。孝文舉哀於東郊，遣謁者僕射李安上策贈車騎大將軍、太傅、遼東郡公、高句麗王，諡曰康。又遣大鴻臚拜璉孫雲使持節、都督遼海諸軍事、征東將軍、領護東夷中郎將、遼東郡公、高句麗王。賜衣冠服物車旗之飾。又詔雲遣世子入朝，令及郊丘之禮。雲上書辭疾，遣其從叔升于隨使詣闕嚴責之，自此，歲常貢獻。正始中，宣武於東堂引見其使芮悉弗，進曰：「高麗系誠天極，累葉純誠，地產土毛，無愆王貢。但黃金出夫餘，珂則涉羅所產。今夫餘爲勿吉所逐，涉羅爲百濟所並。國王臣雲惟繼絕之義，悉遷於境內。二品所以不登王府，實兩賊之爲。」宣武曰：「高麗世荷上將，專制海外，九夷黠虜，實得征之。昔方貢之愆，責在連率。宜宣朕旨於卿主，務盡威懷之略，使二邑還復舊墟，土毛無失常貢也。」

In the fifteenth year of Taihe, Lian died at more than a hundred years of age. Emperor Xiaowen held mourning rites at the eastern suburb and sent Gentleman-in-Attendance Li An with a posthumous patent investing him as General of Chariots and Cavalry, Grand Tutor, Duke of Liaodong Commandery, and King of Goguryeo, with the posthumous epithet Kang. He also sent the Grand Herald to invest Lian's grandson Yun as holder of the staff of authority, commander of all military affairs on the Liaohai coast, General Who Conquers the East, colonel protecting the Eastern Yi, duke of Liaodong commandery, and king of Goguryeo. He was granted robes, caps, ceremonial garments, chariots, banners, and other insignia of rank. He also commanded Yun to send his heir to court in time for the suburban and feng-shan ceremonies. Yun memorialized pleading illness and sent his paternal uncle Sheng Yu to follow the envoy to the capital, where he was sternly rebuked; from then on tribute was sent every year. In the Zhengshi era, Emperor Xuanwu received Goguryeo's envoy Ru Xifu in the eastern hall; he stepped forward and said: "Goguryeo has bound its loyalty to the utmost of Heaven through generations of pure sincerity; its land yields local products and never falls short on imperial tribute. But gold comes from Buyeo, and cowrie shells come from Silla. Now Buyeo has been driven out by Wuji, and Silla has been annexed by Baekje. Our king, your subject Yun, in keeping with the duty to continue a severed line, has moved them all within our borders. The reason the two tribute items no longer reach the imperial treasury is truly the work of these two marauders. Emperor Xuanwu said: "Goguryeo for generations has borne the dynasty's heavy commissions and held sole sway overseas; the nine Yi and cunning barbarians are truly fit objects for campaigning. In former times when regional tribute failed, the blame lay with the regional inspector. You should proclaim Our intent to your lord and strive to exhaust every strategy of awe and conciliation, so that the two districts recover their old territories and local tribute is never irregular."

神龜中，雲死，靈太后爲舉哀於東堂。遣使策贈車騎大將軍、領護東夷校尉、遼東郡公、高麗王。又拜其世子安爲鎮東將軍、領護東夷校尉、遼東郡公、高麗王。正光初，光州又於海中執得梁所授安寧東將軍衣冠劍珮，及使人江法盛等，送京師。

In the Shengui era Yun died; Empress Dowager Ling held mourning rites for him in the eastern hall. She sent an envoy with a posthumous patent investing him as General of Chariots and Cavalry, colonel protecting the Eastern Yi, duke of Liaodong commandery, and king of Goguryeo. She also invested his heir An as General Who Pacifies the East, colonel protecting the Eastern Yi, duke of Liaodong commandery, and king of Goguryeo. At the beginning of Zhenguang, Guangzhou again seized at sea the robes, sword, and girdle ornaments Liang had conferred on An as General Who Pacifies the East, together with the envoy Jiang Fasheng and others, and sent them to the capital.

安死，子延立。孝武帝初，詔加延使持節、散騎常侍、車騎大將軍、領護東夷校尉、遼東郡公、高句麗王。天平中，詔加延侍中、驃騎大將軍，余悉如故。

When An died, his son Yan succeeded him. At the beginning of Emperor Xiaowu's reign, an edict added for Yan the titles holder of the staff of authority, palace attendant, General of Chariots and Cavalry, colonel protecting the Eastern Yi, duke of Liaodong commandery, and king of Goguryeo. In the Tianping era an edict further added palace counselor and General of Agile Cavalry; all other titles remained unchanged.

延死，子成立。訖于武定已來，其貢使無歲不至。大統十二年，遣使至西魏朝貢。及齊受東魏禪之歲，遣使朝貢于齊。齊文宣加成使持節、侍中、驃騎大將軍，領東夷校尉、遼東郡公、高麗王如故。天保三年，文宣至營州，使博陵崔柳使於高麗，求魏末流人。敕柳曰：「若不從者，以便宜從事。」及至，不見許。柳張目叱之，拳擊成墜於床下，成左右雀息不敢動，乃謝服，柳以五千戶反命。

When Yan died, his son Cheng succeeded him. From the Wuding era onward, tribute envoys came every year without fail. In the twelfth year of Datong they sent envoys to the Western Wei to pay court and present tribute. In the year Qi received the abdication of Eastern Wei, they sent envoys to pay court and present tribute to Qi. Wenxuan of Qi added for Cheng the titles holder of the staff of authority, palace counselor, and General of Agile Cavalry, while colonel of the Eastern Yi, duke of Liaodong commandery, and king of Goguryeo remained as before. In the third year of Tianbao, Wenxuan went to Yingzhou and sent Cui Liu of Boling as envoy to Goguryeo to demand the people who had fled there at the end of Wei. He instructed Liu: "If they refuse, act as circumstances require." When he arrived, his request was refused. Liu glared and shouted him down and struck Cheng so that he fell from the couch; Cheng's attendants held their breath and dared not stir; then Cheng apologized and submitted; Liu returned with five thousand households to report his mission complete.

其國，東至新羅，西度遼，二千里；南接百濟，北鄰靺鞨，一千餘里。人皆士著，隨山谷而居，衣布帛及皮。土田薄瘠，蠶農不足以自供，故其人節飲食。其王好修宮室，都平壤城，亦曰長安城，東西六里，隨山屈曲，南臨浿水。城內唯積倉儲器備，寇賊至日，方入固守。王別爲宅於其側，不常居之。其外復有國內城及漢城，亦別都也。其國中呼爲三京。復有遼東、玄菟等數十城，皆置官司以統攝。與新羅每相侵奪，戰爭不息。

The kingdom extended east to Silla and west to the Liao crossing—two thousand li; south it bordered Baekje and north it neighbored Mohe—more than a thousand li. The people were all indigenous inhabitants who lived along valleys and wore cloth, silk, and hides. The soil was thin and poor; sericulture and farming could not fully sustain them, so the people were sparing in food and drink. Their kings delighted in building palaces; the capital was Pyongyang, also called Chang'an city, six li from east to west, winding with the hills and facing the Yalu River on the south. Within the city were only storehouses and equipment; when raiders came, the people entered only then to hold out in defense. The king kept a separate residence beside it and did not dwell there regularly. Outside were also the Inner City and the Han City, which served as secondary capitals. Within the kingdom these were called the Three Capitals. There were also several dozen cities such as Liaodong and Xuantu, each with officials appointed to govern them. With Silla they constantly raided and seized territory from each other; warfare never ceased.

官有大對盧、太大兄、大兄、小兄、竟侯奢、鳥拙、太大使者、大使者、小使者、褥奢、翳屬、仙人，凡十二等，分掌內外事。其大對盧則以強弱相陵奪而自爲之，不由王署置。復有內評、五部褥薩。人皆頭著折風，形如弁，士人加插二鳥羽。貴者，其冠曰蘇骨，多用紫羅爲之，飾以金銀。服大袖衫、大口袴、素皮帶、黃革履。婦人裙襦加襈。書有《五經》、《三史》、《三國志》、《晉陽秋》。兵器與中國略同。及春秋校獵，王親臨之。稅，布五疋、谷五石；遊人則三年一稅，十人共細布一疋。租，戶一石，次七斗，下五斗。其刑法，叛及謀逆者，縛之柱，爇而斬之，籍沒其家；盜則償十倍，若貧不能償者樂及公私債負，皆聽評其子女爲奴婢以償之。用刑既峻，罕有犯者。樂有五弦、琴、箏、篳篥、橫吹、簫、鼓之屬，吹蘆以和曲。每年初，聚戲浿水上，王乘腰輦、列羽儀觀之。事畢，王以衣入水，分爲左右二部，以水石相濺擲，喧呼馳逐，再三而止。俗潔淨自喜，尚容止，以趨走爲敬。拜則曳一腳，立多反拱，行必插手。性多詭伏，言辭鄙穢，不簡親疏。父子同川而浴，共室而寢。好歌舞，常以十月祭天，其公會衣服，皆錦繡金銀以爲飾。好蹲踞，食用俎機。出三尺馬，云本朱蒙所乘馬種，即果下也。風俗尚淫，不以爲愧，俗多遊女，夫無常人，夜則男女群聚而戲，無有貴賤之節。有婚嫁，取男女相悅即爲之。男家送豬酒而已，無財聘之禮；或有受財者，人共恥之，以爲賣婢。死者，殯在屋內，經三年，擇吉日而葬。居父母及夫喪，服皆三年，兄弟三月。初終哭泣，葬則鼓舞作樂以送之。埋訖，取死者生時服玩車馬置墓側，會葬者爭取而去。信佛法，敬鬼神，多淫祠。有神廟二所：一曰夫餘神，刻木作婦人像；一曰高登神，雲是其始祖夫餘神之子。並置官司，遣人守護，蓋河伯女、硃蒙云。

Offices included Grand Tutul, Grand Elder Brother, Elder Brother, Lesser Elder Brother, Gyeonghu Se, Bird-clumsy, Grand Envoy, Envoy, Lesser Envoy, Yuseo, Registrar, and Immortal—twelve ranks in all, dividing civil and military affairs. The Grand Tutul seized the post by the strong dominating the weak and made himself such; he was not appointed by the king's office. There were also the Inner Evaluator and the Five Departments' Yuseo. All wore on the head a folding-wind hat shaped like a cap; gentlemen added two bird feathers as ornaments. For nobles the cap was called Sugol, mostly made of purple gauze and adorned with gold and silver. They wore large-sleeved jackets, baggy trousers, plain leather belts, and yellow leather shoes. Women wore skirts and jackets with added trim. In books they had the Five Classics, the Three Histories, Records of the Three Kingdoms, and Spring and Autumn of the Jin. Their weapons were largely the same as China's. When the spring and autumn hunts were held, the king attended in person. Tax was five bolts of cloth and five shi of grain; Travelers paid tax once every three years—ten men together contributed one bolt of fine cloth. Land rent was one shi per top-grade household, seven dou for the next grade, and five dou for the lowest. In their penal code, rebels and plotters were bound to a pillar, burned and beheaded, and their households were confiscated; Theft required tenfold restitution; if the thief was too poor to repay, public and private debts alike might be settled by appraising his sons and daughters as slaves. Because punishments were severe, few people offended. Music included five-string lutes, qin, zheng, bili, transverse flutes, xiao, drums, and the like; reed-pipes were blown to harmonize the melody. At the start of each year they gathered for games on the Yalu; the king rode a waist-palanquin and arrayed feather banners to watch. When it was over the king entered the water in his robes; the people divided into left and right groups and splashed water and stones at one another, shouting and chasing in sport, stopping after several rounds. By custom they valued cleanliness and took pride in their bearing; swift walking was regarded as respectful. When bowing they dragged one foot; when standing they often arched backward; when walking they always clasped their hands. Their nature was much given to concealment; their speech was coarse and they did not distinguish near from far in intimacy. Fathers and sons bathed in the same stream and slept in the same room. They loved song and dance; in the tenth month they sacrificed to Heaven; at public gatherings their garments were adorned with brocade, embroidery, gold, and silver. They liked squatting and ate from platters and low tables. They raised three-foot horses, saying the breed was the steed Jumong had ridden—the so-called fruit-below pony. Custom favored licentiousness and did not regard it as shameful; there were many traveling women and men without fixed partners; at night men and women gathered in groups for sport without distinction of noble or base. When people married, if a man and woman were fond of each other that sufficed. The groom's family sent only pigs and wine—there was no bride-price ceremony; If anyone accepted bride-wealth, others shamed him together, treating it as selling a bondmaid. When someone died the corpse lay in the house for three years; on an auspicious day they were buried. Mourning for parents and for a husband's death lasted three years; for brothers, three months. At first they wept and wailed; at the burial they drummed, danced, and made music to send the dead off. After the burial they placed the deceased's lifetime clothes, curios, chariots, and horses beside the tomb; those attending the funeral snatched them away. They believed in Buddhism, revered ghosts and spirits, and maintained many excessive shrines. There were two spirit temples: one to the Buyeo spirit, with a wooden image carved as a woman; one to the Gaodeng spirit, who they say was the son of the Buyeo spirit their ancestor. Both had officials appointed to guard them—they say these represent the River Lord's daughter and Jumong.

