1
師古曰：「漢制，三公號稱萬石，其俸月各三百五十斛穀。 其稱中二千石者月各百八十斛，二千石者百二十斛，比二千石者百斛，千石者九十斛，比千石者八十斛，六百石者七十斛，比六百石者六十斛，四百石者五十斛，比四百石者四十五斛，三百石者四十斛，比三百石者三十七斛，二百石者三十斛，比二百石者二十七斛，一百石者十六斛。」〉
As Master Shigu notes: "In Han administrative practice, the Three Excellencies were ranked as 'ten-thousand-shi' officials, each receiving 350 hu of grain per month. Officials in the 'middle 2,000-shi' class received 180 hu a month; the 2,000-shi class received 120; those equivalent to 2,000-shi received 100; the 1,000-shi class received 90; those equivalent to 1,000-shi received 80; the 600-shi class received 70; equivalents to 600-shi received 60; the 400-shi class received 50; equivalents to 400-shi received 45; the 300-shi class received 40; equivalents to 300-shi received 37; the 200-shi class received 30; equivalents to 200-shi received 27; and the 100-shi class received 16."
2
易敘宓羲、神農、黃帝作敎化民，[1]而傳述其官，[2]以為宓羲龍師名官，[3]神農火師火名，[4]黃帝雲師雲名，[5]少昊鳥師鳥名。 [6]自顓頊以來，為民師而命以民事，[7]有重黎、句芒、祝融、后土、蓐收、玄冥之官，然已上矣。 [8]書載唐虞之際，命羲和四子[9]順天文，授民時； 咨四岳，以舉賢材，揚側陋； [10]十有二牧，柔遠能邇； [11]禹作司空，平水土； [12]棄作后稷，播百穀； [13]禼作司徒，敷五敎； [14]咎繇作士，正五刑； [15]垂作共工，利器用； [16]�作朕虞，育草木鳥獸； [17]伯夷作秩宗，典三禮； [18]夔典樂，和神人； [19]龍作納言，出入帝命。 [20]夏、殷亡聞焉，[21]周官則備矣。 [22]天官冢宰，地官司徒，春官宗伯，夏官司馬，秋官司冦，冬官司空，是為六卿，[23]各有徒屬職分，用於百事。 [24]太師、太傅、太保，是為三公，[25]蓋參天子，坐而議政，無不緫統，故不以一職為官名。 又立三少為之副，少師、少傅、少保，是為孤卿，與六卿為九焉。 記曰三公無官，言有其人然后充之，[26]舜之於堯，伊尹於湯，周公、召公於周，是也。 或說司馬主天，司徒主人，司空主土，是為三公。 四岳謂四方諸侯。 自周衰，官失而百職亂，戰國並爭，各變異。 秦兼天下，建皇帝之號，[27]立百官之職。 漢因循而不革，[28]明簡易，隨時宜也。 其後頗有所改。 王莽篡位，慕從古官，而吏民弗安，亦多虐政，遂以亂亡。 故略表舉大分，[29]以通古今，備溫故知新之義云。 [30]
The *Changes* recounts that Fuxi, Shennong, and the Yellow Emperor instituted civilizing instruction for the people, and it also preserves their official nomenclature: Fuxi named offices after dragons, Shennong after fire, the Yellow Emperor after clouds, and Shaohao after birds. From the age of Zhuanxu onward, offices were assigned in line with the practical affairs of the people. Posts such as Chongli, Goumang, Zhurong, Houtu, Rushou, and Xuanming belonged to that very ancient order. The *Documents* says that in the era of Yao and Shun, the four sons of Xi and He were charged with observing the heavens and issuing the calendar to the people; the Four Peaks were consulted so that worthy men might be recommended and the neglected and obscure brought forward; the Twelve Governors were put in place, to pacify those far away and properly order those near at hand; Yu was appointed Minister of Works to regulate the waters and set the land in order; Qi was made Lord Millet and spread the cultivation of all the staple grains; Xie was appointed Minister of Education and disseminated the Five Teachings; Gaoyao was made Minister of Justice and regularized the Five Punishments; Chui took charge of public works and improved tools and implements; Yi was appointed royal forester, to cultivate the grasses and trees and oversee birds and beasts; Bo Yi was made Minister of Rites, in charge of the three ritual codes; Kui took charge of music, bringing gods and men into harmony; Long served as Receiver of Words, transmitting imperial commands to and from the throne. For the Xia and Shang we have no full account, but under Zhou the official system was complete. The Zhou system set out six chief ministries: the Heavenly Office under the Grand Steward, the Earthly under the Minister of Education, the Spring under the Minister of Rites, the Summer under the Minister of War, the