Volume 95 Biographies 83: Man, Rao, Linyi, Chi Tu, Khmer, Brunei

蠻獠林邑赤土真臘婆利

Man; Rao; Linyi; Chi Tu; Khmer; Brunei.

列傳第八十三

Biography 83

蠻獠林邑赤土真臘婆利

Man, Rao, Linyi, Chi Tu, Khmer, and Brunei.

蠻之種類，蓋盤瓠之後。在江、淮之間，部落滋蔓，布於數州，東連壽春，西通巴、蜀，北接汝、潁，往往有焉。其于魏氏，不甚為患，至晉之末，稍以繁昌，漸為寇暴矣。自劉、石亂後，諸蠻無所忌憚，故其族漸得北遷，陸渾以南，滿于山谷，宛、洛蕭條，略為丘墟矣。

The Man peoples were said to be descendants of Panhu. Between the Yangtze and Huai their clans multiplied and spread across several provinces, reaching Shouchun to the east, Ba and Shu to the west, and Ru and Ying to the north; they were everywhere. Under Wei they caused little trouble, but by the closing years of Jin they had grown numerous and began to raid and pillage. After the upheavals of the Liu and Shi regimes the Man tribes no longer held back, and their people gradually pushed north. South of Luhun they packed the mountain valleys, while Wan and Luoyang wasted away into near ruin.

道武既定中山，聲教被於河表。泰常八年，蠻王梅安率渠帥數千朝京師，求留質子，以表忠款。始光中，拜安侍子豹為安遠將軍、江州刺史、順陽公。興光中，蠻王文武龍請降，詔褒慰之，拜南雍州刺史、魯陽侯。

Once Emperor Daowu had secured Zhongshan, the reach of his rule extended south of the Yellow River. In the eighth year of Taichang the Man king Mei An came to the capital at the head of several thousand chieftains, offering to leave a hostage son as proof of his fealty. During the Shiguang era the court made Mei An's son Bao, who had served as his attendant, general who pacifies the distance, inspector of Jiangzhou, and duke of Shunyang. In the Xinguang era the Man king Wen Wulong submitted; the court commended and reassured him and named him inspector of southern Yongzhou and marquis of Luyang.

延興中，大陽蠻首桓誕擁沔水以北，滍葉以南，八萬餘落，遣使內屬。孝文嘉之，拜誕征南將軍、東荊州刺史、襄陽王，聽自選郡縣。誕字天生，桓玄之子也。初，玄西奔至枚迥洲被殺，誕時年數歲，流竄大陽蠻中，遂習其俗。及長，多智謀，為群蠻所歸。誕既內屬，居朗陵。太和四年，王師南伐，誕請為前驅。乃授使持節、南征西道大都督，討義陽，不果而還。十年，移居潁陽。十六年，依例降王為公。十七年，加征南將軍、中道大都督，征竟陵。遇遷洛，師停。是時，齊征虜將軍、直閣將軍蠻首田益宗率部曲四千餘戶內屬。襄陽首雷婆思等十一人率戶千餘內自徙，求居大和川，詔給廩食。後開南陽，令有沔北之地，蠻人安堵，不為寇賊。十八年，誕入朝，賞遇隆厚。卒，諡曰剛。子暉，字道進，位龍驤將軍、東荊州刺史，襲爵。景明初，大陽蠻首田育丘等二萬八千戶內附，詔置四郡十八縣。暉卒。贈冠軍將軍。

During Yanxing the Dayang Man leader Huan Dan controlled more than eighty thousand households between the Han River to the north and the Zhi and Ye rivers to the south, and sent envoys to submit to the court. Emperor Xiaowen welcomed this and made Dan general who conquers the south, eastern inspector of Jingzhou, and king of Xiangyang, letting him pick his own counties and commanderies. Huan Dan, courtesy name Tiansheng, was a son of Huan Xuan. When Xuan fled west to Meihui Isle and was killed, Dan was still a small child; he drifted among the Dayang Man and grew up in their ways. As a man he proved clever and resourceful and came to lead the Man clans. Once he had submitted, Huan Dan made his seat at Langling. In the fourth year of Taihe, when the imperial army marched south, Dan volunteered to lead the advance. The court gave him the staff of commissioner and named him grand commander of the western wing of the southern campaign to strike Yiyang, but the effort failed and he withdrew. In the tenth year he relocated his seat to Yingyang. In the sixteenth year his royal title was lowered to duke, as custom required. In the seventeenth year he was further named general who conquers the south and grand commander of the central route for a campaign against Jingling. The expedition was called off when the court moved the capital to Luoyang. About then the Man chieftain Tian Yizong, a Qi general who subdues captives and direct-gate general, brought more than four thousand households of his followers in to submit. Lei Posi of Xiangyang and ten others brought more than a thousand households to resettle inward, asking to live on the Dahe River; the court ordered provisions issued to them. Later, when Nanyang was opened and allotted lands north of the Han, the Man settled peacefully and ceased raiding. In the eighteenth year Huan Dan attended court and was honored with lavish rewards. When he died he was given the posthumous title Gang ("resolute"). His son Huan Hui, courtesy name Daojin, served as flying dragon general and eastern inspector of Jingzhou and succeeded to the title. Early in Jingming the Dayang Man leader Tian Yuqiu and others, some twenty-eight thousand households, submitted; the court decreed four new commanderies and eighteen counties. Huan Hui then died. The court posthumously made him champion general.

正光中，叔興擁所部南叛。蠻首成龍強率戶數千內附，拜刺史；蠻帥田牛生率戶二千內徙揚州，拜為郡守。梁義州刺史邊城王文僧明、鐵騎將軍邊城太守田官德等率戶萬餘，舉州內屬。拜僧明平南將軍、西豫州刺史，封開封侯；官德龍驤將軍、義州刺史；自余封授各有差。僧明、官德併入朝。蠻出山至邊城、建安者，八九千戶。義州尋為梁將裴邃所陷。梁定州刺史田超秀亦遣使求附，請援歷年，朝廷恐輕致邊役，未之許。會超秀死，其部曲相率內附，徙之。六鎮、秦、隴所在反叛，二荊、西郢蠻大擾動，斷三鵶路，殺都督，寇盜至於襄城、汝水，百姓多被其害。梁遣將圍廣陵，楚城諸蠻，並為前驅。自汝水以南，恣其暴掠，連年攻討，散而復合，其暴滋甚。

During Zhengguang, Shuxing rebelled and fled south with his forces. The Man leader Cheng Longqiang brought several thousand households in to submit and was made an inspector; The Man chieftain Tian Niusheng resettled two thousand households in Yangzhou and was given a commandery governorship. Wensengming, the Liang inspector of Yizhou at Biancheng, and Tian Guande, iron cavalry general and prefect of Biancheng, brought more than ten thousand households and surrendered the whole province. Wensengming was made general who pacifies the south and western inspector of Yuzhou and enfeoffed as marquis of Kaifeng; Guande was named flying dragon general and inspector of Yizhou; The others received ranks and fiefs in varying measure. Both Wensengming and Guande travelled to the capital. Some eight or nine thousand Man households came down from the hills to Biancheng and Jian'an. Yizhou was soon lost to the Liang general Pei Sui. Tian Chaoxiu, the Liang inspector of Dingzhou, also sent envoys seeking to defect; he pleaded for aid year after year, but the court, wary of committing to a border war on slight grounds, held back. When Chaoxiu died his troops submitted en masse and were resettled. As rebellion flared in the Six Garrisons and in Qin and Long, Man bands in the two Jing provinces and western Ying rose up, severed the Sanya pass, killed the area commander, and raided as far as Xiangcheng and the Ru River, bringing widespread harm to civilians. Liang generals laid siege to Guangling, and the Man of Chucheng marched in the van. South of the Ru they plundered at will. Campaign after campaign broke them apart only to see them regroup, and their depredations grew ever worse.