及隋平陳後，湯大懼，陳兵積穀，爲守拒之策。開皇十七年，上賜璽書，責以每遣使人，歲常朝貢，雖稱籓附，誠節未盡。驅逼靺鞨，禁固契丹。昔年潛行貨利，招動群小，私將弩手，巡竄下國，豈非意欲不臧，故爲竊盜？坐使空館，嚴加防守；又數遣馬騎，殺害邊人。恆自猜疑，密覘消息，殷勤曉示，許其自新。湯得書惶恐，將表陳謝。會病卒。

After the Sui pacified Chen, Tang was greatly alarmed, arrayed troops and stored grain, and prepared plans to hold out and resist. In the seventeenth year of Kaihuang, the emperor sent an imperial letter under the seal, rebuking him: though he dispatched envoys year after year with tribute and styled himself a subject state, his loyalty had not been whole-hearted. He harried the Mohe and blockaded the Khitan. In years past he traded in secret for gain, stirred up lowborn men, and privately sent crossbowmen to raid and skulk in neighboring lands—was this not a corrupt heart that made him a thief and a brigand? He left envoys stranded in empty guesthouses under heavy guard; and again and again sent horsemen to slaughter frontier folk. He was ever suspicious and spied on news in secret; the emperor patiently admonished him and granted that he might reform. Tang received the letter in terror and was preparing a memorial of apology. But before he could do so, he fell ill and died.

子元嗣。文帝使拜元爲上開府儀同三司，襲爵遼東公，賜服一襲。元奉表謝恩，並賀祥瑞，因請封王。文帝優冊爲王。明年，率靺鞨萬餘騎寇遼西，營州總管韋世衝擊走之。帝大怒，命漢王諒爲元帥，總水陸討之，下詔黜其爵位。時饋運不繼，六軍乏食，師出臨渝關，復遇疾疫，王師不振。及次遼水，元亦惶懼，遣使謝罪，上表稱「遼東糞土臣元」云云。上於是罷兵，待之如初。元亦歲遣朝貢。

His son Yuan succeeded him. Emperor Wen appointed Yuan Supernumerary Palace Attendant of the First Rank with Honours Equal to the Three Dukes, had him inherit the title Duke of Liaodong, and granted him one full set of court robes. Yuan submitted a memorial thanking the throne for grace, congratulating the court on auspicious omens, and asking to be enfeoffed as king. Emperor Wen graciously made him king. The next year he led more than ten thousand Mohe horsemen against Liaoxi; Wei Shichong, defender-in-chief of Yingzhou, attacked and routed them. The emperor was furious, appointed Prince Yang Liang of Han supreme commander over land and sea forces to punish him, and issued an edict stripping his noble rank. Supplies failed to keep pace; the six armies ran short of food; the host marched to Linyuguan Pass and was struck again by pestilence; the imperial army could not gain the upper hand. When the army reached the Liao River, Yuan too was afraid; he sent envoys to beg pardon and submitted a memorial styling himself "the dung-and-dust subject Yuan of Liaodong," and the like. The emperor thereupon halted the campaign and treated him as before. Yuan likewise sent tribute to court every year.

煬帝嗣位，天下全盛，高昌王、突厥啟人可汗並親詣闕貢獻，於是征元入朝。元懼，蕃禮頗闕。大業七年，帝將討元罪，車駕度遼水，止營於遼東地，分道出師，各頓兵於其城下。高麗出戰多不利，皆嬰城固守。帝令諸軍攻之，又敕諸將，高麗若降，即宜撫納，不得縱兵入。城將陷，賊輒言降，諸將奉旨，不敢赴機。先馳奏，比報，賊守禦亦備，復出拒戰。如此者三，帝不悟。由是食盡師老，轉輸不繼，諸軍多敗績，於是班師。是行也，唯于遼水西拔賊武厲邏，置遼東郡及通定鎮而還。九年，帝復親征，敕諸軍以便宜從事。諸將分道攻城，賊勢日蹙。會楊玄感作亂，帝大懼，即日六軍並還。兵部侍郎斛斯政亡入高麗，高麗具知事實，盡銳來追，殿軍多敗。十年，又發天下兵，會盜賊蜂起，所在阻絕，軍多失期。至遼水，高麗亦困弊，遣使乞降，因送斛斯政贖罪。帝許之，頓懷遠鎮受其降，仍以俘囚軍實歸。至京師，以高麗使親告太廟，因拘留之。仍徵元入朝，元竟不至。帝更圖後舉，會天下喪亂，遂不復行。

When Emperor Yang took the throne, the empire stood at its height; the king of Gaochang and the Türk Qiren Qaghan both came in person to the palace with tribute—whereupon the emperor summoned Yuan to court. Yuan was afraid and his barbarian court etiquette fell notably short. In the seventh year of Daye the emperor set out to punish Yuan's offenses; the imperial carriage crossed the Liao River and encamped in Liaodong; armies marched by separate routes, each halting beneath the walls of its assigned city. Goguryeo met the field mostly without success and everywhere shut the gates to hold their walls. The emperor ordered the armies to press the attack, and again charged his generals: if Goguryeo surrendered, they were to receive and reassure them at once and must not let their troops enter the cities at will. When a city was on the verge of capture, the foe would at once proclaim surrender; the generals, bound by the edict, dared not press the advantage. They would first ride off to report; by the time the answer returned, the enemy had readied their defenses and sallied out to fight again. This happened three times over, yet the emperor did not see through it. Provisions ran out, the troops grew weary, supply lines broke down, many armies were beaten—and so the host withdrew. On this expedition they took only the enemy stronghold of Wuli Luo west of the Liao River, set up Liaodong commandery and Tongding garrison, and turned back. In the ninth year the emperor led another campaign in person and told the armies to act at their own discretion as the situation demanded. The generals besieged by separate routes, and the enemy's situation grew tighter day by day. Just then Yang Xuangan rose in rebellion; the emperor was terrified and that very day ordered all six armies to withdraw together. Vice Minister of War Qusi Zheng fled into Goguryeo; Goguryeo knew the whole truth and pursued at full strength; the rearguard suffered many defeats. In the tenth year the empire mobilized again; bandits swarmed everywhere, roads were cut off in every quarter, and many units failed to arrive on time. When the army reached the Liao River, Goguryeo too was spent; it sent envoys begging to surrender and delivered Qusi Zheng to expiate the offense. The emperor agreed, halted at Huaiyuan Garrison to accept their surrender, and still marched home with prisoners and military stores. At the capital he had the Goguryeo envoys report in person to the Imperial Ancestral Temple, then detained them. He again summoned Yuan to court, but Yuan never came. The emperor planned another expedition, but the empire fell into turmoil and the campaign was never launched again.

百濟之國，蓋馬韓之屬也，出自索離國。其王出行，其侍兒於後妊娠，王還，欲殺之。侍兒曰：「前見天上有氣如大雞子來降，感，故有娠。」王舍之。後生男，王置之豕牢，豕以口氣噓之，不死；後徙于馬闌，亦如之。王以爲神，命養之，名曰東明。及長，善射，王忌其猛，復欲殺之。東明乃奔走，南至淹滯水，以弓擊水，魚鱉皆爲橋，東明乘之得度，至夫餘而王焉。東明之後有仇台，篤於仁信，始立國于帶方故地。漢遼東太守公孫度以女妻之，遂爲東夷強國。初以百家濟，因號百濟。

The kingdom of Baekje belonged to the Ma-han peoples and traced its origin to the Suoli state. Once when the king was away on a journey, a chamber woman who had accompanied him was found with child; on his return the king meant to put her to death. The woman said, "Formerly I saw a breath from heaven, like a great egg, descend upon me; stirred by it, I conceived." The king spared her. She later bore a son; the king cast him into a pigpen, but the pigs warmed him with their breath and he lived; when he was moved to a horse corral, the same thing happened. The king judged this divine and ordered the child reared; he was named Dongming. When he grew to manhood he excelled at archery; the king, fearing his fierceness, again sought to kill him. Dongming fled south to the Yanzhi River, struck the water with his bow, and fish and turtles formed a bridge; he crossed upon it, reached Buyeo, and became king there. After Dongming came Qiutai, a man steeped in benevolence and trust, who first founded the state on the old lands of Daifang. Gongsun Du, administrator of Liaodong under Han, gave him his daughter in marriage, and Baekje became a great power among the Eastern Yi. At first a hundred households crossed the sea to settle there; from this the name Baekje—"a hundred crossings"—was taken.

其國東極新羅，北接高句麗，西南俱限大海，處小海南，東西四百五十里，南北九百餘里。其都曰居拔城，亦曰固麻城。其外更有五方：中方曰古沙城，東方曰得安城，南方曰久知下城，西方曰刀先城，北方曰熊津城。王姓餘氏，號「于羅瑕」，百姓呼爲「鞬吉支」，夏言並王也。王妻號「于陸」，夏言妃也。官有十六品：左平五人，一品；達率三十人，二品；恩率，三品；德率，四品；杅率，五品；奈率，六品。已上冠飾銀華。將德，七品，紫帶。施德，八品，皁帶。固德，九品，赤帶。季德，十品，青帶。對德，十一品；文督，十二品，皆黃帶。武督，十三品；佐軍，十四品；振武，十五品；克虞，十六品，皆白帶。自恩率以下，官無常員。各有部司，分掌衆務。內官有前內部、穀內部、內掠部、外掠部、馬部、刀部、功德部、藥部、木部、法陪、後宮部。外官有司軍部、司徒部、司空部、司寇部、點口部、客部、外舍部、綢部、日官部、市部，長吏三年一交代。都下有萬家，分爲五部，曰上部、前部、中部、下部、後部，部有五巷，士庶居焉。部統兵五百人。五方各有方領一人，以達率爲之，方佐貳之。方有十郡，郡有將三人，以德率爲之。統兵一千二百人以下，七百人以上。城之內外人庶及余小城，咸分隸焉。

The realm extended east to Silla, bordered Goguryeo on the north, and on the southwest was bounded entirely by the ocean; it lay south of the Lesser Sea, some four hundred fifty li from east to west and more than nine hundred li from north to south. The capital was called Geupsa Castle, also known as Gumak Castle. Beyond the capital lay five regions: the central region at Gusak Castle, the east at Deogan Castle, the south at Juzhixia Castle, the west at Daoxian Castle, and the north at Ungjin Castle. The royal clan bore the surname Ye; the king's title was Yuraxia, and the people called him Jiangezhi—in Chinese, both mean "king." The queen's title was Yulu—in Chinese, consort. There were sixteen official ranks: Left Ping, five posts, first rank; Daeshuai, thirty posts, second rank; Enshuai, third rank; Deshuai, fourth rank; Yushuai, fifth rank; Naishuai, sixth rank. From these ranks upward, officials wore caps adorned with silver flowers. Jiangde, seventh rank, with a purple belt. Shide, eighth rank, with a black belt. Gude, ninth rank, with a red belt. Jide, tenth rank, with a green belt. Duide, eleventh rank; Wendu, twelfth rank—all with yellow belts. Wudu, thirteenth rank; Zuojun, fourteenth rank; Zhenwu, fifteenth rank; Keyu, sixteenth rank—all with white belts. From Enshuai downward, offices had no fixed complement. Each rank had its own departments to divide and oversee the various duties of state. Inner offices comprised the Front Inner Bureau, Valley Inner Bureau, Inner Plunder Bureau, Outer Plunder Bureau, Horse Bureau, Blade Bureau, Merit Bureau, Medicine Bureau, Wood Bureau, Law Companion Bureau, and Rear Palace Bureau. Outer offices comprised the Military Affairs Bureau, Minister of Education Bureau, Minister of Works Bureau, Minister of Punishments Bureau, Household Register Bureau, Guest Bureau, Outer Lodging Bureau, Silk Bureau, Calendar Bureau, and Market Bureau—each chief rotated every three years. Within the capital stood ten thousand households, divided into five wards—Upper, Front, Middle, Lower, and Rear—each ward having five lanes where nobles and commoners lived. Each ward mustered five hundred troops. Each of the five regions had one regional commander drawn from the Daeshuai, assisted by a deputy. Each region contained ten districts; each district had three generals chosen from the Deshuai. They commanded between seven hundred and twelve hundred soldiers. The populace inside the capital walls and in the outlying towns all fell under their jurisdiction.