Autumn under the Minister of Justice, and the Winter under the Minister of Works. Together these formed the Six Ministers, each with subordinate officials and defined duties for the full range of state business. The Grand Preceptor, Grand Tutor, and Grand Protector constituted the Three Excellencies. They stood alongside the Son of Heaven in governing, deliberated policy in council, and oversaw all administration. For that reason, their titles were not tied to a single bureau. Three junior counterparts were also established as their deputies: Junior Preceptor, Junior Tutor, and Junior Protector. These were called the Solitary Ministers, bringing the total with the Six Ministers to nine. As the *Record* puts it, "The Three Excellencies are not fixed offices" - meaning the rank exists only when a person worthy of it appears. Shun serving Yao, Yi Yin serving Tang, and the Duke of Zhou and Duke of Shao under Zhou are classic examples. Another interpretation holds that the Minister of War corresponded to Heaven, the Minister of Education to Humanity, and the Minister of Works to Earth - and that these formed the Three Excellencies. "Four Peaks" means the regional lords of the four quarters. After Zhou declined, offices lost their proper form and the full administrative order broke down. As the Warring States fought for supremacy, each state altered the system in its own way. When Qin unified the realm, it instituted the imperial title and established the full framework of official posts. The Han largely continued this framework rather than overhauling it, favoring clear and simple arrangements suited to contemporary needs. Later on, however, a number of revisions were introduced. After Wang Mang seized the throne, he tried to imitate archaic institutions. But officials and commoners alike found no stability under them, harsh governance multiplied, and his regime collapsed in disorder. For that reason, this table sets out the main institutional divisions in summary form, linking ancient and later practice and fulfilling the principle that by reviewing the old, one comes to understand the new. Textual annotation marker 30.
3
太傅，古官，高后元年初置，金印紫綬。 後省，八年復置。 後省，哀帝元壽二年復置。 位在三公上。
The Grand Tutor was an ancient office. It was first instituted in Empress Gao's first year, with the insignia of a gold seal and purple ribbon. The office was later abolished, then restored in the eighth year. It was again abolished, then restored in the second year of Emperor Ai's Yuanshou era. Its precedence stood above that of the Three Excellencies.
4
太師、太保，皆古官，平帝元始元年皆初置，金印紫綬。 太師位在太傅上，太保次太傅。
The offices of Grand Preceptor and Grand Protector were both ancient in origin. Both were first instituted in Emperor Ping's Yuanshi first year, bearing the gold seal and purple ribbon. The Grand Preceptor ranked above the Grand Tutor, while the Grand Protector ranked just below him.
5
前後左右將軍，皆周末官，秦因之，位上卿，金印紫綬。 漢不常置，或有前後，或有左右，皆掌兵及四夷。 有長史，秩千石。
The Generals of the Van, Rear, Left, and Right all originated in the late Zhou and were retained by Qin. They held senior-minister rank, marked by a gold seal and purple ribbon. The Han did not keep these commands as fixed offices: at times there were Generals of the Van and Rear, at times of the Left and Right. In all cases, they commanded troops and handled affairs involving the frontier peoples. Each office included a Chief Clerk of 1,000-shi rank.
