1
林邑國，漢日南象林之地，在交州南千餘里。 其國延袤數千里，北與皛州接。 地氣冬溫，不識冰雪，常多霧雨。 其王所居城，立木為柵。 王著日氈古貝，斜絡膊，繞腰，上加真珠金鎖，以為瓔珞，卷發而戴花。 夫人服朝霞古貝以為短裙，首戴金花，身飾以金鎖真珠瓔珞。 王之侍衛，有兵五千人，能用弩及，以藤為甲，以竹為弓，乘象而戰。 王出則列象千頭，馬四百匹，分為前後。 其人拳發色黑，俗皆徒跣，得麝香以塗身，一日之中，再塗再洗。 拜謁皆合掌頓顙。 嫁娶之法，得取同姓。 俗有文字，尤信佛法，人多出家。 父母死，子則剔發而哭，以棺盛屍，積柴燔柩，收其灰，藏於金瓶，送之水中。 俗以十二月為歲首，稻歲再熟。 自此以南，草木冬榮，四時皆食生菜，以檳榔汁為酒。 有結遼鳥，能解人語。
The kingdom of Linyi occupied the Han-era Xianglin district of Rinan commandery, lying more than a thousand li south of Jiaozhou. The realm stretches several thousand li from end to end and shares a northern border with Feng Prefecture. Winters are mild there; ice and snow are unknown, and fog and rain are frequent throughout the year. The king's capital is ringed by a stockade of upright timbers. The king dresses in sun-bleached kapok cloth, with a crossed net on his arms and a sash about his waist, pearls and gold chains worked into a necklace, his hair in curls and adorned with flowers. The queen wears dawn-colored kapok cloth as a short skirt, golden flowers in her hair, and gold chains and pearl necklaces on her person. The king's guard numbers five thousand men skilled with crossbows and spears; they wear rattan armor, shoot bamboo bows, and go into battle mounted on elephants. Whenever the king goes abroad, a thousand elephants and four hundred horses are drawn up in front and rear formations. The people have curly black hair and ordinarily go barefoot; they obtain musk to rub on their bodies, applying and washing it off twice in the course of a single day. When paying respects they always press their palms together and bow their foreheads to the ground. In marriage custom, men may wed women of the same clan name. They have a written script and are especially devoted to Buddhism; many take monastic vows. When parents die, their sons shave their heads and mourn; the body is placed in a coffin, heaped with firewood and cremated, the ashes collected in a gold urn, and committed to the water. The twelfth month is reckoned the start of the year, and rice is harvested twice annually. South of this region plants stay green through winter; raw vegetables are eaten in every season, and areca juice serves as wine. There is a jieliao bird that can understand human language.
2
武德六年，其王範梵誌遣使來朝。 八年，又遣使獻方物。 高祖為設《九部樂》以宴之，及賜其王錦彩。 貞觀初，遣使貢馴犀。 四年，其王範頭黎遣使獻火珠，大如雞卵，圓白皎潔，光照數尺，狀如水精，正午向日。 以艾蒸之，即火燃。 五年，又獻五色鸚鵡。 太宗異之，詔太子右庶子李百藥為之賦。 又獻白鸚鵡，精識辯慧，善於應答。 太宗憫之，並付其使，令放還於林藪。 自此朝貢不絕。 頭黎死，子範鎮龍代立。 太宗崩，詔於陵所刊石圖頭黎之形，列於玄闕之前。 十九年，鎮龍為其臣摩訶漫多伽獨所殺，其宗族並誅夷，範氏遂絕。 國人乃立頭黎之女婿婆羅門為王。 後大臣及國人感思舊主。 乃廢婆羅門而立頭黎之嫡女為王。
In the sixth year of Wude (623), King Fan Fanzhi of Linyi sent envoys to the Tang court. Two years later they again sent tribute of local products. Emperor Gaozu entertained them with the Nine Department Music and granted their king silks and brocades. Early in the Zhenguan era they sent envoys offering tame rhinoceroses as tribute. In the fourth year of Zhenguan (630), King Fan Touli sent envoys with a fire pearl the size of a hen's egg—round, white, and lustrous, casting light for several feet and resembling crystal; held toward the sun at noon, it would ignite when heated with burning moxa. The following year they presented a multicolored parrot. Taizong was astonished and ordered Li Baiyao, right vice censor of the heir apparent, to compose a rhapsody in its honor. They also sent a white parrot of keen wit and ready speech, adept at conversation. Taizong took pity on the birds and returned both to the envoys with orders to release them in the wild. From that time forward their tribute missions never ceased. When Touli died, his son Fan Zhenlong succeeded him. After Taizong's death, an edict directed that carved stone images of Touli be set before the Dark Gate of the imperial tomb. In the nineteenth year of Zhenguan (645), Zhenlong was murdered by his minister Mohe Manduojia; the entire Fan clan was put to death, and the royal line came to an end. The people thereupon enthroned Touli's son-in-law Boluomen as king. Later the chief ministers and the populace, moved by longing for their former ruler, deposed Boluomen and made Touli's daughter by his principal wife their queen.