其人雜有新羅、高麗、倭等，亦有中國人。其飲食衣服，與高麗略同。若朝拜祭祀，其冠兩廂加翅，戎事則不。拜謁之禮，以兩手據地爲禮。婦人不加粉黛，女辮髪垂後，已出嫁，則分爲兩道，盤於頭上。主似袍而袖微大。兵有弓箭刀槊。俗重騎射，兼愛墳史，而秀異者頗解屬文，能吏事。又知醫藥、蓍龜，與相術、陰陽五行法。有僧尼，多寺塔，而無道士。有鼓角、箜篌、箏竽、篪笛之樂，投壺、樗蒲、弄珠、握槊等雜戲。尤尚奕棋。行宋《元嘉曆》，以建寅月爲歲首。賦稅以布、絹、絲、麻及米等，量歲豐儉，差等輸之。其刑罰，反叛、退軍及殺人者，斬；盜者，流，其贓兩倍征之；婦犯奸，沒入夫家爲婢。婚娶之禮，略同華俗。父母及夫死者，三年居服，餘親則葬訖除之。土田濕，氣候溫暖，人皆山居。有巨栗，其五穀、雜果、菜蔬及酒醴肴饌之屬，多同於內地。唯無駝、騾、驢、羊、鵝、鴨等。國中大姓有八族，沙氏、燕氏、刕氏、解氏、真氏、國氏、木氏、苗氏。其王每以四仲月祭天及五帝之神。立其始祖仇台之廟于國城，歲四祠之。國西南，人島居者十五所，皆有城邑。

The population was mixed with Silla, Goguryeo, Wa, and others, and included Chinese as well. Their diet and dress closely resembled Goguryeo's. For court audiences and sacrifices they wore caps with winglike sidepieces; in time of war they did not. When bowing in ceremony they planted both hands on the ground. Women wore no powder or rouge; unmarried girls wore a single braid down the back; after marriage they parted the hair in two coils atop the head. Their chief garment resembled a robe with somewhat fuller sleeves. Their weapons were the bow, arrow, sword, and spear. The people prized horsemanship and archery, cherished the histories and classics, and their ablest men could write respectable prose and manage official business. They also practiced medicine, yarrow-and-tortoise divination, physiognomy, and the arts of yin-yang and the five phases. There were monks and nuns and many temples and pagodas, but no Daoist clergy. Their music included drums, horns, konghou, zithers, flutes, and panpipes; pastimes included pitch-pot, chupu, pearl-juggling, wooshuo, and similar diversions. They were especially fond of chess. They followed the Song Yuanjia calendar, with the first month of the yin cycle as the year's beginning. Taxes were levied in cloth, silk, thread, hemp, rice, and the like, assessed according to the year's harvest and paid in graded amounts. Penalties were severe: rebels, deserters, and murderers were beheaded; thieves were banished and made to pay double the value of their plunder; adulterous wives were seized and made bondmaids in the husband's household. Wedding ceremonies largely followed Chinese practice. When a parent or husband died, mourners wore mourning for three years; for other relatives, mourning ended once the funeral was over. The land was wet and fertile, the climate mild, and the people all dwelt in the mountains. Giant chestnuts grew there; grains, fruits, vegetables, wines, and prepared foods largely matched those of the interior. They had no camels, mules, donkeys, sheep, geese, ducks, or similar stock. Eight great clans dominated the realm: the Sha, Yan, Li, Xie, Zhen, Guo, Mu, and Miao. Each year in the four mid-season months the king sacrificed to Heaven and to the Five Emperors. A temple to the founding ancestor Qiutai was built in the capital and honored with sacrifices four times yearly. To the southwest, fifteen island settlements, each with its own walled town.

魏延興二年，其王余慶始遣其冠軍將軍駙馬都尉弗斯侯、長史余禮、龍驤將軍、帶方太守司馬張茂等上表自通，云：「臣與高麗，源出夫餘，先世之時，篤崇舊款。其祖釗，輕廢鄰好，陵踐臣境。臣祖須，整旅電邁，梟斬釗首。自爾以來，莫敢南顧。自馮氏數終，餘燼奔竄，丑類漸盛，遂見陵逼，構怨連禍，三十餘載。若天慈曲矜，遠及無外，速遣一將，來救臣國。當奉送鄙女，執掃後宮，並遣子弟，收圉外廄，尺壤疋夫，不敢自有。去庚辰年後，臣西界海中，見屍十餘，並得衣器鞍勒。看之，非高麗之物。後聞乃是王人來降臣國，長蛇隔路，以阻於海。今上所得鞍一，以爲實矯。」

In the second year of Yanxi of Northern Wei, King Yu Qing of Baekje first sent his Champion General and Commandant of Escort Horse Fusi Hou, Chief Clerk Yu Li, Soaring Dragon General and Administrator of Daifang Sima Zhang Mao, and others to present a memorial opening relations, stating: "Your subject and Goguryeo alike descend from Buyeo; in ages past our houses cherished a bond of old friendship. Their ancestor Chao lightly broke that friendship and violated our borders. Your subject's ancestor Xu rallied his troops and struck like lightning, beheading Chao. From that day forward, none dared turn south against us. When the Feng line ended and its remnants scattered, the wicked grew bold; we have suffered their oppression, and grievance has bred disaster for more than thirty years. If Heaven's mercy extends even to the farthest reaches, send a general at once to save my kingdom. I will send my daughters to serve in the inner palace and my sons to tend your outer stables—not one plot of land nor one subject would I keep for myself. After the gengchen year, along the western sea frontier I found more than ten corpses and recovered their clothing, gear, and saddlery. Inspection showed they were not Goguryeo goods. I later learned they were men of Your Majesty's court seeking to reach us; a great serpent blocked their path and held them at the sea. The saddle now presented to Your Majesty I offer as proof of what I say."

獻文以其僻遠，冒險入獻，禮遇優厚，遣使者邵安與其使俱還。詔曰：「得表聞之無恙。卿與高麗不睦，至被陵犯，苟能順義，守之以仁，亦何憂於寇讎也。前所遣使，浮海以撫荒外之國，從來積年，往而不反，存亡達否，未能審悉。卿所送鞍，比校舊乘，非中國之物。不可以疑似之事，以生必然之過。經略權要，已具別旨。」又詔曰：「高麗稱籓先朝，供職日久，於彼雖有自昔之釁，于國未有犯令之愆。卿使命始通，便求致伐，尋討事會，理亦未周。所獻錦布海物，雖不悉達，明卿至心。今賜雜物如別。」又詔璉護送安等。至高麗，璉稱昔與余慶有讎，不令東過。安等於是皆還，乃下詔切責之。五年，使安等從東萊浮海，賜余慶璽書，褒其誠節。安等至海濱，遇風飄蕩，竟不達而還。

Emperor Xiaowen of Wei, noting how remote they were and the risk they had taken to come, received them with exceptional courtesy and sent the envoy Shao An back with their party. An edict read: "Your memorial has reached Us; We are glad to hear you are well. You are estranged from Goguryeo and have suffered invasion; yet if you uphold righteousness with benevolence, what enemy need you fear? Envoys We sent before crossed the sea to reach distant lands; for years they have not returned, and whether they live or die We cannot yet know. The saddle you sent, compared with mounts formerly used here, is not of Middle Kingdom make. Suspicion alone must not be turned into a settled charge. Matters of strategy and authority are addressed in a separate edict. Another edict stated: "Goguryeo has long been a tributary and dutiful vassal; though old quarrels lie between you, it has not violated Our commands. Your embassy has only just arrived, yet you already urge war; weighed in full, your case is not yet sound. The brocades, cloth, and sea goods you sent, though not all have reached Us, plainly show your loyalty. Gifts in return are granted as listed separately. A further edict ordered King Jangsu of Goguryeo to escort Shao An and his party. At Goguryeo, Jangsu cited an old feud with Yu Qing and refused to let them travel east. Shao An and his party had to turn back, and the court issued a stern rebuke. In the fifth year they were sent again from Donglai by sea, and sealed imperial writing praised Yu Qing's sincerity. At the coast storms drove them off course; they never reached Baekje and returned.

自晉、宋、齊、梁據江左，亦遣使稱籓，兼受拜封。亦與魏不絕。

Under Jin, Song, Qi, and Liang, which held the south, they too sent envoys as tributaries and received investiture. Relations with Wei likewise never lapsed.

隋開皇初，餘昌又遣使貢方物，拜上開府、帶方郡公、百濟王。平陳之歲，戰船漂至海東耽牟羅國。其船得還，經於百濟，昌資送之甚厚，並遣使奉表賀平陳。文帝善之，下詔曰：「彼國懸隔，來往至難，自今以後，不須年別入貢。」使者舞蹈而去。十八年，餘昌使其長史王辯那來獻方物。屬興遼東之役，遣奉表，請爲軍導。帝下詔，厚其使而遣之。高麗頗知其事，兵侵其境。余昌死，子餘璋立。大業三年，餘璋遣使燕文進朝貢。其年，又遣使王孝鄰入獻，請討高麗。煬帝許之，命覘高麗動靜。然餘璋內與高麗通和，挾詐以窺中國。七年，帝親征高麗，餘璋使其臣國智牟來請軍期。帝大悅，厚加賞賜，遣尚書起部郎席律詣百濟，與相知。明年，六軍度遼，餘璋亦嚴兵於境，聲言助軍，實持兩端。尋與新羅有隙，每相戰爭。十年，復遣使朝貢。後天下亂，使命遂絕。

Early in the Kaihuang era, Yu Chang again sent tribute; he was named Senior Grand Opening Office, Duke of Daifang, and King of Baekje. In the year Chen fell, warships drifted to Tamna in the eastern sea. On their return the ships called at Baekje; Chang furnished them lavishly and sent a memorial congratulating the Sui on pacifying Chen. Emperor Wen was pleased and decreed: "Your land lies far across the sea; annual tribute is too burdensome—henceforth you need not come every year. The envoys performed the ritual dance of obeisance and withdrew. In the eighteenth year Yu Chang sent his Chief Clerk Wang Bianna with tribute. During the Liaodong campaign he submitted a memorial offering to guide the army. The emperor rewarded the envoys generously and dismissed them. Goguryeo learned of the plan and invaded Baekje. Yu Chang died and was succeeded by his son Yu Zhang. In the third year of Daye, Yu Zhang sent Yan Wenjin to court with tribute. That year he also sent Wang Xiaolin, asking permission to attack Goguryeo. Emperor Yang agreed and ordered them to report on Goguryeo's movements. Yet Yu Zhang secretly treated with Goguryeo, playing a double game to watch the empire. In the seventh year the emperor campaigned against Goguryeo in person; Yu Zhang sent Guo Zhimou to ask when the armies would march. The emperor was delighted, showered gifts upon them, and sent Secretariat Master of Initiation Xi Lü to Baekje to coordinate plans. The next year, as the six armies crossed the Liao, Yu Zhang too mobilized on his border, claiming to aid the campaign while hedging between both powers. Soon he fell out with Silla, and the two states fought repeatedly. In the tenth year he again sent tribute to court. After the empire fell into chaos, embassies ceased altogether.