又有冉氏、向氏、田氏者，陬落尤盛。余則大者萬家，小者千戶，更相崇樹，僭稱王侯。屯據三峽，斷遏水路，荊蜀行人，至有假道者。周文略定伊、瀍，聲教南被，諸蠻畏威，靡然向風矣。大統五年，蔡陽蠻王魯超明內屬，授南雍州刺史，仍世襲焉。十一年，蠻酋梅勒特來貢其方物。尋而蠻帥田杜青及江、漢諸蠻擾動，大將軍楊忠擊破之。其後蠻帥杜青和自稱巴州刺史，入附，朝廷因其所稱而授之。杜青和後遂反，攻圍東梁州。其唐州蠻田魯嘉亦叛，自號豫州伯。王雄、權景宣等前後討平之。

The Ran, Xiang, and Tian clans in particular had the largest settlements. Others counted ten thousand households at most and a thousand at least; they raised one another up and took kingly and ducal titles without authority. They held the Three Gorges and choked the waterways so that travellers between Jing and Shu at times had to detour through others' lands. Once Prince Wen of Zhou had secured the Yi and Chan region, his authority reached southward and the Man clans, awed by his power, bent before him like grass in the wind. In the fifth year of Datong the Caiyang Man king Lu Chaoming submitted; he was made inspector of southern Yongzhou, an office his line would hold in succession. In the eleventh year the Man leader Mei Lete presented local tribute goods. Soon afterward Tian Duqing and the Man along the Yangtze and Han rose in revolt; Grand General Yang Zhong crushed them. Later the Man chieftain Du Qinghe, who called himself inspector of Bazhou, came in to submit, and the court confirmed him under that very title. Du Qinghe soon turned rebel and besieged eastern Liangzhou. At the same time the Tangzhou Man Tian Lujia rebelled and proclaimed himself baron of Yuzhou. Wang Xiong, Quan Jingxuan, and others put down these rebellions one after another.

廢帝初，蠻首樊舍舉落內附，以為督淮北三州諸軍事、淮州刺史、淮安郡公。于謹等平江陵，諸蠻騷動，詔豆盧甯、蔡祐等討破之。恭帝二年，蠻酋宜人王田興彥、北荊州刺史梅季昌等相繼款附。以興彥、季昌並為開府儀同三司，加季昌洛州刺史，賜爵石台縣公。其後，巴西人譙淹扇動君蠻以附梁，蠻帥向鎮侯、向白虎等應之；向五子王又攻陷信州；田烏度、田唐等抄斷江路；文子榮復據荊州之汶陽郡，自稱仁州刺史；並鄰州刺史蒲微亦舉兵逆命。詔田弘、賀若敦、潘招、李遷哲等討破之。周武成初，文州蠻叛，州軍討定之。尋而冉令賢、向五子王等又攻陷白帝，殺開府楊長華，遂相率作亂。前後遣開府元契、趙剛等總兵出討，雖頗翦其族類，而元惡未除。天和元年，詔開府陸騰督王亮、司馬裔等討之。騰水陸俱進，次於湯口，先遣喻之。而令賢方增浚城池，嚴設扞禦，遣其長子西黎、次子南王領其支屬，於江南險要之地，置立十城，遠結涔陽蠻為其聲援。令賢率其卒，固守水邏城。騰乃總集將帥謀進趣，咸欲先取水邏，然後經略江南。騰言於眾曰：「令賢內恃水邏金湯之險，外托涔輔車之援，兼復資糧充實，器械精新。以我懸軍，攻其嚴壘，脫一戰不克，更成其氣。不如頓軍湯口，先取江南，翦其毛羽，然後游軍水邏，此制勝之計也。」眾皆然之。乃遣開府王亮率眾渡江，旬日攻拔其八城，凶黨奔散，獲賊帥冉承公並生口三千人，降其部眾一千戶。遂簡募驍勇，數道分攻水邏。路經石壁城，險峻，四面壁立，故以名焉。唯有一小路，緣梯而上，蠻蜒以為峭絕，非兵眾所行。騰被甲先登，眾軍繼進，備經危阻，累日乃得舊路。且騰先任隆州總管，雅知其路蠻帥冉伯犁、冉安西與令賢有隙。騰乃招誘伯犁等，結為父子，又多遺錢帛。伯犁等悅，遂為鄉導。水邏側又有石勝城者，亦是險要，令賢使其兄龍真據之。勝又密告龍真雲，若平水邏，使其代令賢處之。龍真大悅，遣其子詣騰。乃厚加禮接，賜以金帛。蠻貪利既深，仍請立效，乃謂騰曰：「欲翻所據城，恐人力寡少。」騰許以三百兵助之。既而遣二千人，銜枚夜進，龍真力不能禦，遂平石勝城。晨至水邏，蠻眾大潰，斬首萬餘級。令賢遁走，追而獲之。司馬裔又別下其二十餘城，獲蠻帥冉三公等。騰乃積其骸骨于水邏城側為京觀，後蠻蜒望見輒大哭，自此狼戾之心輟矣。

Early in the reign of the deposed emperor, the Man leader Fan She brought his people in; he was made commander-in-chief of military affairs for the three Huai-north provinces, inspector of Huaizhou, and duke of Huai'an commandery. After Yu Jin took Jiangling the Man clans grew restless; the court dispatched Dou Lu Ning, Cai You, and others to suppress them. In the second year of Emperor Gong the Man leader Tian Xingyan, king of Yiren, and Mei Jichang, northern inspector of Jingzhou, among others, pledged allegiance in turn. Xingyan and Jichang were both made officials of the third rank with opening office privileges; Jichang was also named inspector of Luozhou and enfeoffed as duke of Shitai county. Later Qiao Yan of Bazhou incited the Jun Man to side with Liang; the Man chiefs Xiang Zhenhou and Xiang Baihu answered his call; Xiang Wuzi Wang likewise seized Xinzhou; Tian Wudu, Tian Tang, and others intercepted traffic on the Yangtze; Wen Zirong reoccupied Wenyang commandery in Jingzhou and proclaimed himself inspector of Renzhou; Pu Wei, inspector of Bing province, also took up arms in open defiance. The court sent Tian Hong, Heluo Dun, Pan Zhao, Li Qianzhe, and others to crush them. Early in the reign of Emperor Wucheng of Northern Zhou, the Wenzhou Man rebelled and were put down by the provincial troops. Before long Ran Lingxian, Xiang Wuzi Wang, and their allies took Baidi, killed the opening grandee Yang Changhua, and joined in open revolt. The court repeatedly sent opening grandees Yuan Qi and Zhao Gang at the head of armies; they pruned the rebel clans but could not root out the ringleaders. In the first year of Tianhe the court ordered opening grandee Lu Teng, with Wang Liang and Sima Yi under his command, to lead the punitive expedition. Lu Teng pressed forward by land and river alike, making camp at Tangkou and sending envoys ahead to announce his terms. Ran Lingxian was meanwhile deepening his moats, hardening his defenses, and posting his eldest son Xili and second son Nanwang with their followers at ten strong points on the river's south bank, while he called in Cen River Man allies from afar as reinforcements. Lingxian himself held Shuoluo fortress with his main force. Lu Teng gathered his commanders to plan the advance; all agreed they should seize Shuoluo first and only then subdue the south bank. Lu Teng told the assembly: "Lingxian trusts in Shuoluo's impregnable walls and moat and counts on the Cen Man for mutual support; his supplies are ample and his arms fresh and keen. If we, an army far from home, hurl ourselves at his stronghold and fail in a single assault, we will only raise his spirits higher. Better to hold at Tangkou, seize the south bank first and clip his wings, then send a mobile force against Shuoluo — that is the winning stratagem. Everyone agreed. He sent opening grandee Wang Liang across the river; in ten days eight fortresses fell, the rebels scattered, and Ran Chenggong was taken along with three thousand captives while a thousand households surrendered. Next he picked the best fighters and sent them in several columns against Shuoluo. The road ran through Shibi ("Stone Wall") fortress, sheer on every side — which is how it got its name. Only one narrow track climbed up by ladder; the Man thought it too steep for any army to pass. Lu Teng armored himself and led the climb; the troops followed through repeated hazards until, after many days, they won through to the main road. Lu Teng had once been inspector-general of Longzhou and knew that the local Man chiefs Ran Boli and Ran Anxi were at odds with Lingxian. He wooed Boli and the others, swearing bonds of adoptive kinship and showering them with coin and silk. Delighted, Boli and his men became guides through the hills. Near Shuoluo stood Shisheng fortress, another strong point held by Lingxian's elder brother Longzhen. Lu Teng secretly promised Longzhen that if Shuoluo fell, he would receive Lingxian's seat. Overjoyed, Longzhen sent his son to Lu Teng. Lu Teng received the son with full honors and gave him gold and silk. Greedy for reward, they offered to defect, telling Lu Teng: "We mean to turn over our fortress, but we fear our numbers are too small. Lu Teng pledged three hundred troops to aid them. In the end he sent two thousand men advancing silently by night; Longzhen could not hold them off and Shisheng fortress was taken. By dawn they were at Shuoluo; the Man army broke and fled; more than ten thousand heads were taken. Lingxian fled but was run down and captured. Sima Yi meanwhile reduced more than twenty strongholds and seized the Man chiefs Ran San'gong and others. Lu Teng piled the slain into a victory mound beside Shuoluo; when the Man later saw it they wailed, and their savage will was broken from that day on.