3
自林邑以南，皆卷髮黑身，通號為「昆侖」。
South of Linyi the peoples all have curly hair and dark skin and are collectively known as Kunlun.
4
婆利國，在林邑東南海中洲上。 其地延袤數千里，自交州南渡海，經林邑、扶南、赤土、丹丹數國乃至焉。 其人皆黑色，穿耳附榼。 王姓剎利耶伽，名護路那婆，世有其位。 王戴花形如皮弁，裝以真珠瓔珞，身坐金床。 侍女有金花寶縷之飾，或持白拂孔雀扇。 行則駕象，鳴金擊鼓吹蠡為樂。 男子皆拳發，被古貝，布橫幅以繞腰。 風氣暑熱，恆如中國之盛夏。 谷一歲再熟。 有古貝草，緝其花以作布，粗者名古貝，細者名白赩。 貞觀四年，其王遣使隨林邑使獻方物。
The kingdom of Poli lies on an island in the sea southeast of Linyi. Its territory runs several thousand li; from Jiaozhou one crosses the southern sea, passing Linyi, Funan, Chitu, Dandan, and other kingdoms before reaching it. The inhabitants are all dark-skinned and wear wooden plugs in pierced ears. The royal line bears the surname Ksatriyayaka; the reigning name is Hulunaba, and the throne passes in succession within the family. The king wears a flowered cap in the shape of a court cap, strung with pearl necklaces, and sits upon a golden couch. Attendant women wear ornaments of golden flowers and jeweled threads, and some carry white whisks or peacock-feather fans. When the king travels he rides elephants, while gongs, drums, and conch horns provide music. The men all have curly hair, wear kapok-cloth garments, and wind a broad strip of cloth about the waist. The climate is torrid year-round, as sultry as a Chinese midsummer. Grain is harvested twice a year. Kapok is cultivated; its blossoms are woven into cloth—the coarse grade called kapok cloth, the fine called white xi. In the fourth year of Zhenguan (630) its king sent envoys in the train of Linyi's mission with local tribute.
5
盤盤國，在林邑西南海曲中，北與林邑隔小海，自交州船行四十日乃至，其國與狼牙修國為鄰，人皆學婆羅門書，甚敬佛法。 貞觀九年，遣使來朝，貢方物。
Panpan lies in a bay of the sea southwest of Linyi, separated from Linyi on the north by a narrow strait; from Jiaozhou it is forty days' sail. It borders Langyaxiu; the people study Brahmanical script and are deeply devoted to Buddhism. In the ninth year of Zhenguan (635) they sent envoys to court bearing local tribute.
6
貞臘國，在林邑西北，本扶南之屬國，「昆侖」之類。 在京師南二萬七百里，北至愛州六十日行。 其王姓剎利氏。 有大城三十余所，王都伊奢那城，風俗被服與林邑同。 地饒瘴癘毒。 海中大魚有時半出，望之如山。 每五六月中，毒氣流行，即以牛豕祠之，不者則五谷不登。 其俗東向開戶，以東為上。 有戰象五千頭，尤好者飼以飯肉。 與鄰國戰，則象隊在前，於背上以木作樓，上有四人，皆持弓箭。 國尚佛道及天神，天神為大，佛道次之。
Chenla lies northwest of Linyi; formerly a dependency of Funan, it belongs to the Kunlun peoples. It stands twenty-seven thousand li south of the capital; from its northern border to Aizhou is a journey of sixty days. The royal house bears the Ksatriya surname. It has more than thirty major cities; the capital is Yishena, and dress and custom match those of Linyi. The country is rife with malarial miasma and pestilence. Enormous sea creatures sometimes surface halfway, looming like mountains on the horizon. Each year between the fifth and sixth months poisonous vapors prevail, and cattle and pigs are sacrificed to them—otherwise the harvest fails. Their custom is to open doorways to the east and regard the east as the place of honor. They maintain five thousand war elephants, the finest of which are fed on grain and meat. In war with neighboring states the elephant corps leads; wooden towers are built on their backs, each manned by four archers. The realm honors both the Buddhist faith and the heavenly spirits, with the heavenly spirits taking precedence and Buddhism second.