其南，海行三月有耽牟羅國，南北千餘里，東西數百里，土多麞鹿，附庸於百濟。西行三日，至貊國千餘里云。

Three months' sailing south lies Tamna, roughly a thousand li north to south and several hundred li east to west, rich in deer; it was a vassal of Baekje. Three days' sail westward, it is said, lies the Mo country, more than a thousand li distant.

新羅者，其先本辰韓種也。地在高麗東南，居漢時樂浪地。辰韓亦曰秦韓。相傳言秦世亡人避役來適，馬韓割其東界居之，以秦人，故名之曰秦韓。其言語名物，有似中國人，名國爲邦，弓爲弧，賊爲寇，行酒爲行觴，相呼皆爲徒，不與馬韓同。又辰韓王常用馬韓人作之，世世相傳，辰韓不得自立王，明其流移之人故也。恆爲馬韓所制。辰韓之始，有六國，稍分爲十二，新羅則其一也。或稱魏將毋丘儉討高麗破之，奔沃沮，其後復歸故國，有留者，遂爲新羅，亦曰斯盧。其人雜有華夏、高麗、百濟之屬，兼有沃沮、不耐、韓、滅之地。其王本百濟人，自海逃入新羅，遂王其國。初附庸於百濟，百濟征高麗，不堪戎役，後相率歸之，遂致強盛。因襲百濟，附庸于迦羅國焉。傳世三十，至真平。以隋開皇十四年，遣使貢方物。文帝拜真平上開府、樂浪郡公、新羅王。

Silla traced its origins to the Jinhan people. Its territory lay southeast of Goguryeo, in the Han-era commandery of Lelang. Jinhan was also known as Qinhan. Tradition holds that in Qin times men fleeing forced labor came and settled there; the Mahan ceded their eastern marches for them to live in, and because they were Qin people the region was called Qinhan. Their language and terms partly resembled Chinese: they called a state bang, a bow hu, a robber kou, serving wine xing shang, and addressed one another as du—unlike the Mahan. Moreover the Jinhan king was always a Mahan appointee, the office handed down through generations; Jinhan could not crown its own king, clear proof that they were settlers under another's rule. They remained under Mahan control. Jinhan began as six states that gradually divided into twelve; Silla was one. Some hold that when the Wei general Guanqiu Jian smashed Goguryeo, its people fled to Woju; later many returned home, but those who stayed behind became Silla—also called Seora. The population mingled Chinese, Goguryeans, Baekjeans, and others, and their lands included former territories of Woju, Yilou, Han, and Miyue. The ruling house was originally Baekjean: a prince fled by sea into Silla and seized the throne. At first a Baekje vassal, they could not endure the burdens when Baekje warred on Goguryeo; the people rose together, broke away, and grew strong. They then turned against Baekje and submitted to the Gaya confederacy. Thirty generations of kings followed until Jinpyeong. In the fourteenth year of Kaihuang they sent tribute to the Sui. Emperor Wen invested Jinpyeong as Senior Grand Opening Office, Duke of Lelang, and King of Silla.

其官有十七等：一曰伊罰幹，貴如相國，次伊尺幹，次迎幹，次破彌幹，次大阿尺幹，次阿尺幹，次乙吉幹，次沙咄幹，次及伏幹，次大奈摩幹，次奈摩，次大舍，次小舍，次起士，次大烏，次小烏，次造位。外有郡縣。其文字、甲兵，同於中國。選人壯健者悉入軍，烽、戍、邏俱屯營部伍。風俗、刑政、衣服略與高麗、百濟同。每月旦相賀，王設宴會，班賚群官。其日，拜日月神主。八月十五日設樂，令官人射，賞以馬、布。其有大事，則聚官詳議定之。服色尚畫素，婦人辮髪繞頸，以雜彩及珠爲飾。婚嫁禮唯酒食而已，輕重隨貧富。新婦之夕，女先拜舅姑，次即拜大兄、夫。死有棺斂，葬送起墳陵。王及父母妻子喪，居服一年。田甚良沃，水陸兼種。其五穀、果菜、鳥獸、物產，略與華同。

Seventeen official ranks were established: first Yibalgan, honored like a chief minister; then Yichigan, Yeonggan, Pomilgan, Dae Achilgan, Achilgan, Eulgilgan, Saduggan, Geupoggan, Daenemogan, Nemogan, Daeje, Soje, Gisa, Daeu, Sou, and Jowi. Beyond the capital, the realm was divided into commanderies and districts. Their script and arms matched those of the Middle Kingdom. Able-bodied men were enrolled in the army; beacon towers, garrisons, and patrols were organized in camp units. Customs, law, and dress largely followed Goguryeo and Baekje. On the first day of each month officials exchanged congratulations; the king held a feast and distributed gifts to the court. That day they worshiped the spirits of the sun and moon. On the fifteenth of the eighth month they held music and an archery contest for officials, rewarding winners with horses and cloth. Major affairs were settled in council, with officials gathering to deliberate. They favored plain white garments; women braided their hair about the neck and adorned themselves with colored threads and pearls. Wedding rites required only food and wine, the scale depending on wealth. On her wedding night the bride first bowed to her parents-in-law, then to her husband's elder brother and to her husband. The dead were coffined and buried in raised tombs. For the king, or for parents, spouse, or children, mourning lasted one year. The fields were rich; crops were grown on dry land and in paddies alike. Grains, fruits, birds, beasts, and other products largely matched those of the Central Lands.

大業以來，歲遣朝貢。新羅地多山險，雖與百濟構隙，百濟亦不能圖之也。

From the Daye era onward they sent tribute yearly. Silla's land was rugged and mountainous; though often at war with Baekje, Baekje could not conquer it.

勿吉國在高句麗北，一曰靺鞨。邑落各自有長，不相總一。其人勁悍，於東夷最強，言語獨異。常輕豆莫婁等國，諸國亦患之。去洛陽五千里。自和龍北二百餘里有善玉山，山北行十三日至祁黎山，又北行七日至洛環水，水廣里餘，又北行十五日至太岳魯水，又東北行十八日到其國。國有大水，闊三里餘，名速末水。其部類凡有七種：其一號粟末部，與高麗接，勝兵數千，多驍武，每寇高麗；其二伯咄部，在粟末北，勝兵七千；其三安車骨部，在伯咄東北；其四拂涅部，在伯咄東；其五號室部，在拂涅東；其六黑水部，在安車骨西北，其七白山部，在粟末東南。勝兵並不過三千，而黑水部尤爲勁健。自拂涅以東，矢皆石鏃，即古肅慎氏也。東夷中爲強國。所居多依山水。渠帥曰大莫弗瞞咄。國南有從太山者，華言太皇，俗甚敬畏之，人不得山上溲汙，行經山者，以物盛去。上有熊羆豹狼，皆不害人，人亦不敢殺。地卑濕，築土如堤，鑿穴以居，開口向上，以梯出入。其國無牛，有馬，車則步推，相與偶耕。土多粟、麥、穄，菜則有葵。水氣堿，生鹽于木皮之上，亦有鹽池。其畜多獵，無羊。嚼米爲酒，飲之亦醉。婚嫁，婦人服布裙，男子衣豬皮裘，頭插武豹尾。俗以溺洗手面，于諸夷最爲不潔。初婚之夕，男就女家，執女乳而罷。妒，其妻外淫，人有告其夫，夫輒殺妻而後悔，必殺告者。由是姦淫事終不發。人皆善射。以射獵爲業。角弓長三尺，箭長尺二寸，常以七八月造毒藥，傅矢以射禽獸，中者立死。煮毒藥氣亦能殺人。其父母春夏死，立埋之，塚上作屋，令不雨濕；若秋冬死，以其屍捕貂，貂食其肉，多得之。

Wuji lay north of Goguryeo and was also known as Mohe. Each settlement had its own chief; they were not united under a single ruler. Its people were fierce and warlike—the hardiest of the Eastern Yi—and their language was wholly their own. They constantly despised neighbors such as Doumolou, who in turn feared them. Luoyang lay five thousand li distant. Two hundred li north of Helong stands Mount Shanyu; thirteen days' march north brings one to Mount Qili; seven days farther north to the Luohuan River, over a li across; fifteen days farther to the Tailu Lu River; and eighteen days northeast to the heart of Wuji. A great river more than three li wide, the Sumo, runs through the land. Their tribes fell into seven divisions. First was the Sumo, on the Goryeo border: several thousand warriors, fierce and bold, who raided Goryeo year after year. Second came the Bozhu, north of Sumo, with seven thousand warriors under arms. Third was the Anchegu, northeast of Bozhu. Fourth was the Funie, east of Bozhu. Fifth was the Haoshi, east of Funie. Sixth was the Heishui, northwest of Anchegu; seventh, the Baishan, southeast of Sumo. None of the others fielded more than three thousand warriors, but the Heishui were especially hard and tough. East of Funie every arrowhead was stone: they were the ancient Sushen people. Among the Eastern Yi they counted as a power. They lived mostly along rivers and in hill country. Their leader bore the title damofu mantuo. South of the realm stood Mount Congtai, called in Chinese Taihuang, held in deepest awe: no one might relieve himself on its slopes; travelers carried their filth away in containers. Bears, leopards, and wolves roamed its heights but never harmed anyone, and no one dared slay them. The ground was low and wet; they piled earth like embankments and dug pit-dwellings open at the top, climbing in and out by ladder. They had no oxen but kept horses; carts they pushed by hand, and neighbors farmed in pairs. Millet, wheat, and glutinous panic filled the fields; mallow was their chief vegetable. Alkaline vapors from the waters yielded salt on tree bark; salt pans dotted the land as well. Game supplied most of their meat; they kept no sheep. They brewed wine by chewing rice until even that could intoxicate. At weddings women wore cloth skirts and men pigskin cloaks with martial leopard tails thrust through their hair. They washed face and hands in urine—the filthiest custom among the Eastern peoples. On the wedding night the groom came to the bride's house, touched her breast once, and the rite was done. Men were fiercely jealous: if a wife strayed and someone betrayed her, the husband killed her, then in remorse killed the informant as well. Adultery therefore almost never surfaced. Every man was a skilled archer. Hunting with bow was their trade. Their horn bows measured three feet, their arrows a foot and two inches. Each seventh or eighth month they brewed poison, smeared arrowheads, and brought down game instantly. Even the fumes of the boiling poison could kill. If parents died in spring or summer they were buried at once and a small house roofed the mound against the rain; if in autumn or winter the corpse was bait for sable traps, for sable fed on the flesh and many pelts were taken.

延興中，遣乙力支朝獻。太和初，又貢馬五百匹。乙力支稱：初發其國，乘船溯難河西上，至太濔河，沈船于水。南出陸行，度洛孤水，從契丹西界達和龍。自云其國先破高句麗十落，密共百濟謀，從水道並力取高麗，遣乙力支奉使大國，謀其可否。詔敕：「三國同是籓附，宜共和順，勿相侵擾。」乙力支乃還。從其來道，取得本船，泛達其國。九年，復遣使侯尼支朝。明年，復入貢。其傍有大莫盧國、覆鐘國、莫多回國、庫婁國、素和國、具弗伏國、匹黎爾國、拔大何國、郁羽陵國、庫伏真國、魯婁國、羽真侯國，前後各遣使朝獻。太和十二年，勿吉復遣使貢楛矢、方物于京師。十七年，又遣使人婆非等五百餘人朝貢。景明四年，復遣使侯力歸朝貢。自此迄於正光，貢使相尋。爾後中國紛擾，頗或不至。興和二年六月，遣石文雲等貢方物。以至於齊，朝貢不絕。

During the Yanxing era they sent Yilizhi to present tribute at court. Early in the Taihe reign they sent five hundred horses as tribute. Yilizhi reported: leaving home they had sailed up the Nahan, reached the Tai'er River, and scuttled their boat. They struck south overland, crossed the Luogu, skirted the Khitan western marches, and came to Helong. He said their people had already overrun ten Goguryeo districts and were secretly plotting with Baekje for a joint assault by sea; Yilizhi had been dispatched to the Great State to learn whether this might be permitted. The court ordered: "All three are vassal states; live in mutual peace and make no raids upon one another." Yilizhi then withdrew. He retraced his route, recovered their boat, and sailed home. In the ninth year they sent Hounizhi to court again. The following year tribute came again. Neighboring states—Damolu, Fuzhong, Moduohui, Kulou, Suhe, Jufufu, Pilier, Badahke, Yuyuling, Kufuzhen, Lulou, Yuzhenhou, and others—each sent envoys with tribute in their turn. In Taihe year twelve Wuji again sent stiff-shafted arrows and regional goods to the capital. In year seventeen Pofei led a mission of over five hundred to the capital. In Jingming year four the envoy Houligui came again. From then until the Zhengguang era, tribute missions never ceased. Later, as the empire fractured, they sometimes failed to come. In the sixth month of Xinghe year two, Shi Wenyun and others brought regional tribute. Under the Qi they continued to send tribute without break.