6
廷尉，秦官，[59]掌刑辟，有正、左右監，秩皆千石。 景帝中六年更名大理，武帝建元四年復為廷尉。 宣帝地節三年初置左右平，秩皆六百石。 哀帝元壽二年復為大理。 王莽改曰作士。
The Commandant of Justice was a Qin institution. It oversaw criminal law and punishments, and included a principal adjudicator plus left and right supervisors, all at 1,000-shi rank. In Emperor Jing's sixth Zhong year, the office was renamed Grand Judge; in Emperor Wu's fourth Jianyuan year, it reverted to Commandant of Justice. In the third year of Emperor Xuan's Dijie era, the offices of Left and Right Arbiter were first created, each at 600-shi rank. In the second year of Emperor Ai's Yuanshou era, it was once more renamed Grand Judge. Wang Mang renamed the office as Minister of Justice.
7
宗正，秦官，[63]掌親屬，有丞。 平帝元始四年更名宗伯。 屬官有都司空令丞，[64]內官長丞。 [65]又諸公主家令、門尉皆屬焉。 王莽并其官於秩宗。 初，內官屬少府，中屬主爵，後屬宗正。
The Director of the Imperial Clan was a Qin institution responsible for matters of the ruling house's kinsmen, with a Deputy attached. In the fourth year of Emperor Ping's Yuanshi era, the office was renamed Minister of the Clan. Its subordinate personnel included the Director and Deputy of the Metropolitan Works Office, as well as the Chief and Deputy of the Inner Offices. It also held authority over the Household Directors and Gate Commandants of all imperial princesses. Wang Mang absorbed this office into the Ministry of Rites. At first the Inner Offices were under the Privy Treasurer. In an intermediate period they were placed under the Commandant of Nobility Ranks, and later reassigned to the Director of the Imperial Clan.
8
自太常至執金吾，秩皆中二千石，丞皆千石。
From Grand Master of Ceremonies down to Bearer of the Golden Mace, all these offices were classified as middle 2,000-shi rank, and all their Deputies were 1,000-shi.
9
太子太傅、少傅，古官。 屬官有太子門大夫、[80]庶子、[81]先馬、[82]舍人。
The posts of Grand Tutor and Junior Tutor to the Heir Apparent were offices of ancient origin. Their subordinate staff included Gentlemen of the Heir Apparent's Gate, Attendants, Masters of Horses, and Retainers.
10
詹事，秦官，[85]掌皇后、太子家，有丞。 [86]屬官有太子率更、家令丞，僕、中盾、衞率、厨廄長丞，[87]又中長秋、私府、永巷、倉、廄、祠祀、食官令長丞。 諸宦官皆屬焉。 [88]成帝鴻嘉三年省詹事官，并屬大長秋。 [89]長信詹事掌皇太后宮，景帝中六年更名長信少府，[90]平帝元始四年更名長樂少府。
The Director of the Palace Household was a Qin-era post overseeing the domestic establishments of the Empress and Crown Prince, with a Deputy attached. Its subordinate offices were extensive: they included the Crown Prince's Prefect of Watches, Household Director and Deputy, Steward, Central Shield Guard, Guard Commandant, and chiefs and deputies for kitchens and stables, as well as directors, chiefs, and deputies over the Inner Chamberlain's Office, the Private Treasury, Yong Lane, granaries, stables, ritual services, and food administration. All eunuch personnel fell under its authority. In the third year of Emperor Cheng's Hongjia era, the Director of the Palace Household was abolished, and its functions were consolidated under the Grand Chamberlain. The Changxin Director of the Palace Household administered the Empress Dowager's palace. In Emperor Jing's sixth Zhong year the title was changed to Changxin Privy Treasurer, and in Emperor Ping's fourth Yuanshi year it was changed again to Changle Privy Treasurer.
11
將行，秦官，[91]景帝中六年更名大長秋，[92]或用中人，或用士人。 [93]
The Palace Chamberlain was originally a Qin office. In Emperor Jing's sixth Zhong year it was renamed Grand Chamberlain. Appointments to it alternated between eunuchs and regular scholar-officials. Textual annotation marker 93.