時向五子王據石墨城，令其子寶勝據雙城。水邏平後，頻遺喻之，而五子王猶不從命。騰又遣王亮屯牢坪，司馬裔屯雙城以圖之。騰慮雙城孤峭，攻未可拔，賊若委城遁散，又難追討。乃令諸軍周回立柵，遏其走路，賊乃大駭。於是縱兵擊破之，禽五子王於石墨，獲寶勝於雙城，悉斬諸向首領，生禽萬餘口。信州舊居白帝，騰更于劉備故宮城南，八陳之北，臨江岸築城，移置信州。又以巫縣、信陵、秭歸併築城置防，以為襟帶焉。

Meanwhile Xiang Wuzi Wang held Shimo fortress while his son Baosheng garrisoned Shuangcheng. After Shuoluo fell, Lu Teng sent envoys again and again to summon him, but Wuzi Wang still refused to submit. Teng then posted Wang Liang at Laoping and Sima Yi at Shuangcheng to hem them in. Teng worried that Shuangcheng, perched alone on steep ground, might not fall to assault—and that if the rebels slipped away and dispersed, they would be nearly impossible to run down. He had his forces ring the area with palisades and cut off every escape route; the rebels were thrown into panic. He then unleashed his troops and broke them: Wuzi Wang was taken at Shimo, Baosheng at Shuangcheng, every Xiang chieftain was executed, and more than ten thousand captives were seized alive. Xinzhou had long sat at Baidi; Teng built a new city south of Liu Bei's old palace, north of the Eight Formations, on the riverbank, and moved the prefectural seat there. He likewise fortified Wu, Xinling, and Zigui into a defensive chain that guarded the approaches.

天和六年，蠻渠冉祖裛、冉龍驤又反，詔大將軍趙訚討平之。自此群蠻懼息，不復為寇。

In the sixth year of Tianhe the Man chiefs Ran Zuyi and Ran Longxiang rose again; the court ordered Grand General Zhao Yin to put them down. After that the Man tribes were cowed into quiet and no longer raided.

獠者，蓋南蠻之別種，自漢中達於邛、笮，川洞這間，所在皆有。種類甚多，散居山谷，略無氏族之別。又無名字，所生男女，唯以長幼次第呼之。其丈夫稱阿謨、阿段，婦人阿夷、阿等之類，皆語之次第稱謂也。依樹積木，以居其上，名曰幹闌，幹闌大小，隨其家口之數。往往推一長者為王，亦不能遠相統攝。父死則子繼，若中國之貴族也。獠王各有鼓角一雙，使其子弟自吹擊之。好相殺害，多死，不敢遠行。能臥水底持刀刺魚，其口嚼食並鼻飲。死者，豎棺而埋之。性同禽獸，至於忿怒，父子不相避，唯手有兵刃者先殺之。若殺其父，走避外，求得一狗以謝，不復嫌恨。若報怨相攻擊，必殺而食之；平常劫掠，賣取豬狗而已。親戚比鄰，指授相賣。被賣者號哭不服，逃竄避之，乃將買人指捕，逐若亡叛，獲便縛之。但經被縛者，即服為賤隸，不敢稱良矣。亡失兒女，一哭便止，不復追思。唯執楯持矛，不識弓矢。用竹為簧，群聚鼓之，以為音節。能為細布，色至鮮淨。大狗一頭，賣一生口。其俗畏鬼神，尤尚淫祀。所殺之人美鬢髯者，乃剝其面皮，籠之於竹，及燥，號之曰鬼，鼓舞祀之，以求福利。至有賣其昆季妻孥盡者，乃自賣以供祭焉。鑄銅為器，大口寬腹，名曰銅爨，既薄且輕，易於熟食。

The Liao were a distinct branch of the southern Man peoples, ranging from Hanzhong to Qiong and Zuo; wherever river valleys and mountain hollows ran, they were there. Their clans were many, scattered through mountain valleys, with scarcely any organized lineage structure. They used no personal names at all: children were addressed simply by birth order. Men went by forms such as Amo and Aduan, women by Ayi and Adeng—terms that marked rank in the family rather than true names. They built stilt houses of timber against trees—ganlan, they called them—sized to fit however many people lived under one roof. They would often elevate an elder as king, but his authority did not reach far beyond his own valley. When a father died his son succeeded him, much like a hereditary noble house in the heartland. Every Liao king kept a drum and horn, which his sons and kinsmen sounded themselves. They feuded constantly; bloodshed was common, and few ventured far from home. They could lie on the riverbed and spear fish with a knife; they ate by chewing and drank by drawing liquid through the nose. The dead were buried in coffins set upright in the ground. Their tempers were bestial: in a rage, father and son would strike without hesitation, and whoever held a blade struck first. If a man killed his father, he fled into exile, then returned a dog as blood payment—and the feud was considered closed. In blood feuds they killed their enemies and ate the flesh; in ordinary raids they sold captives for no more than pigs or dogs. Relatives and neighbors would identify victims and trade them among themselves. The victim would wail and bolt; the buyer, guided to the spot, hunted him down like a fugitive rebel and bound him on capture. Once bound, a man accepted servile status and never again claimed to be free. If a child was lost, they wept once and moved on, without lingering grief. They fought with shield and spear alone and knew nothing of bow and arrow. They made bamboo reeds and beat them in groups for music and dance. They wove fine cloth of striking, vivid color. A full-grown dog was the price of one captive. They feared ghosts and spirits and were devoted above all to lavish, excessive rites. When they killed a man with a fine beard, they flayed his face, stretched the skin on a bamboo frame, and when it dried called it a ghost—then danced and drummed before it to win favor from the spirits. Some sold every brother's wife and child, then sold themselves into bondage to pay for the rites. They cast bronze cauldrons with wide mouths and bellies—tongcuan, they called them—thin, light, and quick to boil a meal.