隋開皇初，相率遣使貢獻。文帝詔其使曰：「朕聞彼土人勇，今來實副朕懷。視爾等如子，爾宜敬朕如父。」對曰：「臣等僻處一方，聞內國有聖人，故來朝拜。既親奉聖顏，願長爲奴僕。」其國西北與契丹接，每相劫掠，後因其使來，文帝誡之，使勿相攻擊。使者謝罪。文帝因厚勞之，令宴飲于前，使者與其徒皆起舞，曲折多戰鬥容。上顧謂侍臣曰：「天地間乃有此物，常作用兵意。」然其國與隋懸隔，唯粟末、白山爲近。煬帝初，與高麗戰，頻敗其衆。渠帥突地稽率其部降，拜右光祿大夫，居之柳城。與邊人來往，悅中國風俗，請被冠帶，帝嘉之，賜以錦綺而褒寵之。及遼東之役，突地稽率其徒以從，每有戰功，賞賜甚厚。十三年，從幸江都，尋放還柳城。李密遣兵邀之，僅而得免。至高陽，沒于王須拔。未幾，遁歸羅藝。

Early in Sui's Kaihuang reign they came in a body to offer tribute. Emperor Wen told the envoys: "We have heard your people are fierce warriors. Your arrival fulfills Our hopes. We look upon you as sons; you should honor Us as a father. They answered: "We dwell in a distant corner of the earth and heard that a sage reigns in your Middle Kingdom, so we came to bow at court. Having seen the Sacred Face ourselves, we wish to remain your servants forever. Their northwest marched with the Khitan, and the two peoples raided each other ceaselessly. When their envoys next came, Emperor Wen warned both sides to stop the attacks. The envoy apologized. The emperor feasted them generously before the throne; the envoy and his men danced a war dance full of feints and fighting postures. He turned to his ministers and said, "Between heaven and earth such creatures exist—always itching for battle." Yet their homeland lay far from Sui proper; only the Sumo and Baishan divisions dwelt nearby. Early in Emperor Yang's reign they fought Goryeo and repeatedly routed Goryeo armies. The chieftain Tudiji surrendered with his people, was named Right Honorable Master of the Palace, and was settled at Liucheng. Mixing with frontier Chinese, he took to their ways, asked to wear cap and sash like a civilized man, and the emperor rewarded him with brocade and high favor. When the Liaodong campaign opened, Tudiji marched with his men and won rich rewards for each deed of valor. In year thirteen he accompanied the emperor to Jiangdu and was soon sent back to Liucheng. Li Mi's troops waylaid him on the road; he barely escaped with his life. Near Gaoyang he fell into the hands of the rebel Wang Xuba. Before long he fled to Luo Yi.

奚，本曰庫莫奚，其先東部胡宇文之別種也。初爲慕容晃所破，遺落者竄匿松漠之間。俗甚不潔淨，而善射獵，好爲寇抄。登國三年，道武親自出討，至弱水南大破之，獲其馬、牛、羊、豕十餘萬。帝曰：「此群狄諸種，不識德義，鼠竊狗盜，何足爲患？今中州大亂，吾先平之，然後張其威懷，則無所不服矣。」既而車駕南遷，十數年間，諸種與庫莫奚亦皆滋盛。及開遼海，置戍和龍，諸夷震懼，各獻方物。文成、獻文之世，庫莫奚歲致名馬、文皮。孝文初，遣使朝貢。太和四年，輒入塞內，辭以畏地豆幹抄掠，詔書切責之。二十二年，入寇安州，時營、燕、幽三州兵數千人擊走之。後復款附，每求入塞交易。宣武詔曰：「庫莫奚去太和二十一年以前，與安、營二州邊人參居，交易往來，並無欺貳。至二十二年叛逆以來，遂爾遠竄。今雖款附，猶在塞表，每請入塞，與百姓交易。若抑而不許，乖其歸向之心；信而不慮，或有萬一之驚。交市之日，州遣士監之。」自此已後，歲常朝獻，至武定已來不絕。齊受魏禪，歲時來朝。

The Xi, formerly known as Kumo Xi, sprang from a collateral line of the Yuwen Eastern Hu. Murong Huang had broken them first; survivors scattered into the pine wastes of the desert steppe. Their ways were filthy, but they were crack archers and hunters who lived by raiding. In Dengguo year three Emperor Daowu marched in person, crushed them south of the Ruoshui, and seized more than a hundred thousand head of horse, cattle, sheep, and swine. The emperor said, "These barbarian tribes know neither duty nor decency—petty thieves and prowlers. What threat do they pose? The heartland is in chaos; I will pacify it first, then extend majesty and mercy—and none will refuse to bow. Soon the court moved south; within a decade the frontier tribes, Kumo Xi included, grew strong again. When the court opened Liaohai and garrisoned Helong, the eastern peoples trembled and sent tribute from every quarter. Under Emperors Wencheng and Xianwen, Kumo Xi sent famous horses and fine furs year after year. Early in Emperor Xiaowen's reign they resumed tribute missions. In Taihe year four they burst inside the passes, claiming fear of Didougan raids; an imperial edict rebuked them harshly. In year twenty-two they raided Anzhou until several thousand soldiers from Ying, Yan, and You beat them back. They submitted anew and repeatedly asked to trade inside the passes. Emperor Xuanwu ruled: "Before Taihe year twenty-one, Kumo Xi had mingled with border folk of An and Ying and traded honestly without deceit. Since their rebellion in year twenty-two they have fled deep into the wilds. Though submitted again, they remain beyond the frontier and beg repeatedly to enter and trade with our people. To refuse them would chill their goodwill; yet trust without caution might bring disaster. On market days the prefecture shall post troops to oversee the trade. Henceforth they sent annual tribute without fail through the Wuding era. When Qi succeeded Wei, they came to court each season.

其後種類漸多，分爲五部：一曰辱紇主，二曰莫賀弗，三曰契個，四曰木昆，五曰室得。每部俟斤一人爲其帥。隨逐水草，頗同突厥。有阿會氏，五部中最盛，諸部皆歸之。每與契丹相攻擊，虜獲財畜，因遣使貢方物。

Their clans multiplied and split into five divisions: Ruohezhu, Mohefu, Qige, Mukun, and Shide. Each division was led by a yijin chief. They followed grass and water much like the Turks. The Ahui clan ruled the strongest of the five, and the rest acknowledged its supremacy. Raids against the Khitan furnished booty that they then sent east as tribute.

契丹國，在庫莫奚東，與庫莫奚異種同類。並爲慕容晃所破，俱竄於松漠之間。登國中，魏大破之，遂逃迸，與庫莫奚分住。經數十年，稍滋蔓，有部落，于和龍之北數百里爲寇盜。真君以來，歲貢名馬。獻文時，使莫弗紇何辰來獻，得班饗于諸國之末。歸而相謂，言國家之美，心皆忻慕，於是東北群狄聞之，莫不思服。悉萬丹部、何大何部、伏弗鬱部、羽陵部、日連部、匹潔部、黎部、吐六幹部等各以其名馬、文皮獻天府。遂求爲常，皆得交市于和龍、密雲之間，貢獻不絕。太和三年，高句麗竊與蠕蠕謀，欲取地豆幹以分之。契丹舊怨其侵軼，其莫賀弗勿幹率其部落，車三千乘、衆萬餘口，驅徙雜畜求內附，止于白狼水東。自此歲常朝貢。後告饑，孝文聽其入關市糴。及宣武、孝明時，恆遣使貢方物。熙平中，契丹使人初真等三十人還，靈太后以其俗嫁娶之際以青𧦬爲上服，人給青𧦬兩匹，賞其誠款之心，餘依舊式朝貢。及齊受東魏禪，常不斷絕。

Khitan lay east of Kumo Xi—a distinct people yet of the same broad stock. Murong Huang had broken them both; survivors hid together in the pine desert. During the Dengguo era Wei shattered them again; they fled apart from the Xi and settled separately. Within decades they multiplied into tribes that raided hundreds of li north of Helong. From the Zhenjun era they sent famous horses yearly. Under Emperor Xianwen the envoy Mohe He Chen presented tribute and was seated at the very end of the feast roll for foreign envoys. On his return he told his people of the empire's splendor; every heart yearned toward it, and every tribe of the northeast heard and wished to submit. The Ximowan, Hedahke, Fufuyu, Yuling, Rilian, Pijie, Li, Tuliugan, and other divisions each sent famous horses and fine pelts to the imperial treasury. They then sought standing arrangements for trade, and all were allowed to barter between Helong and Miyun; tribute never let up. In the third year of Taihe, Goguryeo secretly conspired with the Rouran to seize Didougan and divide it among themselves. The Khitan had long resented those raids; their Mohefu Wugan led his tribes—three thousand carts and more than ten thousand people—driving their herds to seek submission, and halted east of the White Wolf River. From then on they sent annual tribute to court. When famine struck later, Emperor Xiaowen allowed them to enter the passes and buy grain. Under Emperors Xuanwu and Xiaoming they regularly sent envoys bearing local goods. During the Xiping era, as the Khitan envoys Chuzhen and twenty-nine others were leaving, Empress Dowager Ling—knowing that blue skirts were their finest dress at weddings—gave each man two bolts of blue skirt-cloth in reward for their goodwill; otherwise court tribute followed the old routine. When Qi took the throne from Eastern Wei, the exchanges never ceased.

天保四年九月，契丹犯塞，文宣帝親戎北討。至平州，遂西趣長塹。詔司徒潘相樂帥精騎五千，自東道趣青山；復詔安德王韓軌帥精騎四千東趣，斷契丹走路。帝親逾山嶺，奮擊大破之，虜十餘萬口、雜畜數十萬頭。相樂又于青山大破契丹別部。所虜生口，皆分置諸州。其後復爲突厥所逼，又以萬家寄於高麗。

In the ninth month of the fourth year of Tianbao the Khitan raided the border, and Emperor Wenxuan led the army north in person. He reached Pingzhou and then swung west along the Long Rampart. He ordered Minister of Works Pan Xiangyue to take five thousand picked horsemen east toward Qingshan; and ordered Prince Annde Han Gui with four thousand elite cavalry to drive east and cut off the Khitan retreat. The emperor himself crossed the ridges, struck hard, and shattered them, taking more than a hundred thousand captives and several hundred thousand head of livestock. Xiangyue likewise routed a separate Khitan division at Qingshan. Captives were distributed among the provinces. Later, pressed again by the Turks, they placed another ten thousand households under Goryeo's care.

其俗與靺鞨同，好爲寇盜。父母死而悲哭者，以爲不壯。但以其屍置於山樹之上，經三年後，乃收其骨而焚之。因酌酒而祝曰：「冬月時，向陽食。若我射獵時，使我多得豬、鹿。」其無禮頑囂，于諸夷最甚。

Their ways matched those of Mohe, and they delighted in raiding. Anyone who wept when parents died was thought weak. They simply laid the body in the mountain trees; only after three years did they gather the bones and burn them. They poured wine and prayed: "In winter, eat toward the sun. When I hunt, give me many pigs and deer." Of all the frontier peoples they were the most lawless, stubborn, and violent.