12
水衡都尉，[95]武帝元鼎二年初置，掌上林苑，有五丞。 屬官有上林、均輸、御羞、禁圃、輯濯、鍾官、技巧、六廄、辯銅九官令丞。 [96]又衡官、水司空、都水、農倉，又甘泉上林、都水七官長丞皆屬焉。 上林有八丞十二尉，均輸四丞，御羞兩丞，都水三丞，禁圃兩尉，甘泉上林四丞。 成帝建始二年省技巧、六廄官。 王莽改水衡都尉曰予虞。 初，御羞、上林、衡官及鑄錢皆屬少府。
The office of Superintendent of Waterways and Parks was first created in Emperor Wu's second Yuanding year. It oversaw Shanglin Park and had five Deputies. Its subordinate structure included nine bureaus - Shanglin, Equitable Transport, Imperial Provisions, Forbidden Gardens, Cleansing and Washing, Bell Foundry, Craftsmanship, the Six Stables, and Copper Assay - each staffed by Directors and Deputies. It also controlled seven additional units - including the Works Office, Water Minister of Works, Metropolitan Waterways, Agricultural Granaries, and the Ganquan-Shanglin and Metropolitan Waterways branches - together with their chiefs and deputies. The staffing distribution was as follows: Shanglin had eight Deputies and twelve Commandants; Equitable Transport, four Deputies; Imperial Provisions, two Deputies; Metropolitan Waterways, three Deputies; Forbidden Gardens, two Commandants; and Ganquan Shanglin, four Deputies. In the second year of Emperor Cheng's Jianshi era, the Craftsmanship and Six Stables bureaus were abolished. Wang Mang changed the title of Superintendent of Waterways and Parks to Forester of Provision. At first, Imperial Provisions, Shanglin, the Works Office, and minting operations were all under the Privy Treasurer.
13
自太子太傅至右扶風，皆秩二千石，丞六百石。
From Grand Tutor to the Heir Apparent through Right Adjunct, all these posts carried 2,000-shi rank, with Deputies at 600-shi.
14
司隷校尉，周官，[105]武帝征和四年初置。 持節，從中都官徒千二百人，[106]捕巫蠱，督大姦猾。 [107]後罷其兵。 察三輔、三河、弘農。 元帝初元四年去節。 成帝元延四年省。 綏和二年，哀帝復置，但為司隷，冠進賢冠，屬大司空，比司直。
The Director of Retainers was an office of Zhou origin, first instituted in Emperor Wu's fourth Zhenghe year. Bearing a tally of authority and accompanied by 1,200 convict laborers from the central bureaus, it was charged with suppressing witchcraft and gu-poisoning cases and policing major traitorous and subversive elements. Its military contingent was later disbanded. Its inspection jurisdiction covered the Three Adjuncts, the Three River regions, and Hongnong. In the fourth year of Emperor Yuan's Chuyuan era, the office's tally authority was revoked. The office was abolished in the fourth year of Emperor Cheng's Yuanyan era. In the second year of Suihe, Emperor Ai restored the post, but only in the form of Director of Retainers. The officeholder wore the Jinxian cap, was subordinated to the Grand Minister of Works, and held rank equivalent to a Director.