建國中，李勢在蜀，諸獠始出巴西、渠川、廣漢、陽安、資中，攻破郡國，為益州大患。勢內外受敵，所以亡也。自桓溫破蜀之後，力不能制。又蜀人東流，山險之地多空，獠遂挾山傍穀。與夏人參居者，頗輸租賦；在深山者，仍不為編戶。梁、益二州歲伐獠，以裨潤公私，頗藉為利。

Under Jianguo, while Li Shi ruled Shu, the Liao poured out of Baxi, Quchuan, Guanghan, Yang'an, and Zizhong, overran the districts, and became Yizhou's gravest scourge. Li Shi was beset from within and without—and that is why his realm fell. After Huan Wen conquered Shu, the court no longer had the strength to hold them in check. As Sichuan's Han population drifted eastward, the mountain fastnesses emptied, and the Liao settled along ridges and ravines. Where they lived among Han settlers they paid a measure of tax and tribute; those in the deep hills remained outside the tax rolls altogether. Liang and Yi provinces raided the Liao every year, padding both public and private purses—a trade many found profitable.

正始中，夏侯道遷舉漢中內附，宣武遣尚書邢巒為梁、益二州刺史以鎮之，近夏人者安堵樂業，在山谷者不敢為寇。後以羊祉為梁州，傅豎眼為益州。祉性酷虐，不得物情。梁輔國將軍范季旭與獠王趙清荊率眾屯孝子穀，祉遣統軍魏胡擊走之。後梁甯朔將軍姜白復擁夷獠入屯南城，梁州人王法慶與之通謀，眾屯於固門川。祉遣征虜將軍討破之。豎眼施恩布信，大得獠和。後以元法僧代傅豎眼為益州，法僧在任貪殘，獠遂反叛，勾引梁兵，圍逼晉壽。朝廷憂之，以豎眼先得物情，復令乘傳往撫。獠聞豎眼至，莫不欣然，拜迎道路，於是而定。及元桓、元子真相繼為梁州，並無德績，諸獠苦之。其後，朝廷以梁、益二州控攝險遠，乃立巴州以統諸獠。後以巴酋嚴始欣為刺史。又立隆城鎮，所綰獠二十萬戶。彼謂北獠，歲輸租布，又與外人交通貿易。巴州生獠，並皆不順，其諸頭王，每于時節謁見刺史而已。孝昌初，諸獠以始欣貪暴，相率反叛，攻圍巴州。山南行台魏子建勉喻，即時散罷。自是獠諸頭王，相率詣行台者相繼，子建厚勞賚之。始欣見中國多事，又失彼心，慮獲罪譴，時梁南梁州刺史陰子春扇惑邊陲，始欣謀將南叛。始欣族子愷時為隆城鎮將，密知之，嚴設邏候，遂禽梁使人，並封始欣詔書、鐵券、刀劍、衣冠之屬，表送行台。子建乃啟以豎眼久病，其子敬紹納始欣重賂，使得還州。始欣乃起眾攻愷，屠滅之，據城南叛。梁將蕭玩，率眾援接。時梁、益二州並遣將討之，攻陷巴州，執始欣，遂大破玩軍。及斬玩，以傅曇表為刺史。後元羅在梁州，為所陷，自此遂絕。

During Zhengshi, Xiahou Daqian brought Hanzhong over to the north; Emperor Xuanwu sent Xing Luan to govern Liang and Yi. Liao near Han settlements lived quietly and worked the land; those in the valleys no longer dared raid. Later Yang Zhi was appointed to Liangzhou and Fu Shuyan to Yizhou. Yang Zhi was brutal and won no one's loyalty. Fan Jixu, general who supports the state of Liang, and the Liao king Zhao Qingjing massed at Xiaozi Valley; Yang Zhi sent Wei Hu to drive them out. Later Jiang Bai, Liang's pacifier of the north, rallied Liao tribes and seized Nancheng; Wang Faqing of Liangzhou joined the plot, and their forces gathered on the Gumen River. Yang Zhi sent a punitive general who broke them. Fu Shuyan ruled with generosity and kept his word, and the Liao came willingly to his side. Yuan Faseng succeeded Fu Shuyan in Yizhou; greedy and savage in office, he drove the Liao into revolt. They called in Liang armies and pressed Jinshou. The court was alarmed; because Fu Shuyan had once won the people's trust, he was sent post-haste to restore order. When word spread that Fu Shuyan was coming, the Liao turned out joyfully along the roads to greet him, and the region settled. Yuan Huan and Yuan Zizhen followed one after another in Liangzhou, neither with merit or mercy, and the Liao groaned under their rule. The court then created Bazhou to govern the Liao, for Liang and Yi alone could not hold such rugged, distant country. Later the Ba chieftain Yan Shixin was appointed inspector. A garrison was set at Longcheng to oversee two hundred thousand Liao households. These northern Liao paid an annual cloth levy and traded freely with outsiders. The wild Liao of Bazhou obeyed no one; their head kings came only at festival times to pay courtesy calls on the inspector. Early in Xiaochang the Liao rose together against Yan Shixin's greed and cruelty and laid siege to Bazhou. Wei Zijian of the Shannan executive board talked them down, and they broke up at once. After that the Liao head kings came one after another to the executive board, and Wei Zijian treated them generously. Yan Shixin saw the empire in turmoil and knew he had lost the Liao's trust; fearing reprisal, and with Yin Zichun of Liang stirring the frontier, he plotted to go over to the south. His kinsman Yan Kai, garrison commandant at Longcheng, learned of the plot, tightened the border posts, seized Liang's envoys, and sent the court a sealed packet of Shixin's edicts, iron bonds, arms, and regalia. Wei Zijian reported that Fu Shuyan, long ill, had let his son Jingshao take Yan Shixin's heavy bribes and restore him to office. Yan Shixin raised his forces, attacked Yan Kai, wiped him out, seized the city, and declared for the south. The Liang general Xiao Wan marched to his aid. Liang and Yi both sent generals against them, retook Bazhou, captured Yan Shixin, and routed Xiao Wan's army. Xiao Wan was executed, and Fu Tanbiao was appointed inspector. Later Yuan Luo, holding Liangzhou, was undone by them, and from that point the region was lost.

及周文平梁、益之後，令在所撫慰，其與華人雜居者，亦頗從賦役。然天性暴亂，旋致擾動。每歲命隨近州鎮，出兵討之，獲其生口，以充賤隸，謂之為壓獠焉。後有商旅往來者，亦資以為貨，公卿達於人庶之家，有獠口者多矣。恭帝三年，陵州木籠獠反，詔開府陸騰討破之。周保定二年，鐵山獠又反，抄斷江路，陸騰又攻拔其三城。天和三年，梁州恆棱獠叛，總管長史趙文表討之。軍次巴州，文表欲率眾徑進。軍吏等曰：「此獠旅拒日久，部眾甚強，討之者四面攻之，以分其勢。今若大軍直進，不遣奇兵，恐亻並力於我，未可制勝。」文表曰：「往者既不能制之，今須別為進趣。若四面遣兵，則獠降走路絕，理當相率以死拒戰；如從一道，則吾得示威恩，分遣人以理曉諭，為惡者討之，歸善者撫之，善惡既分，易為經略。事有變通，奈何欲遵前轍也？」文表遂以此意，遍令軍中。時有從軍熟獠，多與恆棱親識，即以實報之。恆棱獠相與聚議，猶豫之間，文表軍已至其界。獠中先有二路，一路稍平，一路極險。俄有生獠酋帥數人來見文表曰：「我恐官軍不識山川，請為鄉導。」文表謂之曰：「此路寬平，不須導引，卿但先去，好慰喻子弟也。」乃遣之。文表謂其眾曰：「向者獠帥，謂吾從寬路而行，必當設伏險要。若從險路，出其不慮，獠眾自離散矣。」於是勒兵從險道進，其有不通之處，即平之。乘高而望，果見其伏兵。獠既失計，爭攜妻子，退保險要。文表頓軍大蓬山下，示禍福，遂相率來降。文表皆撫慰之，仍征其租稅，無敢動者。後除文表為蓬州刺史，又大得人和。