隋開皇四年，率莫賀弗來謁。五年，悉其衆款塞，文帝納之，聽居其故地。責讓之，其國遣使詣闕，頓顙謝罪。其後，契丹別部出伏等背高麗，率衆內附。文帝見來，憐之。上方與突厥和好，重失遠人之心，悉令給糧還本部，敕突厥撫納之。固辭不去。部落漸衆，遂北徙，逐水草，當遼西正北二百里，依託紇臣水而居，東西亙三百里，分爲十部。兵多者三千，少者千餘。逐寒暑，隨水草畜牧。有征伐，則曾帥相與議之，興兵動衆，合如符契。突厥沙缽略可汗遣吐屯潘垤統之，契丹殺吐屯而遁。大業七年，遣使朝，貢方物。

In the fourth year of Kaihuang the tribal leader Mohefu came to court. The next year he brought all his people to the border to submit; Emperor Wen accepted them and let them remain on their old lands. After a rebuke from the court, they sent envoys to the capital to kowtow and beg pardon. Later a separate Khitan group under Chufu and others broke with Goryeo and led their people to submit. Emperor Wen pitied them when they arrived. The court was then reconciled with the Turks and feared alienating distant peoples, so he gave them grain to return home and told the Turks to receive and settle them. They refused to go. As their tribes grew they moved north with the seasons, two hundred li due north of Liaoxi along the Hechen River, spread three hundred li east to west, and split into ten divisions. The larger divisions fielded three thousand warriors, the smaller just over a thousand. They followed the seasons and pastured their herds by water and grass. When war arose the chiefs met to decide; once they mobilized, the tribes moved as one, like matching tally halves. The Türk qaghan Shebolue sent the tutun Pantuo to oversee them; the Khitan killed the tutun and fled. In the seventh year of Daye they sent envoys to court with local tribute.

室韋國，在勿吉北千里，去洛陽六千里。「室」或爲「失」，蓋契丹之類，其南者爲契丹，在北者號爲失韋。路出和龍千餘里，入契丹國，又北行十日至啜水，又北行三日有善水，又北行三日有犢了山，其山高大，周回三百里。又北行三百餘里，有大水名屈利，又北行三日至刃水，又北行五日到其國。有大水從北而來，廣四里餘，名㮈水。國土下濕，語與庫莫奚、契丹、豆莫婁國同。頗有粟、麥及穄。夏則城居，冬逐水草，多略貂皮。丈夫索發，用角弓，其箭尤長。女婦束發作叉手髻。其國少竊盜，盜一征三；殺人者責馬三百匹。男女悉衣白鹿皮襦袴。有曲，釀酒。俗愛赤珠，爲婦人飾，穿掛於頸，以多爲貴。女不得此，乃至不嫁。父母死，男女衆哭三年，屍則置於林樹之上。

The Shiwei state lay a thousand li north of Wuji and six thousand li from Luoyang. The character 「shi」 may also be read 「shi lost」; they are kin to the Khitan—the southern branch are Khitan, the northern called Shiwei. The road runs more than a thousand li from Helong into Khitan territory, then ten days north to the Chuo River, three days north to the Shan River, and three days north to lofty Duliao Mountain, three hundred li around. Another three hundred li north lies the great Quli River; three days north is the Ren River, and five days north brings one to their country. A great river flows down from the north, more than four li across, called the Nu River. The land is low and wet, and their language matches that of Kumo Xi, Khitan, and Doumolou. They grow millet, wheat, and broomcorn millet in fair quantity. They live in walled settlements in summer and follow pasture in winter, and they take much sable by raid. Men wear their hair loose, use horn bows, and shoot unusually long arrows. Women bind their hair into a crossed-hands topknot. Theft was rare; one theft brought a threefold fine; and murder cost three hundred horses in compensation. Men and women alike wore short jackets and trousers of white deerskin. They had ferment and brewed liquor. They prized red beads as women's ornaments, strung at the neck—the more, the greater the standing. A woman without them might not marry at all. When parents died, men and women wailed for three years and laid the body in the forest trees.

武定二年四月，始遣使張烏豆伐等獻其方物。迄武定末，貢使相尋。及齊受東魏禪，亦歲時朝聘。

In the fourth month of the second year of Wuding they first sent envoys led by Zhang Wudoufa with local goods. Until the end of Wuding, tribute missions followed one after another. When Qi succeeded Eastern Wei, they too sent seasonal embassies.

其後分爲五部，不相總一，所謂南室韋、北室韋、缽室韋、深末怛室韋、大室韋，並無君長。人貧弱，突厥以三吐屯總領之。

Later they split into five groups with no common ruler—the Southern, Northern, Bo, Shenmoda, and Great Shiwei—none with a king or chief. The people were poor and weak, and the Turks set three tutuns over them.

南室韋在契丹北三千里，土地卑濕，至夏則移向北。貸勃、欠對二山多草木，饒禽獸，又多蚊蚋，人皆巢居，以避其患。漸分爲二十五部，每部有餘莫弗瞞咄，猶酋長也。死則子弟代之，嗣絕則擇賢豪而立之。其俗，丈夫皆被髮，婦女盤發，衣服與契丹同。乘牛車，以蘧蒢爲屋，如突厥氈車之狀。度水則束薪爲栰，或有以皮爲舟者。馬則織草爲韉，結繩爲轡。匡寢則屈木爲室，以蘧蒢覆上，移則載行。以豬皮爲席，編木爲藉，婦女皆抱膝坐。氣候多寒，田收甚薄。無羊，少馬，多豬、牛。與靺鞨同俗，婚嫁之法，二家相許竟，輒盜婦將去，然後送牛馬爲聘，更將婦歸家，待有孕，乃相許隨還舍。婦人不再嫁，以爲死人之妻，難以共居。部落共爲大棚，，人死則置其上。居喪三年，年唯四哭。其國無鐵，取給於高麗。多貂。

Southern Shiwei lay three thousand li north of the Khitan on low, damp ground and moved farther north each summer. Mount Daibo and Mount Qiandui were thick with vegetation and game but also swarmed with mosquitoes, so people lived in tree nests to escape them. They gradually split into twenty-five tribes, each headed by a yumohefu manduo much like a chieftain. At death a son or kinsman succeeded; if the line failed they chose a worthy man to lead. Men wore their hair loose and women coiled theirs; their dress matched the Khitan. They rode ox carts and made shelters of wild sorghum stalks, shaped like Türk felt wagons. To cross water they lashed firewood into rafts, or sometimes used hide boats. For horses they wove grass saddles and knotted rope bridles. Their shelters were bent-wood frames roofed with stalk matting, loaded whole when they moved. Pigskin served as mats and woven wood as bedding; women sat hugging their knees. The climate was bitterly cold and harvests meager. They had no sheep, few horses, and many pigs and cattle. Their marriage rites matched Mohe: once two families had agreed, the groom stole the bride away, then sent cattle and horses as bride-price, brought her back to her parents, and only after she conceived would both sides let her join his household. Widows did not remarry, holding it unfit to share a home with a dead man's wife. The tribe shared one great communal lodge; the dead were laid atop it. Mourning lasted three years, with crying only four times a year. They had no iron of their own and relied on Goryeo for it. Sable was abundant.

南室韋北行十一日至北室韋，分爲九部落，繞吐紇山而居。其部落渠帥號乞引莫賀咄。每部有莫何弗三人以貳之。氣候最寒，雪深沒馬。冬則入山居土穴，土畜多凍死。饒麞鹿，射獵爲務，食肉衣皮，鑿冰沒水中而網取魚鱉。地多積雪，懼陷坑阱，騎木而行，亻答即止。皆捕貂爲業，冠以狐貂，衣以魚皮。

Eleven days north of Southern Shiwei lay Northern Shiwei, split into nine tribes around Mount Tuohe. Their tribal leaders bore the title Qiyin Mohefu. Each tribe had three mohefu as deputies. The climate was the coldest of all; snow buried the horses. In winter they lived in mountain pit-dwellings, and many animals froze. Roe deer and elk were plentiful; hunting was their livelihood. They ate meat and wore hides, broke ice, and submerged nets for fish and turtles. Snow lay deep and pitfalls feared them, so they traveled on wooden skis and halted when they stepped down. All hunted sable for a living, crowned themselves with fox and sable fur, and dressed in fish-skin.

又北行千里至缽室韋，依胡布山而住，人衆多北室韋，不知爲幾部落。用樺皮蓋屋，其餘同北室韋。

Another thousand li north lay Bo Shiwei, settled along Mount Hubu—more populous than Northern Shiwei, with tribes too numerous to count. They roofed their houses with birch bark; otherwise they matched Northern Shiwei.

從缽室韋西南四日行，至深末怛室韋，因水爲號也。冬月穴居，以避太陰之氣。

Four days southwest of Bo Shiwei lay Shenmoda Shiwei, named for its river. In winter they lived in pit-houses to escape the bitter cold.

又西北數千里至大室韋，徑路險阻，言語不通。尤多貂及青鼠。

Several thousand li farther northwest lay Great Shiwei, on roads so rough and remote that speech failed between visitors and hosts. Sable and blue rats were especially plentiful there.

北室韋時遣使貢獻，餘無至者。

Only Northern Shiwei sometimes sent tribute envoys; the others never appeared at court.

豆莫婁

Doumolou

豆莫婁國，在勿吉北千里，舊北夫餘也。在室韋之東，東至於海，方二千餘里。其人土著，有居室倉庫。多山陵廣澤，於東夷之域，最爲平敞。地宜五穀，不生五果。其人長大，性強勇謹厚，不冠抄。其君長皆六畜名官，邑落有豪帥。飲食亦用俎豆。有麻布，衣制類高麗而帽大。其國大人，以金銀飾之。用刑嚴急，殺人者死，沒其家人爲奴婢。俗淫，尤惡妒者，殺之屍于國南山上，至腐，女家始得輸牛馬，乃與之。或言濊貊之地也。

The state of Doumolou lay a thousand li north of Wuji and was the old Northern Puyo. It lay east of Shiwei, stretched to the sea, and covered some two thousand li square. The people were sedentary farmers with houses and storehouses. Hills and broad marshes filled the land; among the eastern peoples their country was the most level and open. The soil suited grain but not orchard fruit. They were tall, strong, brave, and sober-minded, wore no caps, and did not raid. Their chiefs bore titles drawn from livestock names, and each settlement had its powerful headmen. They ate and drank from platters and stands like more settled states. They wove hemp cloth; their dress resembled Goryeo's, but their hats were larger. Men of rank in the state decorated themselves in gold and silver. Punishment was harsh: killers were executed and their families enslaved. Customs were loose, but jealousy was fiercely punished: the offender was killed and the body left on the southern mountain until it decayed, after which the woman's kin could pay cattle and horses and take her back. Some held that this was once Huimo territory.

地豆幹

Didougan

地豆幹國，在室韋西千餘里。多牛、羊，出名馬，皮爲衣服，無五穀，唯食肉酪。延興二年八月，遣使朝貢，至於太和六年，貢使不絕。十四年，頻來犯塞，孝文詔征西大將軍陽平王頤擊走之。自後時朝京師，迄武定末，貢使不絕。及齊受禪，亦來朝貢。

Didougan lay more than a thousand li west of Shiwei. Cattle and sheep were plentiful, its horses renowned; people wore hides and ate only meat and dairy, with no grain. In the eighth month of Yanxing year two they began sending tribute, and envoys kept coming without interruption until Taihe year six. In year fourteen they raided the frontier repeatedly; Emperor Xiaowen ordered the Prince of Yangping Yi, General Who Pacifies the West, to drive them back. Thereafter they appeared at the capital from time to time, and tribute missions continued until the close of the Wuding era. When the Qi dynasty succeeded the Wei, they sent tribute as well.