7
武德六年，遣使貢方物。 貞觀二年，又與林邑國俱來朝獻。 太宗嘉其陸海疲勞，錫賚甚厚。 南方人謂真臘國為吉蔑國。 自神龍以後，真臘分為二半：以南近海多陂澤處，謂之水真臘半； 以北多山阜，謂之陸真臘，亦謂之文單國。 高宗、則天、玄宗朝，並遣使朝貢。
In the sixth year of Wude (623) they sent envoys with local tribute. In the second year of Zhenguan (628) they came to court jointly with Linyi. Taizong praised their arduous journey by land and sea and rewarded them most generously. Southerners refer to Chenla as Jimie. After the Shenlong era Chenla split in two: the southern portion near the sea with its many marshes and lagoons was called Water Chenla; the northern portion of hills and uplands was called Land Chenla, also known as Wendan. Under Gaozong, Empress Wu, and Xuanzong they all sent tribute missions to court.
8
水真臘國，其境東西南北約員八百里，東至奔陀浪州，西至墮羅缽底國，南至小海，北即陸真臘。 其王所居城號婆羅提拔。 國之東界有小城，皆謂之國。 其國多象，元和八年，遣李摩那等來朝。
Water Chenla's territory measures roughly eight hundred li in circumference, reaching east to Bentuolang, west to Duoluobodi, south to the inner sea, and north to Land Chenla. The king's residence is the city called Boluotiba. Along its eastern frontier stand small walled settlements, each styled a kingdom in its own right. Elephants are plentiful there; in the eighth year of Yuanhe (813) Li Monuo and others came to court.
9
陀洹國，在林邑西南大海中，東南與墮和羅接，去交趾三月余日行。 賓服於墮和羅。 其王姓察失利，字婆末婆那。 土無蠶桑，以白氈朝霞布為衣。 俗皆樓居，謂之「幹欄」。 貞觀十八年，遣使來朝。 二十一年，又遣使獻白鸚鵡及婆律膏，仍請馬及銅鐘，詔並給之。
Tuohuan lies in the open sea southwest of Linyi, bordering Duohailuo on the southeast; from Jiaozhi it is a voyage of more than three months. It acknowledges the overlordship of Duohailuo. The king's surname is Chashili and his style Bomobona. Silk is unknown there; clothing is made of white felt and dawn-colored cotton cloth. The people live in raised pile dwellings known as ganlan. In the eighteenth year of Zhenguan (644) they sent envoys to court. Three years later they sent a white parrot and bolu balm, requesting horses and bronze bells as well; an edict granted everything they asked.
10
訶陵國，在南方海中洲上居，東與婆利、西與墮婆登、北與真臘接，南臨大海。 豎木為城，作大屋重閣，以棕櫚皮覆之。 王坐其中，悉用象牙為床。 食不用匙箸，以手而撮。 亦有文字，頗識星歷。 俗以椰樹花為酒，其樹生花，長三尺余，大如人膊，割之取汁以成酒，味甘，飲之亦醉。
Heling occupies an island in the southern seas, bordering Poli on the east, Duobadeng on the west, and Chenla on the north, with the open ocean to the south. Timbers form the city wall; great multi-storied halls are roofed with palm thatch. The king sits within, and all couches are made of ivory. They eat without spoons or chopsticks, taking food directly in the hand. They possess a written script and are fairly knowledgeable in astronomy and the calendar. Palm blossom sap serves as wine: the tree bears flowers over three feet long and thick as a man's arm; the sap is tapped to ferment a sweet liquor that intoxicates like any other wine.
11
貞觀十四年，遣使來朝。 大歷三年、四年皆遣使朝貢。 元和十年，遣使獻僧祗僮五人、鸚鵡、頻伽鳥並異種名寶。 以其使李訶內為果毅，訶內請回授其弟，詔褒而從之。 十三年，遣使進僧祗女二人、鸚鵡、玳瑁及生犀等。
In the fourteenth year of Zhenguan (640) they sent envoys to court. In the third and fourth years of Dali (768–769) they sent tribute missions. In the tenth year of Yuanhe (815) they sent five sangzhi youths, parrots, pinjia birds, and other rare treasures. Their envoy Li Henei was appointed a guoyi officer; he asked that the commission be transferred to his younger brother, and the court praised and granted the request. In the thirteenth year of Yuanhe (818) they sent two sangzhi maidens, parrots, tortoise shell, live rhinoceroses, and the like.