After Yuwen Tai pacified Liang and Yi, local officials were told to win them over; Liao living among Han settlers largely accepted tax and corvée duty. But they were violent by nature, and trouble flared again before long. Every year nearby prefectures and garrisons were sent against them; captives were taken as bond servants in what was called 'pressing the Liao.' Later merchants traded in them too; from high officials to humble homes, Liao bondsmen were common. In the third year of Emperor Gong the Mulung Liao of Lingzhou rebelled; Lu Teng was ordered out and broke them. In Zhou's second year of Baoding the Tieshan Liao rose again and cut the river routes; Lu Teng stormed three of their strongholds. In the third year of Tianhe the Hengling Liao of Liangzhou rebelled, and Chief Administrator Zhao Wenbiao was dispatched against them. The army reached Bazhou, and Zhao Wenbiao meant to march straight in. His officers said, "These Liao have held out a long time and their numbers are strong. The usual way is to attack from four sides and split their force. If the main force pushes straight ahead without a flanking column, they may mass against us and we may not win. Zhao Wenbiao replied, "We failed to control them before; this time we must advance differently. Send troops on every side and we cut off every path of flight—they will band together and fight to the death; march by a single route and we can show both force and mercy, send envoys to reason with them, punish the guilty and reassure the willing—once the good and bad are sorted, the rest is manageable. Circumstances call for flexibility—why cling to the old plan? Zhao Wenbiao then made this plan known throughout the army. Some Liao soldiers in his ranks knew the Hengling people well and told them exactly what was planned. The Hengling Liao met to debate their response—but while they wavered, Zhao Wenbiao's army was already at their border. Two routes led into Liao country: one fairly level, the other brutally steep. Soon several wild Liao chiefs came to Zhao Wenbiao and said, "We fear your troops do not know the country—let us guide you. He told them, "This road is wide and easy—you need no guide. Go on ahead and reassure your people. And he sent them on their way. Zhao Wenbiao told his men, "Those chiefs think we will take the easy road and will surely lay ambushes at the passes. Take the hard road and catch them off guard, and their forces will fall apart on their own. He then led his troops up the hard trail, cutting through wherever the way was blocked. From a height he looked down and saw the ambush exactly where he had expected. Outmaneuvered, the Liao grabbed their families and fell back to the mountain redoubts. Zhao Wenbiao camped below Mount Dapeng, showed them the choice between ruin and mercy, and they surrendered in waves. He reassured them all, collected their taxes, and none dared resist. Zhao Wenbiao was later made inspector of Pengzhou and again won broad loyalty.

建德初，李暉為蓬、梁州總管，諸獠亦望風從附。然其種滋蔓，保據嚴壑，依山走險，若履平地，雖屢加兵，弗可窮討。性又無知，殆同禽獸，諸夷之中，最難以道招懷者也。

At the opening of Jian' de, Li Hui became chief administrator of Peng and Liang, and the Liao submitted at the first sign of his authority. Yet their clans continued to spread, clinging to steep ravines and moving along mountain defiles as easily as walking flat ground. Repeated military campaigns could not root them out. Their temperament was crude, scarcely above that of animals; among all the frontier peoples they were the least responsive to conciliation and civilized rule.

林邑，其先所出，事具《南史》。其國延袤數千里，土多香木、金寶，物產大抵與交趾同。以磚為城，蜃灰塗之，東向戶。尊官有二，其一曰西那婆帝，其二曰薩婆地歌。其屬官三等，其一曰倫多姓，次歌倫致帝，次乙地伽蘭。外官分為二百餘部，其長官曰弗羅，次曰可輪，如牧宰之差也。王戴金花冠，形如章甫，衣朝霞布，珠璣纓絡，足躡革履，時服錦袍。良家子侍衛者二百許人，皆執金裝。兵有弓、箭、刀、槊。以為竹為弩，傅毒於矢。樂有琴、笛、琵琶、五弦，頗與中國同。每擊鼓以警眾，吹蠡以即戎。其人深目高鼻，發拳色黑。俗皆徒跣，以幅巾纏身，冬月衣袍。婦人椎髻。施椰葉席。每有婚媾，令媒者齎金銀釧、酒二壺、魚數頭至女家，於是擇日，夫家會親賓，歌舞相對，女家請一婆羅門送女至男家，婿盥手，因牽女授之。王死，七日而葬；有官者，三日；庶人，一日。皆以函盛屍，鼓舞導從，輿至水次，積薪焚之。收其餘骨，王則內金罌中，沉之於海；有官者，以銅罌，沉之海口；庶人以瓦，送之于江。男女皆截發，哭至水次，盡哀而止，歸則不哭。每七日，燃香散花，復哭盡哀而止，百日、三年皆如之。人皆奉佛，文字同於天竺。

The origins of Linyi are related in full in the History of the Southern Dynasties. The kingdom stretched for thousands of li, rich in fragrant timber and precious metals; its products were much the same as those of Jiaozhi. Their cities were built of brick coated with shell lime, with doorways facing east. Two supreme offices existed: one called Xina-podi, the other Sapodi-ge. Subordinate officials fell into three ranks: Lunduoxing, Gelun-zhi-di, and Yidi-jialan. Local administration was divided into more than two hundred districts, headed by officers called Fuluo, with subordinates called Kelun—the equivalent of prefects and magistrates. The king wore a golden flower crown shaped like a formal cap, robes of dawn-colored cloth adorned with pearls and gems, and leather shoes, sometimes switching to brocade gowns. Some two hundred youths from respectable families served as guards, all armed with gilded weapons. Their troops carried bows, arrows, swords, and long spears. They fashioned bamboo crossbows and tipped their arrows with poison. Their music featured zithers, flutes, pipa, and five-stringed lutes, much like those of China. Drums summoned the people; conch shells signaled mobilization for war. The people had deep-set eyes, prominent noses, and tight curly black hair. They went barefoot by custom, wrapping themselves in cloth bands, and wore robes in winter. Women wore their hair in topknot chignons. Coconut-leaf mats served as bedding. For weddings a matchmaker brought gold and silver bracelets, two jars of wine, and several fish to the bride's home. On the chosen day the groom's family assembled relatives and guests for singing and dancing; a Brahmin escorted the bride to the groom's house, where the groom washed his hands and took her hand in marriage. When the king died, he was buried after seven days; officials after three days; commoners after one day. The body was placed in a coffin and borne with singing and dancing to the water's edge, where it was burned on a pyre. The remaining bones were collected; for the king they were placed in a golden urn and cast into the sea; for officials, in a bronze urn sunk at the seashore; for commoners, in earthenware vessels sent down the river. Men and women cut their hair and mourned at the water's edge until grief was spent; once they returned home, weeping ceased. Every seven days they burned incense and scattered flowers and mourned again until grief was spent—the same at the hundred-day mark and at three years. All practiced Buddhism, and their script was the same as that of India.

隋文帝既平陳，乃遣使獻方物，後朝貢遂絕。時天下無事，群臣言林邑多奇寶者。仁壽末，上遣大將軍劉方為驩州道行軍總管，率欽州刺史甯長真、驩州刺史李暈、開府秦雄步騎萬餘，及犯罪者數千人擊之。其王梵志乘巨象而戰，方軍不利。方乃多掘小坑，草覆其上，因以兵挑之。方與戰偽北，梵志逐之，其象陷，軍遂亂，方大破之，遂棄城走。入其都，獲其廟主十八枚，皆鑄金為之，盡其國有十八世。方班師，梵志復其故地，遣使謝罪，於是朝貢不絕。

After Emperor Wen of Sui conquered Chen, Linyi sent envoys bearing tribute, but the missions soon lapsed. With the empire at peace, court officials spoke of the rare treasures said to abound in Linyi. At the end of the Renshou era the emperor sent General Liu Fang as campaign commander on the Huan route, leading Qinzhou inspector Ning Changzhen, Huanzhou inspector Li Hun, and Kaifu Qin Xiong with over ten thousand foot and horse soldiers plus several thousand convicts to attack Linyi. King Fan Zhi fought mounted on a great elephant, and Liu Fang's army was hard pressed. Liu Fang had many small pits dug and covered with grass, then sent men to taunt the enemy. Liu Fang feigned retreat in battle; Fan Zhi gave chase, his elephant became mired, and his army broke in confusion. Liu Fang won a great victory, and the Linyi forces abandoned their city and fled. In the capital they seized eighteen gilded temple images representing all eighteen reigns of the dynasty. Liu Fang withdrew, but Fan Zhi regained his former lands and sent envoys to apologize; tribute missions thereafter continued without interruption.