烏洛侯

Wuluohou

烏洛侯國，在地豆幹北，去代都四千五百餘里。其地下濕，多霧氣而寒。入冬則穿地爲室，夏則隨原阜畜牧。多豕，有谷、麥。無大君長，部落莫弗，皆世爲之。其俗，繩發皮服，以珠爲飾。人尚勇，不爲奸竊，故慢藏野積而無寇盜。好射獵。樂有箜篌，木槽革面而施九弦。其國西北有完水，東北流合于難水，其小水，皆注於難，東入海。又西北二十日行，有于巳尼大水，所謂北海也。

Wuluohou lay north of Didougan, some four thousand five hundred li from the Dai capital. The land was low, damp, and misty, and bitterly cold. In winter they dug pit dwellings; in summer they moved with their herds across the uplands. Pigs were plentiful, and they also grew millet and wheat. They had no single paramount ruler; tribal mok were hereditary offices. They bound their hair, wore leather, and adorned themselves with pearls. Bravery was prized and theft rare, so people left goods piled in the open without fear of robbery. They were devoted to hunting with bow and arrow. They had a nine-string konghou with a wooden frame and leather sounding board. Northwest lay the Wan River, which ran northeast into the Nan; lesser streams fed the Nan and flowed east to the sea. Twenty days' travel further northwest stood the great Yuenini Sea, the so-called Northern Sea.

太武真君四年來朝，稱其國西北有魏先帝舊墟石室，南北九十步，東西四十步，高七十尺，室有神靈，人多祈請。太武遣中書侍郎李敞告祭焉，刊祝文於石室之壁而還。

In Zhenjun year four of Emperor Taiwu they came to court and reported a stone shrine northwest of their land—an old Wei imperial site ninety paces by forty and seventy feet high—where a spirit dwelt and many prayed. Taiwu sent Li Chang of the Palace Secretariat to offer sacrifices and inscribe a prayer on the shrine wall before returning.

流求國，居海島，當建安郡東。水行五日而至。土多山洞。其王姓歡斯氏，名渴刺兜，不知其由來有國世數也。彼土人呼之爲可老羊，妻曰多拔茶。所居曰波羅檀洞，塹柵三重，環以流水，樹棘爲籓。王所居舍，其大一十六間，雕刻禽獸。多鬥鏤樹，似橘而葉密，條纖如發之下垂。國有四五帥，統諸洞，洞有小王。往往有村，村有鳥了帥，並以善戰者爲之，自相樹立，主一村之事。男女皆白糸寧繩纏發，從項後盤繞至額。其男子用鳥羽爲冠，裝以珠貝，飾以赤毛，形制不同。婦人以羅紋白布爲帽，其形方正。織鬥鏤皮並雜毛以爲衣，制裁不一。綴毛垂螺爲飾，雜色相間，下垂小貝，其聲如珮。綴璫施釧，懸珠於頸。織藤爲笠，飾以毛羽。有刀槊、弓箭、劍鈹之屬。其處少鐵，刀皆薄小，多以骨角輔助之。編糸寧爲甲，或用熊豹皮。王乘木獸，令左右輿之，而導從不過十數人。小王乘機，鏤爲獸形。國人好相攻擊，人皆驍健善走，難死耐創。諸洞各爲部隊，不相救助。兩軍相當，勇者三五人出前跳噪，交言相罵，因相擊射。如其不勝，一軍皆走，遣人致謝，即共和解。收取鬥死者聚食之，仍以髑髏將向王所，王則賜之以冠，便爲隊帥。

Liuqiu lay on islands east of Jian'an commandery. Five days' sailing brought one there. The islands were riddled with caves. The king bore the surname Huansi and the name Kecidou; how many generations the kingdom had ruled was unknown. Natives called the king Kedouyang and his queen Duobacha. He lived at Boluotan, fortified with three ditched palisades, water on every side, and thorn hedges for walls. The royal hall held sixteen bays and was carved with birds and beasts. Doulou trees grew thickly—orange-like, with fine branches trailing like hair. Four or five grand chiefs ruled the cave districts, each district with its petty king. Villages dotted the land, each led by a niaoliao chief chosen for prowess in war to govern local affairs. Men and women bound their hair with white cord, coiling it from the nape to the brow. Men wore feather caps set with shell and pearl and trimmed with red feathers in varied styles. Women wore square white caps of patterned weave. Garments mixed woven doulou bark with fur, cut in no single style. Fur and hanging shells formed their ornaments; colored strands and tiny shells chimed like jade pendants. Earrings and bracelets adorned them, with beads at the throat. Woven rattan hats were trimmed with plumes. They carried spears, halberds, bows, swords, and ji. Iron was scarce; blades were small and often reinforced with bone or horn. Armor was plaited fiber or bear and leopard hide. The king rode a carved wooden beast borne by attendants, with scarcely a dozen followers. Petty kings rode litters carved like animals. They warred constantly; every man was swift and hardy, hard to kill and slow to fall from wounds. Each cave fought as its own war band and would not rescue another. When armies met, three or five champions leaped forward shouting insults, then began shooting at each other. If their champions lost, the whole force fled and sent envoys to apologize, after which both sides made peace. They collected the fallen and ate them together, then presented skulls to the king, who rewarded them with caps and made them war leaders.

無賦斂，有事則均稅。用刑亦無常准，皆臨事科決。犯罪皆斷于鳥了帥，不伏則上請于王，王令臣下共議定之。獄無枷鎖，唯用繩縛。決死刑以鐵錐大如筋，長尺餘，鑽頂殺之，輕罪用杖。俗無文字，望月虧盈，以紀時節，草木榮枯，以爲年歲。人深目長鼻，類于胡，亦有小慧。無君臣上下之節，拜伏之禮。父子同床而寢。男子拔去髭須，身上有毛處皆除去。婦人以黑黥手爲蟲蛇之文。嫁娶以酒、珠貝爲聘，或男女相悅，便相匹偶。婦人產乳，必食子衣，產後以火自灸，令汗出，五日便平復。以木槽中暴海水爲鹽，木汁爲酢，米麵爲酒，其味甚薄。食皆用手。遇得異味，先進尊者。凡有宴會，執酒者必待呼名而後飲，上王酒者，亦呼王名後銜杯共飲，頗同突厥。歌呼蹋蹄，一人唱，衆皆和，音頗哀怨。扶女子上膊，搖手而舞。其死者氣將絕，輦至庭前，親賓哭泣相吊。浴其屍，以布帛縛纏之，裹以葦席，襯土而殯，上不起墳。子爲父者，數月不食肉。其南境風俗少異，人有死者，邑里共食之。有熊、豺、狼，尤多豬、雞、無羊、牛、驢、馬。厥田良沃，先以火燒，而引水灌，持一鍤，以石爲刃，長尺餘，闊數寸，而墾之。宜稻、粱、禾、黍、麻、豆、赤豆、胡黑豆等。木有楓、栝、樟、松、楩、楠、枌、梓。竹、藤、果、藥，同于江表。風土氣候，與嶺南相類。俗事山海之神，祭以肴酒。戰鬥殺人，便將所殺人祭其神。或依茂樹起小屋，或懸髑髏於樹上，以箭射之，或累石系幡，以爲神主。王之所居，壁下多聚髑髏以爲佳。人間門戶上，必安獸頭骨角。

There were no standing taxes; needs were met by equal levies when required. Punishment had no fixed code; each case was decided on the spot. The niaoliao chief judged crimes; appeals went to the king, who had his counselors decide. Prisoners were bound with rope only—no stocks or chains. Capital punishment was a foot-long iron spike driven through the skull; lesser crimes were beaten with staves. They had no writing; seasons followed the moon, years the cycle of vegetation. Deep-set eyes and long noses gave them a foreign cast, yet they showed a measure of cleverness. They observed no court etiquette of rank or obeisance. Fathers and sons slept in the same bed. Men plucked beard and body hair entirely. Women tattooed their hands black with serpent and insect designs. Betrothal gifts were wine, pearls, and shells, though couples often paired by mutual choice. Women ate the afterbirth, then after delivery burned themselves to sweat and were restored within five days. Salt came from evaporated seawater in troughs; tree sap stood in for vinegar; rice wine was weak and thin. All food was eaten by hand. Choice morsels were offered first to elders. At feasts one drank only when called by name, and those offering wine to the king called his name before sharing the cup—custom much like the Turks'. They sang and stamped in chorus, one voice leading, the rest answering in a plaintive strain. Dancers lifted a woman onto their shoulders and swayed as they moved. As death approached, the sick were carried into the courtyard where kin and friends wailed over them. The dead were washed, wrapped in cloth and reed mats, buried in shallow earth without a mound. Sons mourned fathers by abstaining from meat for months. In the south customs differed: when someone died, the community ate the body together. Bears, jackals, and wolves roamed the islands; pigs and chickens were plentiful, but there were no sheep, cattle, donkeys, or horses. Fields were rich: slash-and-burn, then irrigation; farmers tilled with foot-long stone-bladed spades a few inches wide. Rice, millet, hemp, beans, adzuki, and black soybeans all grew well. Maples, junipers, camphor, pines, phoebe, nanmu, and catalpas grew in the forests. Bamboo, vines, fruits, and herbs matched those of the lower Yangzi. Climate and soil resembled Lingnan. They worshiped the spirits of sea and mountain with meat and wine offerings. War captives were sacrificed to the gods at once. Shrines were tree shelters, arrow-shot skulls on branches, or stone cairns with banners as god-posts. Skulls heaped beneath the royal walls were counted a mark of honor. Every doorway bore animal skulls and horns.

倭國，在百濟、新羅東南，水陸三千里，于大海中依山島而居。魏時，譯通中國三十餘國，皆稱子，夷人不知里數，但計以日。其國境，東西五月行，南北三月行，各至於海。其地勢，東高西下。居於邪摩堆，則《魏志》所謂邪馬台者也。又云：去樂浪郡境及帶方郡並一萬二千里，在會稽東，與儋耳相近。俗皆文身，自云太伯之後。計從帶方至倭國，循海水行，歷朝鮮國，乍南乍東，七千餘里，始度一海。又南千餘里，度一海，闊千餘里，名瀚海，至一支國。又度一海千餘里，名末盧國。又東南陸行五百里，至伊都國。又東南百里，至奴國。又東行百里，至不彌國。又南水行二十日，至投馬國。又南水行十日，陸行一月，至邪馬台國，即倭王所都。

Japan lay southeast of Baekje and Silla, three thousand li by sea and land, its people dwelling on mountainous islands in the open ocean. Under the Wei, interpreters linked Wa with thirty-odd Chinese states; all bore the title "child" lord, and the islanders reckoned distance in days, not li. The realm stretched five months east to west and three months north to south, sea on every side. The land rose in the east and fell toward the west. They dwelt at Yamadai—the "Record of Wei" Yama-tai. The text also places it twelve thousand li from Lelang and Daifang, east of Kuaiji, near Dan'er. All tattooed their bodies and claimed descent from Prince Taibo of Wu. From Daifang one sailed along the coast past Korea, veering south then east some seven thousand li before crossing the first sea. Another thousand li south lay a sea some thousand li across—the Han Sea—leading to Ichigo. After crossing another sea of more than a thousand li, one reached Molu. Five hundred li southeast overland brought one to Ito. Another hundred li southeast lay Na. A hundred li east was Fumi. Twenty days' sailing south reached Toma. Ten more days south by sea and a month's march overland brought one to Yamatai, where the king of Wa held court.

漢光武時，遣使入朝，自稱大夫。安帝時，又遣朝貢，謂之倭奴國。靈帝光和中，其國亂，遞相攻伐，歷年無主。有女子名卑彌呼，能以鬼道惑衆，國人共立爲王。無夫，有二男子，給王飲食，通傳言語。其王有宮室、樓觀、城柵，皆持兵守衛，爲法甚嚴。魏景初三年，公孫文懿誅後，卑彌呼始遣使朝貢。魏主假金印紫綬。正始中，卑彌呼死，更立男王。國中不服，更相誅殺，復立卑彌呼宗女台與爲王。其後復立男王，並受中國爵命。江左曆晉、宋、齊、梁，朝聘不絕。

Under Emperor Guangwu of Han, Wa sent envoys to the imperial court and called themselves grand officers. Under Emperor An they sent tribute again; the court named them the Land of Dwarf Slaves. During the Guanghe reign of Emperor Ling the realm fell into chaos; clans raided one another year after year until no king held sway. A woman called Himiko won the people through spirit-magic and was raised to the throne. She took no husband; two men fed her and relayed her words to the realm. The royal compound had halls, watchtowers, and stockaded walls, all garrisoned and ruled by harsh law. In the third year of Jingchu (239), after the execution of Gongsun Wenyi, Himiko first sent tribute to Wei. The Wei emperor granted her a gold seal and purple cords of rank. In the Zhengshi era Himiko died and a man was raised to the throne. The realm refused him; blood feuds erupted until Iyo, a woman of Himiko's line, was made queen. Male kings followed, each invested with Chinese titles. Through the Jin, Song, Qi, and Liang dynasties in the south, envoys kept coming without cease.