12
墮和羅國，南與盤盤、北與迦羅舍佛、東與真臘接，西鄰大海。 去廣州五月日行。 貞觀十二年，其王遣使貢方物。 二十三年，又遣使獻象牙、火珠，請賜好馬，詔許之。
Duohailuo borders Panpan on the south, Jialuoshefo on the north, and Chenla on the east, with the ocean on the west. It lies five months' sail from Guangzhou. In the twelfth year of Zhenguan (638) its king sent envoys with local tribute. In the twenty-third year of Zhenguan (649) they sent ivory and a fire pearl and requested fine horses; the court granted them.
13
墮婆登國，在林邑南，海行二月，東與訶陵、西與迷黎車接，北界大海。 風俗與訶陵略同。 其國種稻，每月一熟。 亦有文字，書之於貝多葉。 其死者，口實以金，又以金釧貫於四肢，然後加以婆律膏及龍腦等香，積柴以燔之。 貞觀二十一年，其王遣使獻古貝、象牙、白檀，太宗璽書報之，並賜以雜物。
Duobadeng lies south of Linyi, two months' voyage by sea; it borders Heling on the east and Miliche on the west, with the ocean to the north. Its customs closely resemble those of Heling. Rice is cultivated there and ripens once every month. They have a script inscribed on palm-leaf manuscripts. The dead receive gold in the mouth and gold bracelets on the limbs; bolu balm, borneol, and other perfumes are applied before the body is heaped with firewood and cremated. In the twenty-first year of Zhenguan (647) its king sent kapok cloth, ivory, and white sandalwood; Taizong answered with an imperial letter and gifts of sundry goods.
14
東謝蠻，其地在黔州之西數百里，南接守宮獠，西連夷子，北至蠻。 土宜五谷，不以牛耕，但為畬田，每歲易。 俗無文字，刻木為契。 散在山洞間，依樹為層巢而居，汲流以飲。 皆自營生業，無賦稅之事。 謁見貴人，皆執鞭而拜； 有功勞者，以牛馬銅鼓賞之。 有犯罪者，小事杖罰之，大事殺之，盜物倍還其贓。 婚姻之禮，以牛酒為聘。 女婦夫家，皆母自送之。 女夫慚，逃避經旬乃出。 宴聚則擊銅鼓，吹大角，歌舞以為樂。 好帶刀劍，未嘗舍離。 丈夫衣服，有衫襖大口褲，以綿綢及布為之。 右肩上斜束皮帶，裝以螺殼、虎豹猿狖及犬羊之皮，以為外飾。 坐皆蹲踞。 男女椎髻，以緋束之，後垂向下。 其首領謝元深，既世為酋長，其部落皆尊畏之。 謝氏一族，法不育女，自雲高姓不可下嫁故也。
The Eastern Xie tribes dwell several hundred li west of Qian Prefecture, adjoining the Shougong Liao on the south, the Yizi on the west, and other Man peoples on the north. The soil supports the five grains; they do not plow with oxen but cultivate slash-and-burn fields, shifting plots every year. They have no written script and record agreements by carving notches in wood. Scattered among mountain caves, they build tiered tree-house nests and draw water from streams to drink. Each household provides for itself; there are no taxes or levies. When meeting persons of rank they all bow while holding whips; those who distinguish themselves are rewarded with cattle, horses, and bronze drums. Offenders receive beating for minor crimes and execution for major ones; thieves must restore double the value of what they stole. Marriage gifts consist of cattle and wine. When a daughter marries, her mother always escorts her to the groom's home. The new husband, overcome with embarrassment, hides away for ten days or more before appearing. At gatherings they beat bronze drums, blow great horns, and sing and dance for entertainment. They are fond of carrying swords and never go without them. Men wear jackets, padded coats, and loose trousers of cotton, silk, or plain cloth. A leather belt is slung diagonally from the right shoulder, decorated with shells and the pelts of tigers, leopards, apes, dogs, and sheep as outer adornment. They always sit squatting on their heels. Men and women wear topknots bound with scarlet cloth, the hair hanging down the back. Their chieftain Xie Yuanshen, head of a hereditary line, is revered and feared by all his tribes. By clan law the Xie do not raise daughters, holding that their exalted surname must not marry beneath itself.