赤土國，扶南之別種也。在南海中，水行百餘日而達。所都土色多赤，因以為號。東波羅刺國，西婆羅娑國，南訶羅旦國，北拒大海，地方數千里。其王姓瞿曇氏，多利富多塞，不知有國近遠。稱其父釋王位，出家為道，傳位於利富多塞，在位十六年矣。有三妻，並鄰國女也。居僧祗城，有門三重，相去各百許步。每門圖畫菩薩飛仙之象，懸金花鈴眊，婦人數十人，或奏樂，或捧金花。又飾四婦人，容飾如佛塔邊金剛力士之狀，夾門而立，門外者持兵仗，門內者執白拂。夾道垂素網，綴花。王宮諸屋，悉是重閣北戶。北面而坐三重之榻，衣朝霞布，冠金花冠，垂雜寶纓絡，四女子立侍左右，兵衛百餘人。王榻後作一木龕，以金銀五香木雜鈿之，龕後懸一金光焰；夾榻又樹二金鏡，鏡前並陳金甕，甕前各有金香爐；當前置一金伏牛，前樹一寶蓋，左右皆有寶扇。婆羅門等數百人，東西重行，相向而坐。其官：薩陀加邏一人，陀拏達叉一人，迦利密迦三人，共掌政事；俱羅末帝一人，掌刑法。每城置那邪迦一人，缽帝十人。

The kingdom of Chi Tu (Red Earth) was an offshoot of Funan. It lay in the southern seas, more than a hundred days' voyage by ship. The soil around the capital was predominantly red, which gave the kingdom its name. It bordered Boluoci to the east, Poluosuo to the west, and Heluodan to the south, with the open sea to the north; its domain covered several thousand li. The king belonged to the Gautama clan and was named Taripura; he had little sense of how near or far other kingdoms lay. He said his father had renounced the throne to become a monk and had passed rule to Taripura, who had already reigned sixteen years. He had three wives, all princesses from neighboring kingdoms. He lived in Sengqi city, which had three gates spaced about a hundred paces apart. Each gate was painted with bodhisattvas and flying immortals and hung with golden bells and banners; dozens of women played music or bore golden flowers. Four women were dressed like the vajra guardians flanking a pagoda, standing on either side of the gate; attendants outside bore weapons, those inside carried white fly-whisks. White nets hung along the road, decorated with flowers. The palace buildings were all multi-storied halls with north-facing doors. He sat facing north on a triple-tiered throne, wearing dawn-colored robes and a golden flower crown hung with jeweled tassels; four women stood at his side and more than a hundred guards attended him. Behind the throne stood a wooden shrine inlaid with gold, silver, and fragrant woods; behind it hung a golden flame emblem; flanking the throne stood two golden mirrors, with golden urns before them and a golden incense burner before each urn; directly in front stood a golden recumbent ox, with a jeweled canopy before it and jeweled fans on either side. Several hundred Brahmins sat in facing rows to the east and west. The chief offices were Satagaluo, Tanadacha, and three Kalimika, who jointly managed government affairs; and Juluomodi, who oversaw criminal law. Each city had one Nayaka and ten Bodi officials.

其俗，皆穿耳翦發，無跪拜之禮，以香油塗身。其俗敬佛，尤重婆羅門。婦人作髻于項後，男女通以朝霞朝雲雜色布為衣。豪富之室，恣意華靡，唯金鎖非王賜不得服用。每婚嫁，擇吉日，女家先期五日，作樂飲酒，父執女手以授婿，七日乃配。既娶，即分財別居，唯少子與父居。父母兄弟死，則剔發素服，就水上構竹木為棚，棚內積薪，以屍置上，燒香建幡，吹蠡擊鼓以送，火焚薪，遂落于水。貴賤皆同、唯國王燒訖收灰，貯以金瓶，藏於廟屋。冬夏常溫，雨多霽少，種植無時。特宜稻、穄、白豆、黑麻，自餘物產，多同於交趾。以甘蔗作酒，雜以紫瓜根，酒色黃赤，味亦香美。亦以椰漿為酒。

Customarily they pierced their ears and cut their hair, observed no kneeling or bowing ritual, and anointed their bodies with fragrant oil. They revered Buddhism and held Brahmins in particular esteem. Women wore chignons at the nape of the neck; both sexes commonly dressed in dawn-colored and multicolored cloth. Wealthy households dressed as lavishly as they pleased, but golden chains could be worn only when granted by the king. For weddings an auspicious day was chosen; five days beforehand the bride's family feasted with music and wine, and the father placed his daughter's hand in the groom's; the couple was formally united after seven days. After marriage sons divided the household property and lived separately; only the youngest remained with his father. When parents or siblings died, mourners shaved their heads and wore plain white dress. By the water they built a bamboo scaffold, piled firewood on it, and placed the body atop; incense was burned and banners raised while conch shells and drums sounded. When the pyre burned through, the remains fell into the water. Nobles and commoners followed the same rite; only the king, after cremation, collected the ashes in a golden flask and stored them in a temple. The climate was warm year-round, with more rain than sunshine and no fixed planting season. Rice, millet, white beans, and black hemp grew especially well; other products were much like those of Jiaozhi. They brewed wine from sugarcane mixed with purple gourd root; it was yellow-red in color and fragrant on the palate. Coconut sap was also fermented into wine.

隋煬帝嗣位，募能通絕域者。大業三年，屯田主事常駿、虞部主事王君政等請使赤土。帝大悅，遣齎物五千段以賜赤土王。其年十月，駿等自南海郡乘舟，晝夜二旬，每日遇便風。至焦石山而過，東南詣陵伽缽拔多洲，西與林邑相對，上有神祠焉。又南行，至師子石。自是島嶼連接。又行二三日，西望見狼牙須國之山，於是南達雞籠島，至於赤土之界。

After Emperor Yang of Sui came to the throne, he sought men capable of reaching distant lands beyond the empire. In Daye year 3, Chang Jun of the military colonies bureau and Wang Junzheng of the parks bureau petitioned to lead an embassy to Chi Tu. The emperor was delighted and sent them with five thousand rolls of silk and goods as gifts for the king of Chi Tu. That October Chang Jun and his party sailed from Nanhai commandery; for twenty days and nights they enjoyed favorable winds each day. They passed Jiaoshi Mountain and sailed southeast to Lingjiaboduozhou isle, facing Linyi to the west, where a spirit shrine stood. Continuing south, they reached Lion Rock. From there onward islands lay in an unbroken chain. After two or three more days they sighted to the west the mountains of Langyaxu; sailing south they reached Jilong isle and entered Chi Tu territory.