及陳平，至開皇二十年，倭王姓阿每，字多利思比孤，號阿輩雞彌，遣使詣闕。上令所司訪其風俗，使者言倭王以天爲兄，以日爲弟，天明時出聽政，跏趺坐，日出便停理務，雲委我弟。文帝曰：「此大無義理。」於是訓令改之。王妻號雞彌，後宮有女六七百人，名太子爲利歌彌多弗利。無城郭，內官有十二等：一曰大德，次小德，次大仁，次小仁，次大義，次小義，次大禮，次小禮，次大智，次小智，次大信，次小信，員無定數。有軍尼一百二十人，猶中國牧宰。八十戶置一伊尼翼，如今里長也。十伊尼翼屬一軍尼。其服飾，男子衣裙襦，其袖微小；履如屨形，漆其上，系之腳。人庶多跣足，不得用金銀爲飾。故時，衣橫幅，結束相連而無縫，頭亦無冠，但垂發於兩耳上。至隋，其王始制冠，以錦彩爲之，以金銀鏤花爲飾。婦人束發於後，亦衣裙襦，裳皆有襈。扡竹聚以爲梳。編草爲薦，雜皮爲表，緣以文皮。有弓、矢、刀、槊、弩、䂎、斧，漆皮爲甲，骨爲矢鏑。雖有兵，無征戰。其王朝會，必陳設儀仗，奏其國樂。戶可十萬。俗，殺人、強盜及奸，皆死；盜者計贓酬物，無財者，沒身爲奴；自餘輕重，或流或杖。每訊冤獄，不承引者，以木壓膝；或張強弓，以弦鋸其項。或置小石于沸湯中，令所競者探之，云理曲者即手爛；或置蛇甕中，令取之，云曲者即螫手。人頗恬靜，罕爭訟，少盜賊。樂有五弦、琴、笛。男女皆黥臂，點面，文身。沒水捕魚。無文字，唯刻木結繩。敬佛法，於百濟求得佛經，始有文字，知卜筮，尤信巫覡。每至正月一日，必射戲飲酒，其餘節，略與華同。好棋博、握槊、樗蒱之戲。氣候溫暖，草木冬青。土地膏腴，水多陸少。以小環掛鸕鷀項，令入水搏魚，日得百餘頭。俗無盤俎，藉以槲葉，食用手餔之。性質直，有雅風。女多男少，婚嫁不取同姓，男女相悅者即爲婚。婦入夫家，必先跨火，乃與夫相見。婦人不淫妒。死者斂以棺椁，親賓就屍歌舞，妻子兄弟以白布制服。貴人三年殯，庶人卜日而痤。及葬，置屍船上，陸地牽之，或以小輿。有阿蘇山，其石無故火起接天者，俗以爲異，因行祭禱。有如意寶珠，其色青，大如雞卵，夜則有光，云魚眼睛也。新羅、百濟皆以倭爲大國，多珍物，並仰之，恆通使往來。

After the Chen fell, down to the twentieth year of Kaihuang (600), the Wa king Ame—personal name Tari-shihiko, style Kashihiko—sent envoys to court. The emperor had officials inquire into Wa customs; the envoys reported that the king called Heaven his elder brother and the Sun his younger: at dawn he sat in judgment cross-legged, and at sunrise ceased all business, saying, "I leave the rest to my brother." Emperor Wen said, "This is utterly without reason." He then issued orders that the practice be changed. The queen bore the title Kami; six or seven hundred women filled the inner palace; the crown prince was called Riko-mi-tari-furi. They had no walled cities; twelve ranks of court officers stood below the throne—Great and Lesser Virtue, Humanity, Righteousness, Rite, Wisdom, and Faith—with no fixed headcount. One hundred twenty guni served as local governors, much like Chinese prefects. Every eighty households had an ini no eki, the equivalent of a village headman. Ten village headmen answered to each guni. Men wore skirted robes and jackets with narrow sleeves; their footwear was sandal-shaped, lacquered and strapped to the feet. Commoners went barefoot and might not adorn themselves with gold or silver. Formerly they wore bolt cloth wrapped and tied without seams, went bareheaded, and let their hair fall over both ears. Under the Sui the king first wore a cap of brocade filigreed in gold and silver. Women bound their hair behind, wore the same skirted dress, and pleated their skirts. They bundled split bamboo into combs. Grass mats served for sitting, faced with mixed hides and edged in patterned leather. They bore bows, arrows, knives, spears, crossbows, catapults, and axes; armor was lacquered hide, arrowheads bone. Though armed, they waged no wars of conquest. Royal audiences always displayed ceremonial guards and native music. Households numbered perhaps one hundred thousand. Murder, robbery, and adultery were capital crimes; thieves made restitution in goods, and the penniless were enslaved; lesser offenses brought exile or beating according to severity. In trials, the unconfessing had wooden presses clamped on their knees; or a taut bowstring was drawn across the throat like a saw. Or disputants plunged their hands into boiling stones, on the belief that the guilty party's flesh would blister; or snakes were set in jars to be seized, the guilty supposedly stung. Yet the people were generally peaceable, seldom litigious, and rarely thieving. Music featured five-string lutes, zithers, and flutes. Men and women tattooed their arms, dotted their faces, and marked their bodies. They dived for fish. They had no script, only notched wood and knotted cords. They revered the Buddha; sutras obtained from Baekje brought writing, divination, and deep faith in shamans. On the first day of the first month they always held archery contests and feasting; other holidays largely matched Chinese practice. They delighted in weiqi, hand-pole, chupu, and other games of chance. The climate was mild and vegetation stayed green through winter. The soil was rich, though water far outnumbered dry land. A small ring around each cormorant's neck sent the birds diving for fish, yielding more than a hundred a day. They used no platters, eating from oak leaves and feeding themselves by hand. They were plainspoken and cultivated refined manners. Women outnumbered men; marriage forbade the same surname, and couples wed by mutual consent. A bride stepped over fire before meeting her husband. Wives were neither promiscuous nor jealous. The dead were coffined; kin and guests danced beside the corpse while family wore white mourning cloth. Nobles lay in state three years; commoners were buried on an auspicious day. For burial the corpse rode in a boat dragged overland, or in a small litter. Mount Aso's stones sometimes burst into flame that reached the sky; the people took this as a marvel and offered sacrifice. A wish-granting jewel, blue-green and egg-sized, glowed at night—they called it a fish's eye. Silla and Baekje both regarded Wa as a great power rich in treasures, looked up to it, and kept envoys passing between them.

大業三年，其王多利思比孤遣朝貢，使者曰：「聞海西菩薩天子重興佛法，故遣朝拜，兼沙門數十人來學佛法。」國書曰：「日出處天子致書日沒處天子，無恙。」云云。帝覽不悅，謂鴻臚卿曰：「蠻夷書有無禮者，勿復以聞。」明年，上遣文林郎裴世清使倭國，度百濟，行至竹島，南望耽羅國，經都斯麻國，迥在大海中。又東至一支國，又至竹斯國。又東至秦王國，其人同于華夏，以爲夷洲，疑不能明也。又經十餘國，達於海岸。自竹斯國以東，皆附庸於倭。倭王遣小德何輩台從數百人，設儀仗，鳴鼓角來迎。後十日，又遣大禮哥多毗從二百餘騎，郊勞。既至彼都，其王與世清。來貢方物。此後遂絕。

In the third year of Daye (607), King Tari-shihiko sent tribute; his envoys said, "Hearing that the bodhisattva Son of Heaven west of the sea has revived the Buddhist faith, we come to pay court, with several dozen monks to study the dharma." Their letter read, "The Son of Heaven where the sun rises addresses the Son of Heaven where the sun sets: are you well? And so forth. The emperor read it with displeasure and told the Director of Guests, "Do not bring me any more barbarian letters lacking propriety." The next year the court sent Palace Library Gentleman Pei Shiqing to Wa. He crossed Baekje, reached Take Island, looked south toward Tamna, and passed Tsushima, adrift on the open sea. Farther east lay Ichi, then Chiku. Still farther east was Qin-king, whose people resembled the Chinese; he thought it might be Yizhou, but could not be certain. After more than ten further states he reached the Wa coast. East of Chiku, every land was a vassal of Wa. The Wa king sent the Lesser Virtue Hehai-dai with several hundred men, drums and horns sounding, to welcome him with full ceremony. Ten days later the Great Rite Kadohi came with two hundred horsemen to greet him outside the capital. When they reached the Wa capital, the king and Pei Shiqing presented tribute goods together. After that, contact ceased.

論曰：廣谷大川異制，人生其間異俗，嗜欲不同，言語不通，聖人因時設教，所以達其志而通其俗也。九夷所居，與中夏懸隔，然天性柔順，無橫暴之風，雖綿邈山海，而易以道禦。夏、殷之世，時或來王。暨箕子避地朝鮮，始有八條之禁，疏而不漏，簡而可入，化之所感，千載不絕。今遼東諸國，或衣服參冠冕之容，或飲食有俎豆之器，好尚經術，愛樂文史，遊學於京都者，往來繼路，或沒世不歸，非先哲之遺風，其孰能致於斯也？故孔子曰：「言忠信，行篤敬，雖蠻貊之邦行矣。」誠哉斯言。其俗之可采者，豈楛矢之貢而已乎？自魏迄隋，年移四代，時方爭競，未遑外略。洎開皇之末，方征遼左，天時不利，師遂無功。二代承基，志苞宇宙，頻踐三韓之地，屢發千鈞之弩。小國懼亡，敢同困獸，兵不載捷，四海騷然，遂以土崩，喪身滅國。兵志有之曰：「務廣德者昌，務廣地者亡。」然遼東之地，不列於郡縣久矣，諸國朝正奉貢，無闕于歲時。二代震而矜之，以爲人莫己若，不能懷以文德，遽動干戈，內恃富強，外思廣地，以驕取怨，以怒興師，若此而不亡，自古未聞也。然四夷之戒，安可不深念哉！其豆莫婁、地豆幹、烏洛侯，曆齊周及隋，朝貢遂絕，其事故莫顯云。

Commentary: Great valleys and rivers breed different ways of life; peoples born among them differ in custom, appetite, and tongue. The sage sets teaching to suit the age, that their aims may be reached and their ways understood. The Nine Yi live far from the Central States, yet by nature they are mild, without violent temper; though seas and mountains divide them, the Way can readily govern them. Under Xia and Shang they sometimes came to court as kings. When Jizi fled to Korea he gave the Eight Prohibitions—broad yet binding, simple yet enforceable—and their transforming power endured a thousand years. Today the Liaodong states wear court dress, use ritual vessels, cherish the classics, and love letters; scholars throng the capital road, some never to return—without the sages' legacy, who could have wrought such change? Confucius said, "Be loyal and trustworthy in word, earnest and respectful in deed—even among barbarians one may so live." How true those words are. What worth adopting in their ways—is it only hardwood arrows as tribute? From Wei through Sui, four dynasties passed in strife, with no leisure for foreign conquest. At the end of Kaihuang they marched on Liaodong, but Heaven denied them victory. The two Sui emperors inherited the throne with ambitions to embrace the world, repeatedly invading the Three Han and loosing armies like thousand-weight crossbows. Small states fought like cornered beasts; victories failed to come; the realm seethed until the dynasty collapsed and emperor and empire alike were lost. The Art of War says, "He who broadens virtue prospers; he who broadens territory perishes." Yet Liaodong had long stood outside the commandery system while its states paid court each year without fail. Those two emperors grew proud, deeming none their equal, and failed to win men with civil virtue. They rushed to arms, trusting in wealth at home while grasping for land abroad—arrogance bred hatred, wrath raised armies—and for such rulers not to fall, history offers no precedent. The warning of the four quarters—how can one not take it deeply to heart! Doumolou, Didougan, and Wuluohou ceased tribute through Qi, Zhou, and Sui, and their histories are no longer clear.

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