15
城門校尉掌京師城門屯兵，有司馬、[108]十二城門候。 [109]中壘校尉掌北軍壘門內，外掌西域。 [110]屯騎校尉掌騎士。 步兵校尉掌上林苑門屯兵。 越騎校尉掌越騎。 [111]長水校尉掌長水宣曲胡騎。 [112]又有胡騎校尉，掌池陽胡騎，不常置。 [113]射聲校尉掌待詔射聲士。 [114]虎賁校尉掌輕車。 凡八校尉，皆武帝初置，有丞、司馬。 [115]
The Colonel of the City Gates commanded the garrison forces posted at the capital gates, assisted by one Marshal and twelve gate scouts. The Colonel of the Central Ramparts oversaw affairs inside the gate of the Northern Army encampment, and beyond the capital handled matters of the Western Regions. The Colonel of Garrison Cavalry commanded mounted troops. The Colonel of Infantry oversaw the garrison units stationed at the gates of Shanglin Park. The Colonel of Yue Cavalry commanded the Yue cavalry contingent. The Colonel of Changshui commanded the Hu cavalry units stationed at Changshui and Xuanqu. There was also a Colonel of Hu Cavalry in charge of the Chiyang Hu cavalry, though the office was not maintained on a permanent basis. The Colonel of Archers oversaw the archer-corps personnel serving under imperial summons. The Colonel of Tiger Guards commanded the light-chariot force. Altogether there were eight such colonelcies, all first created in Emperor Wu's reign, each with its own Deputy and Marshal. Textual annotation marker 115.
16
自司隷至虎賁校尉，秩皆二千石。 西域都護加官，宣帝地節二年初置，以騎都尉、諫大夫使護西域三十六國，有副校尉，秩比二千石，丞一人，司馬、候、千人各二人。 戊己校尉，元帝初元元年置，[116]有丞、司馬各一人，候五人，秩比六百石。
All offices from Director of Retainers down to Colonel of Tiger Guards were set at 2,000-shi rank. The Protector-General of the Western Regions was an added office, first instituted in the second year of Emperor Xuan's Dijie era. A Cavalry Commandant and a Remonstrant Grandee were sent to oversee and protect the thirty-six states of the Western Regions. The organization included a Deputy Colonel at rank equivalent to 2,000-shi, one Deputy, and two each of Marshals, scouts, and thousand-man commanders. The Wuji Colonel was created in the first year of Emperor Yuan's Chuyuan era. Its staff comprised one Deputy, one Marshal, and five scouts, at rank equivalent to 600-shi.
17
奉軍都尉掌御乘輿車，駙馬都尉掌駙馬，[117]皆武帝初置，秩比二千石。 侍中、左右曹、諸吏、散騎、中常侍，皆加官，[118]所加或列侯、將軍、卿大夫、將、都尉、尚書、太醫、太官令至郎中，亡員，[119]多至數十人。 侍中、中常侍得入禁中，諸曹受尚書事，諸吏得舉法，散騎騎並乘輿車。 [120]給事中亦加官，[121]所加或大夫、博士、議郎，掌顧問應對，位次中常侍。 中黃門有給事黃門，位從將大夫。 皆秦制。
The Commandant in Attendance on the Army oversaw operation of the imperial carriage, while the Imperial Son-in-law Commandant oversaw imperial sons-in-law. Both posts were first created in Emperor Wu's reign and carried rank equivalent to 2,000-shi. The titles Attendant-in-Ordinary, Left and Right Section official, Various Clerk, Loose Cavalry, and Regular Palace Attendant were all concurrent appointments. They could be conferred on men ranging from marquises and generals to high ministers, commandants, secretariat officials, grand physicians, provisioning directors, and even palace gentlemen. There was no fixed quota, and their number could run into the dozens. Attendants-in-Ordinary and Regular Palace Attendants were allowed access to the inner palace. The section officials handled secretariat business; the Various Clerks could initiate legal proceedings; and the Loose Cavalry rode in attendance beside the imperial carriage. The post Attendant in Ordinary Service was likewise a concurrent title, typically conferred on grandees, erudites, or consulting gentlemen. Its function was court consultation and formal reply, and its precedence stood just below the Regular Palace Attendant. Within the Palace Yellow Gate staff were Yellow Gate Attendants in Service, ranked comparably to palace grandees. All of these followed Qin institutional precedent.