其王遣婆羅門鳩摩羅，以舶三百艘來迎，吹蠡擊鼓樂隋使，進金鎖以纜船。月餘，至其都。王遣其子那邪迦請與駿等禮見。先遣人送金盤貯香花並鏡鑷，金合二枚貯香油，金瓶二枚貯香水，白疊布四條，以擬供使者盥洗。其日未時，那邪迦又將象二頭，持孔雀獸以迎使人，並致金盤、金花，以藉詔函，男女百人奏蠡鼓，婆羅門二人導路。至王宮，駿等奉詔書上閣，王以下皆坐，宣詔訖，引駿等坐，奏天竺樂，事畢，駿等還館。又遣婆羅門就館送食，以草葉為盤，其大方丈。因謂駿曰：「今是大國臣，非復赤土國矣。」後數日，請駿等入宴，儀衛導從如初見之禮。王前設兩床，床上並設草葉盤，方一丈五尺，上有黃、白、紫、赤四色之餅，牛、羊、魚、鱉、豬、蝳蝐之肉百餘品。延駿升床，從者于地席，各以金鍾置酒，女樂迭奏，禮遺甚厚。

The king sent the Brahmin Jiumoluo with three hundred vessels to welcome them, greeting the Sui envoys with conch shells and drums and presenting golden chains to moor their ships. After more than a month they reached the capital. The king sent his son Nayaka to invite Chang Jun and his party to an audience. They first sent a golden tray of flowers and incense with mirror and tweezers, two golden boxes of fragrant oil, two golden flasks of scented water, and four lengths of white cotton cloth for the envoys' ablutions. That afternoon Nayaka came again with two elephants and peacock-feather standards to welcome the envoys, presenting golden trays and flowers to cushion the imperial letter-case; a hundred attendants played conch drums while two Brahmins led the procession. At the palace Chang Jun and his party presented the imperial edict in the upper hall; the king and his court were seated, and after the edict was read they were given seats while Indian music was played. When the ceremony ended they returned to their quarters. Brahmins were sent to their quarters with food served on leaf platters each about a square zhang in size. He told Chang Jun, "You are now subjects of the great empire, no longer merely of Chi Tu. Several days later they were invited to a banquet, escorted with the same ceremonial guard as at their first audience. Before the king stood two couches, each with leaf platters a zhang and a half square holding yellow, white, purple, and red cakes and more than a hundred dishes of beef, mutton, fish, turtle, pork, and shellfish. Chang Jun was seated on the couch while his attendants sat on mats below, each with a golden cup of wine; female musicians performed in turn, and the hospitality was lavish.

尋遣那邪迦隨貢方物，並獻金芙蓉冠、龍腦香，以鑄金為多羅葉，隱起成文以為表，金函封之，令婆羅門以香花奏蠡鼓而送之。既入海，見綠魚群飛水上。浮海十餘日，至林邑東南，並山而行。其海水色黃氣腥，舟行一日不絕，雲是大魚糞也。循海北岸，達於交趾。駿以六年春與那邪迦于弘農謁帝。帝大悅，授駿等執戟都尉，那邪迦等官賞各有差。

Nayaka was soon dispatched with tribute goods, including a golden lotus crown and camphor; a gold bodhi leaf cast with raised inscription served as their memorial, sealed in a golden case and sent off with Brahmins playing conch drums amid flowers and incense. Once at sea they saw shoals of green fish skimming the surface. After more than ten days at sea they reached southeastern Linyi and sailed along the coast. The water there was yellow and foul-smelling; a full day's sailing could not carry them clear of it—they were told it was the excrement of great fish. They followed the northern coast until they reached Jiaozhi. In the spring of year 6 Chang Jun presented Nayaka to the emperor at Hongnong. The emperor was delighted and made Chang Jun and his party Commandants Bearing Halberds; Nayaka and his companions received titles and rewards according to rank.

真臘國，在林邑西南，本扶南之屬國也，去日南郡舟行六十日而至。南接車渠國，西有硃江國。其王姓刹利氏，名質多斯那。自其祖漸已強盛，至質多斯那隧兼扶南而有之。死，子伊奢那先代立。居伊奢那城，郭下二萬餘家。城中有一大堂，是其王聽政所。總大城三十所，城有數千家，各有部帥，官名與林邑同。

The kingdom of Zhenla lay southwest of Linyi. Originally a vassal of Funan, it was sixty days' voyage by ship from Rinan commandery. It bordered Chequ to the south and Zhujiang to the west. The king belonged to the Kshatriya clan and was named Citrasena. His dynasty had grown steadily stronger since his forebears' time; under Citrasena it conquered Funan and absorbed its territory. When he died, his son Ishanavarman succeeded him. The capital was Ishana city, with more than twenty thousand households in the suburbs. The city had a great hall that served as the king's council chamber. The kingdom comprised thirty major cities of several thousand households each, each with its own regional commander; official titles matched those of Linyi.

其王三日一聽朝，坐五香七寶床，上施寶帳，以文木為竿，象牙金鈿為壁，狀如小屋，懸金光焰，有同於赤土。前有金香，命二人侍側。王著朝霞古貝，瞞絡腰腹，下垂至脛，頭載金寶花冠，被真珠纓絡，足履革屣，耳懸金鐺。常服白疊，以象牙為屩。若露發，則不加纓絡。臣下服制，大抵相類。有五大臣，一曰孤落支，二曰相高憑，三曰婆何多陵，四曰舍摩陵，五曰髯羅婁，及諸小臣。朝于王者，輒於階下三稽首，王呼上階，則跪，以兩手抱膊，繞王環坐。議政事訖，跪伏而去。階庭門閣，侍衛有千餘人，被甲持仗。其國與參半、硃江二國和親，數與林邑、陀桓二國戰爭。其人行止，皆持甲仗，若有征伐，因而用之。

The king held court every third day, seated on a couch of fragrant woods and seven treasures beneath a jeweled canopy, with a pavilion of carved wood poles and ivory walls inlaid with gold, like a small house, and a golden flame emblem suspended — much as in Chi Tu. A golden incense burner stood before him, attended by two servants at his side. The king wore dawn-colored robes and cotton cloth wrapped about his waist to the shins, a golden jeweled crown, pearl necklaces, leather sandals, and golden ear pendants. In everyday dress he wore white cotton and ivory sandals. When his hair was uncovered, he wore no pearl necklaces. The dress of his officials was generally similar. Five great ministers — Guluozhi, Xianggaoping, Poheduoling, Shemolin, and Ranluolou — headed the court, with various lesser officials below them. Officials attending the king prostrated three times at the foot of the steps; when summoned up they knelt with arms folded and sat in a circle around him. When business was concluded they prostrated themselves and withdrew. More than a thousand armored guards with weapons stood watch on the steps, courtyards, gates, and halls. The kingdom was allied by marriage with Canban and Zhujiang but frequently at war with Linyi and Tuohuan. The people went about armed at all times, ready for use whenever war was needed.

其俗，非王正妻子，不得為嗣。王初立日，所有兄弟，並刑殘之，或去一指，或劓其鼻，別處供給，不得仕進。人形小而色黑，婦人亦有白者。悉拳發垂耳，性氣捷勁。居處器物，頗類赤土。以右手為淨，左手為穢。每旦澡洗，以楊枝淨齒，讀誦經咒，又澡灑乃食。食罷還用楊枝淨齒，又讀經咒。飲食多蘇酪、沙糖、秔粟、米餅。欲食之時，先取雜肉羹與餅相和，手擩而食。娶妻者唯送女人女，擇日遣媒人迎婦。男女二家，各八日不出，晝夜燃燈不息。男婚禮畢，即與父母分財別居。父母死，小兒未婚者，以餘財與之。若婚畢，財物入官。喪葬，兒女皆七日不食，剔發而喪，僧尼、道士、親故皆來聚會，音樂送之。以五香木燒屍，收灰，以金銀瓶盛，送大水之內；貧者或用瓦，而以五彩色畫之。亦有不焚，送屍山中，任野獸食者。

By custom only children born to the king's lawful wife could inherit the throne. When a king acceded, all his brothers were mutilated — a finger cut off or nose severed — housed apart on an allowance and barred from office. The people were short and dark-skinned, though some women were fair. They wore their hair curly and ears pendant; by nature they were quick and vigorous. Their dwellings and furnishings closely resembled those of Chi Tu. The right hand was considered pure, the left defiled. Each morning they bathed, cleaned their teeth with willow twigs, recited scriptures and spells, washed again, and then ate. After meals they again cleaned their teeth with willow twigs and recited scriptures. Their diet featured ghee, granulated sugar, polished millet, and rice cakes. Before eating they mixed assorted meat broth with rice cakes and ate it kneaded by hand. Marriage required only that the bride's family send the girl; on the chosen day a matchmaker came to fetch her. Both families remained indoors for eight days, lamps burning day and night without cease. Once the wedding was complete the man divided the family property and set up his own household. When parents died, unmarried sons received the remaining estate. If they had already married, their inheritance passed to the state. At funerals sons and daughters fasted seven days and shaved their heads in mourning; monks, nuns, Brahmin priests, and kin gathered, with music to send off the dead. The body was burned with fragrant wood; the ashes were collected in gold or silver vessels and released into great waters; Poorer families used painted pottery vessels instead. Some did not cremate but left bodies in the mountains for wild beasts.