15
貞觀三年，元深入朝，冠烏熊皮冠，若今之髦頭，以金銀絡額，身披毛帔，韋皮行滕而著履，中書侍郎顏師古奏言：「昔周武王時，天下太平，遠國歸款，周史乃書其事為《王會篇》。 今萬國來朝，至於此輩章服，實可圖寫，今請撰為《王會圖》。」 從之。 以其地為應州，仍拜元深為刺史，領黔州都督府。 又有南謝首領謝強，與西謝鄰，共元深俱來朝見，為南壽州刺史。 後改為莊州。
In the third year of Zhenguan (629) Yuanshen came to court wearing a black bear-skin cap like the maotou of the day, gold and silver netting his brow, a fur cape on his shoulders, and leather leggings and shoes. Vice Director of the Secretariat Yan Shigu memorialized: "In the time of King Wu of Zhou, when the realm was at peace and distant states came to pay homage, the Zhou historians recorded the event in the Royal Assembly Record. Now the myriad states attend court, and the dress of these envoys can truly be painted. I request that an Illustrations of the Royal Assembly be compiled. The emperor approved. Their territory was organized as Ying Prefecture, and Yuanshen was appointed prefect under the Qianzhou area command. The Southern Xie chieftain Xie Qiang, whose territory bordered the Western Xie, came to court with Yuanshen and was appointed prefect of Nanshou. The prefecture was later renamed Zhuang.
16
貞元十三年正月，西南蕃大酋長、正議大夫、檢校蠻州長史，繼襲蠻州刺史，資陽郡開國公、賜紫金魚袋宋鼎，左右大首領、朝散大夫、前檢校邛州刺史、賜紫金魚袋謝汕，左右大首領、繼襲攝蠻州巴江縣令、賜紫金魚袋宋萬傳，界首子弟大首領、朝散大夫、牂州錄事參軍謝文經。 黔中經略招討觀察使王礎奏：「前件刺史，建中三年一度朝貢，自後更不許隨例入朝。 今年懇訴稱州接牂牁，同被聲教，獨此排擯，竊自慚恥，謹遣隨牂牁等朝賀。 伏乞特賜優諭，兼同牂牁刺史授官。 其牂牁兩州，戶口殷盛，人力強大，鄰側諸蕃，悉皆敬憚。 請比兩州每年一度朝貢，仍依牂牁輪環差定，並以才幹位望為眾推者充。」 敕旨曰：「宋鼎等已改官訖，余依舊。」
In the first month of the thirteenth year of Zhenyuan (797), the great southwestern chieftains Song Ding, Xie Shan, Song Wanchuan, and Xie Wenjing—bearing ranks from Grand Master of Palace Counsel down to military registrar of Zang Prefecture, with purple-gold fish tallies and hereditary offices—presented themselves at court. Wang Ji, frontier commissioner of Qianzhong, memorialized: "These prefects paid court tribute once in the third year of Jianzhong (782) but have since been barred from the customary audience. This year they pleaded that their prefecture, like Zangge, lies within the transforming influence of the court yet alone has been excluded—a source of shame—and have sent envoys to join Zangge in the New Year audience. They beg a special gracious edict and appointment to office equal to that of the Zangge prefect. The two Zangge prefectures are populous and strong, and the neighboring tribes all hold them in awe. I ask that they be allowed an annual tribute audience on the same rotation as the two Zangge prefectures, with offices filled by men of talent and standing whom the tribes recommend. The edict read: "Song Ding and the others have received new appointments; the remainder follows established practice."
17
西趙蠻，在東謝之南，其界東至夷子，西至昆明，南至西洱河。 山洞阻深，莫知道里。 南北十八日行，東西二十三日行。 其風俗物產與東謝同。 首領趙氏。 世為酋長。 有戶萬余。 貞觀三年，遣使入朝。 二十一年，以其地置明州，以首領趙磨為刺史。
The Western Zhao tribes lie south of the Eastern Xie, reaching east to the Yizi, west to Kunming, and south to the Western Er River. Mountain caves and ravines make the routes impenetrable and distances unknown. The territory measures eighteen days' journey north to south and twenty-three days east to west. Customs and products match those of the Eastern Xie. The chieftains belong to the Zhao clan. The chieftaincy passes through the Zhao line for generations. The population exceeds ten thousand households. In the third year of Zhenguan (629) they sent envoys to court. In the twenty-first year of Zhenguan (647) their territory was organized as Ming Prefecture under the chieftain Zhao Mo.