18
爵：一級曰公士，[122]二上造，[123]三簪裊，[124]四不更，[125]五大夫，[126]六官大夫，七公大夫，[127]八公乘，[128]九五大夫，[129]十左庶長，十一右庶長，[130]十二左更，十三中更，十四右更，[131]十五少上造，十六大上造，[132]十七駟車庶長，[133]十八大庶長，[134]十九關內侯，[135]二十徹侯。 [136]皆秦制，以賞功勞。 徹侯金印紫綬，避武帝諱，曰通侯，或曰列侯，改所食國令長名相，又有家丞、門大夫、庶子。
The twenty noble ranks were: 1. Gongshi; 2. Shangzao; 3. Zanniao; 4. Bugeng; 5. Dafu; 6. Guandafu; 7. Gongdafu; 8. Gongcheng; 9. Wudafu; 10. Left Common Chief; 11. Right Common Chief; 12. Left Geng; 13. Middle Geng; 14. Right Geng; 15. Lesser Shangzao; 16. Great Shangzao; 17. Four-Chariot Common Chief; 18. Great Common Chief; 19. Marquis Within the Passes; 20. Complete Marquis. These were all Qin-era rank categories, used as rewards for meritorious service. Complete Marquises bore the gold seal and purple ribbon. To avoid Emperor Wu's personal-name taboo, the title was rendered as Tong Marquis, and sometimes Ranked Marquis. In their fiefs, the local magistrate titles were changed to Chancellor, and their households also included deputies, gate grandees, and attendants.
19
諸侯王，高帝初置，[137]金璽盭綬，[138]掌治其國。 有太傅輔王，內史治國民，中尉掌武職，丞相統衆官，羣卿大夫都官如漢朝。 景帝中五年令諸侯王不得復治國，天子為置吏，改丞相曰相，省御史大夫、廷尉、少府、宗正、愽士官，大夫、謁者、郎諸官長丞皆損其員。 武帝改漢內史為京兆尹，中尉為執金吾，郎中令為光祿勳，故王國如故。 損其郎中令，秩千石； 改太僕曰僕，秩亦千石。 成帝綏和元年省內史，更令相治民，如郡太守，中尉如郡都尉。
The feudal kings were first instituted by Emperor Gao. They bore gold seals with dark ribbons and were responsible for governing their own realms. Each kingdom had a Grand Tutor to assist the king, an Internal Clerk for civil administration, a Capital Commandant for military affairs, and a Chancellor supervising the official corps; in general, the ministerial and metropolitan offices mirrored those of the Han central government. In Emperor Jing's fifth Zhong year, feudal kings were barred from directly governing their kingdoms, and the Son of Heaven appointed their administrators. The title Chancellor was changed to Minister; offices such as Grandee Secretary, Commandant of Justice, Privy Treasurer, Director of the Imperial Clan, and Erudite were eliminated; and staffing levels for grandees, court attendants, gentlemen, and related chiefs and deputies were reduced. Emperor Wu retitled several central offices - Internal Clerk became Governor of the Capital Region, Capital Commandant became Bearer of the Golden Mace, and Director of the Gentlemen became Superintendent of the Imperial Household - so the corresponding kingdom offices were left unchanged. The kingdom office of Director of the Gentlemen was reduced to 1,000-shi rank; Grand Coachman was retitled simply Coachman, also at 1,000-shi rank. In the first year of Emperor Cheng's Suihe era, the office of Internal Clerk was abolished. Thereafter the kingdom Minister governed civilians like a commandery Governor, while the Capital Commandant functioned like a commandery Commandant.
20
郡守，秦官，掌治其郡，秩二千石。 有丞，邊郡又有長史，掌兵馬，秩皆六百石。 景帝中二年更名太守。
The Commandery Governor was a Qin institution, responsible for administration of a commandery, at 2,000-shi rank. Each commandery had a Deputy, and frontier commanderies also had a Chief Clerk in charge of troops and cavalry resources; all held 600-shi rank. In the second Zhong year of Emperor Jing, the title was changed to Grand Governor.
21
郡尉，秦官，掌佐守典武職甲卒，秩比二千石。 有丞，秩皆六百石。 景帝中二年更名都尉。
The Commandery Commandant was a Qin office assisting the Governor in military administration and command of armored troops, at rank equivalent to 2,000-shi. Each had a Deputy, all at 600-shi rank. In Emperor Jing's second Zhong year, the title was changed to Commandant.