其國北多山阜，南有水澤。地氣尤熱，無霜雪，饒瘴癘毒蜇。宜粱、稻，少黍、粟。果菜與日南、九真相類。異者，有婆羅那娑樹，無花，葉似柿，實似冬瓜；庵羅樹，花、葉似棗，實似李；毗野樹，花似木瓜，葉似杏，實似楮；婆田羅樹，花、葉、實並似棗而小異；歌畢佗樹，花似林檎，葉似榆而厚大，實似李，其大如升。自餘多同九真。海有魚名建同，四足無鱗，鼻如象，吸水上噴，高五六十尺。有浮胡魚，形似鲠且，嘴如鸚鵡，有八足。多大魚，半身出，望之如山。每五六月中，毒氣流行，即以白豬、白牛、羊於城西門外祠之。不然，五穀不登，畜多死，人疾疫。近都有陵伽缽婆山，上有神祠，每以兵二千人守衛之。城東神名婆多利，祭用人肉。其王年別殺人，以夜祠禱，亦有守衛者千人。其敬鬼如此。多奉佛法，尤信道士。佛及道士，並立像於其館。

The northern part of the kingdom was mountainous; the south was wetland. The climate was extremely hot, with no frost or snow and abundant miasma and venomous creatures. Sorghum and rice grew well; millet and grain were scarce. Fruits and vegetables resembled those of Rinan and Jiuzhen. Distinctive trees included the polona, flowerless, with persimmon-like leaves and winter-melon-like fruit; the amra, with jujube-like flowers and leaves and plum-like fruit; the biye, with quince-like flowers, apricot-like leaves, and paper-mulberry-like fruit; the botianluo, resembling the jujube in flower, leaf, and fruit but slightly distinct; the gebita, with crab-apple flowers, thick elm-like leaves, and plum-sized fruit as large as a sheng measure. Other produce largely matched that of Jiuzhen. The sea held a creature called Jiantong — four-legged and scaleless, with an elephant-like snout that spouted water fifty or sixty feet high. There was also the fuhu fish, cuttlefish-like, parrot-beaked, with eight tentacles. Enormous fish often surfaced half out of water, looking from afar like hills. Each year in the fifth or sixth month, when miasma spread, white pigs, cattle, and sheep were sacrificed outside the west gate. Without these rites the harvests failed, livestock died in great numbers, and plague struck the people. Near the capital stood Mount Lingjiabopo, with a spirit shrine guarded by two thousand troops. East of the city was a deity called Batuoli, to whom human-flesh offerings were made. Each year the king sacrificed human victims in nocturnal rites, also guarded by a thousand men. Such was their devotion to spirits. They mostly followed Buddhism and especially revered Brahmin priests. Images of the Buddha and Brahmin priests were erected in their halls.

隋大業十二年，遣使貢獻，帝禮之甚厚，於後亦絕。

In Sui Daye year 12 they sent tribute envoys; the emperor received them lavishly, but contact later ceased.

婆利國，自交趾浮海，南過赤土、丹丹，乃至其國。國界，東西四月行，南北四十五日行。王姓刹利邪伽，名護濫那婆。官曰獨訶邪拿，次曰獨訶氏拿。國人善投輪，其大如鏡，中有竅，外鋒如鋸，遠以投人，無不中。其餘兵器，與中國略同，俗類真臘，物產同于林邑。其殺人及盜，截其手；奸者，鎖其足，期年而止。祭祀必以月晦，盤貯酒肴，浮之流水。每十一月必設大祭。海出珊瑚。有鳥名舍利，解人語。

The kingdom of Poli, Bali, lay south of Jiaozhi by sea, beyond Chi Tu and Dandan. Its borders measured four months' travel east to west and forty-five days north to south. The king belonged to the Kshatriya clan and was named Hulannapo. The chief minister was called Dukhiyana; the next in rank was Dukhesana. The people excelled at hurling chakras — mirror-sized discs with a central hole and saw-toothed rims that never missed their mark at range. Other weapons resembled China's; customs resembled Khmer ways; products matched those of Linyi. Murder and theft were punished by severing the hand; adultery by shackling the feet for one year. Sacrifices were always held on the last day of the month, with trays of food and wine set adrift on the water. A great festival was held every eleventh month. Coral came from the sea. A bird called Sheli could understand human speech.

隋大業十二年，遣使朝貢，後遂絕。

In Sui Daye year 12 they sent tribute envoys; contact then ceased.

于時南荒有丹丹、盤盤二國，亦來貢方物，其風俗、物產，大抵相類云。

Dandan and Panpan in the southern frontier also sent tribute at that time; their customs and products were broadly similar, it is said.

論曰：《禮》云：「南方曰蠻，有不火食者矣。」然其種類非一，與華人錯居，其流曰蜒，曰獽，曰俚，曰獠，曰厓。居無君長，隨山洞而居。其俗，斷發文身，好相攻討。自秦並三楚，漢平百越，地窮丹徼，景極日南，水陸可居，咸為郡縣。洎乎境分南北，割據各殊，蠻、獠之族，遞為去就。至於林邑、赤土、真臘、婆利則地隔江嶺，莫通中國。及隋氏受命，克平九宇，煬帝纂業，威加八荒，甘心遠矣，志求珍異。故師出流求，兵加林邑，威振殊俗，過於秦、漢遠矣。雖有荒外之功，無救域中之敗。《傳》曰：「非聖人，外甯必有內憂。」誠哉斯言也。

The Commentary says: The 《Book of Rites》 states, "The south is called Man; there are those who eat their food uncooked. Yet their peoples were not one kind. Intermingled with Chinese, their branches included the Yan, Rang, Li, Liao, and Ya. They had no rulers and lived in mountain caves. They cut their hair and tattooed their bodies and were prone to raiding one another. From Qin's annexation of the Three Chu and Han's pacification of the Baiyue, the frontier reached the Red Pass and extended to Rinan; habitable lands along rivers and coasts were all organized into commanderies and counties. When the realm split into north and south and rival regimes arose, the Man and Liao peoples shifted their allegiance back and forth. Linyi, Chi Tu, Khmer, and Poli lay beyond rivers and mountain ranges, with no direct contact with China. When the Sui received the Mandate and pacified the realm, Emperor Yang extended his power to the ends of the earth, his heart set on distant marvels and rare exotic treasures. Hence armies were sent to Liuqiu and Linyi, awe inspiring the outer realms — surpassing Qin and Han by far. For all their conquests abroad, they could not avert disaster at home. The 《Zuo Zhuan》 says, "One who is not a sage — if at peace abroad, must have trouble within. How true those words are!

大業中，南荒朝貢者十餘國，其事蹟湮滅，今可知者四國而已。

During the Daye era more than a dozen southern kingdoms sent tribute, but most of their records are lost — only four are still known today.

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