22
關都尉，秦官。 農都尉、屬國都尉，皆武帝初置。
The Pass Commandant was a Qin institution. The posts of Agricultural Commandant and Commandant for Subordinate States were both first instituted in Emperor Wu's reign.
23
縣令、長，皆秦官，掌治其縣。 萬戶以上為令，秩千石至六百石。 減萬戶為長，秩五百石至三百石。 皆有丞、尉，秩四百石至二百石，是為長吏。 [140]百石以下有斗食、佐史之秩，[141]是為少吏。 大率十里一亭，亭有長。 十亭一鄉，鄉有三老、有秩、嗇夫、游徼。 三老掌敎化。 嗇夫職聽訟，收賦稅。 游徼徼循禁賊盜。 縣大率方百里，其民稠則減，稀則曠，鄉、亭亦如之，皆秦制也。 列侯所食縣曰國，皇太后、皇后、公主所食曰邑，有蠻夷曰道。 凡縣、道、國、邑千五百八十七，鄉六千六百二十二，亭二萬九千六百三十五。
The County Magistrate and County Chief were both Qin-era offices responsible for county administration. In counties with more than ten thousand households, the head was titled Magistrate, at ranks ranging from 1,000-shi to 600-shi. Where households were fewer than ten thousand, the officeholder was called Chief, with rank from 500-shi down to 300-shi. All such county offices had Deputies and Commandants at 400-shi to 200-shi rank; these were classed as senior local officials. Below 100-shi rank were the dou-ration and assistant-clerk grades; these were classified as junior functionaries. In general, one local station was set every ten li, each under its own station chief. Every ten ting formed one township, which had an Elder, an Assistant Officer, a Tax-and-Litigation Officer, and a Patrol Constable. The Elder was responsible for moral instruction. The Tax-and-Litigation Officer handled legal disputes and collected taxes. The Patrol Constable made regular rounds to suppress banditry and theft. A county was usually laid out as a hundred-li square, adjusted smaller in densely populated areas and larger where people were sparse; township and ting boundaries followed the same rule, all inherited from Qin. A county assigned to support a marquis was called a state; one assigned to the empress dowager, empress, or princesses was called an estate; and jurisdictions with non-Han peoples were designated dao. Altogether there were 1,587 county-level units (counties, dao, states, and estates), along with 6,622 townships and 29,635 ting.
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凡吏秩比二千石以上，皆銀印青綬，[142]光祿大夫無。 [143]秩比六百石以上，皆銅印黑綬，大夫、博士、御史、謁者、郎無。 [144]其僕射、御史治書尚符璽者，有印綬。 比二百石以上，皆銅印黃綬。 [145]成帝陽朔二年除八百石、五百石秩。 綏和元年，長、相皆黑綬。 哀帝建平二年，復黃綬。 吏員自佐史至丞相，十三萬二百八十五人。
As a rule, officials ranked at equivalent-to-2,000-shi or higher carried silver seals with green ribbons, except Grand Masters of Splendid Service, who had no seal-ribbon insignia. Officials of equivalent-to-600-shi rank and above used copper seals with black ribbons, but grandees, erudites, censors, audience officials, and court gentlemen did not. Within those groups, the Supervisors and Censors who handled state documents and guarded tallies and imperial seals were issued seal-ribbon insignia. Officials ranked equivalent to 200 shi and above carried copper seals with yellow ribbons. In 23 BCE, the second year of Emperor Cheng's Yangshuo era, the 800-shi and 500-shi salary grades were eliminated. In the first year of Suihe (8 BCE), county chiefs and chancellors were all assigned black ribbons. In 5 BCE, the second year of Emperor Ai's Jianping era, yellow ribbons were restored. The total official workforce, from assistant clerks to the Chancellor, numbered 130,285 people.