18
牂牁蠻，首領亦姓謝氏。 其地北去兗州一百五十里，東至辰州二千四百里，南至交州一千五百里，西至昆明九百里。 無城壁，散為部落而居。 土氣郁熱，多霖雨。 稻粟再熟。 無徭役，唯征戰之時，乃相屯聚。 刻木為契。 其法：劫盜者二倍還贓； 殺人者出牛馬三十頭，乃得贖死，以納死家。 風俗物產，略與東謝同。 其首領謝龍羽，大業末據其地，勝兵數萬人。
The Zangge tribes are also led by the Xie clan. From Yan Prefecture it lies one hundred fifty li to the north, Chen Prefecture two thousand four hundred li to the east, Jiaozhou one thousand five hundred li to the south, and Kunming nine hundred li to the west. There are no walled cities; the people live scattered in tribal settlements. The climate is humid and torrid, with frequent rains. Rice and millet are harvested twice a year. There is no corvée labor; the tribes assemble only when war is at hand. Agreements are recorded by carving wood. By their law, robbers must restore double the stolen goods; murderers may ransom their lives with thirty head of cattle and horses paid to the victim's family. Customs and products broadly resemble those of the Eastern Xie. Their chieftain Xie Longyu seized the territory at the end of the Sui and commanded tens of thousands of fighting men.
19
武德三年，遣使朝貢，授龍羽牂州刺史，封夜郎郡公。 貞觀四年十二月，遣使朝貢。 開元十年閏五月，大酋長謝元齊死，詔立其嫡孫嘉藝襲其官封。 二十五年，大酋長趙君道來朝，且獻方物，大歷中、貞元初，數遣使朝貢。 七年二月，授其酋長趙主俗官，以其歲初朝貢不絕，褒之也。 自七年至十八年，凡五遣使來。
In the third year of Wude (620) they sent tribute envoys; Longyu was appointed prefect of Zang and enfeoffed Duke of Yelang. In the twelfth month of the fourth year of Zhenguan (630) they sent tribute envoys. In the intercalary fifth month of the tenth year of Kaiyuan (722) the great chieftain Xie Yuanqi died; an edict installed his eldest grandson Jiayi in his offices and titles. In the twenty-fifth year of Kaiyuan (737) the great chieftain Zhao Jundao came to court with local products; during the Dali and early Zhenyuan eras they sent frequent tribute missions. In the second month of the seventh year of Zhenyuan (791) their chieftain Zhao Zhu was granted an official post in recognition of his unbroken New Year tribute. Between the seventh and eighteenth years they sent envoys five times.
20
元和三年五月敕：「自今以後，委黔南觀察使差本道軍將充押領牂牁、昆明等使。」 四年正月，遣使來朝。 是月，遣中使魏德和領其使，並賫國信物，降璽書賜其王焉。 七年、九年、十一年，凡三遣使來。 其年十二月，又遣使來賀正。 長慶中，亦朝貢不絕。 寶歷元年十二月，遣使謝良震來朝。 太和五年至會昌二年，凡七遣使來。
An edict of the fifth month of the third year of Yuanhe (808) directed: "Henceforth the Qiannan observation commissioner shall assign military officers of the circuit to escort Zangge, Kunming, and other missions. In the first month of the fourth year of Yuanhe (809) they sent envoys to court. That same month the palace envoy Wei Dehe was sent to escort their mission with state gifts and an imperial letter for their king. In the seventh, ninth, and eleventh years they sent missions three times. In the twelfth month of that year they again sent envoys for the New Year audience. During the Changqing era their tribute missions likewise continued without interruption. In the twelfth month of the first year of Baoli (825) they sent the envoy Xie Liangzhen to court. From the fifth year of Taihe (831) to the second year of Huichang (842) they sent envoys seven times.
21
南平獠者，東與智州、南與渝州、西與南州、北與涪州接。 部落四千余戶。 土氣多瘴癘，山有毒草及沙虱、蝮蛇。 人並樓居，登梯而上。 號為「幹欄」。 男子左衽露發徒跣； 婦人橫布兩幅，穿中而貫其首，名為「通裙」。 其人美發，為髻鬟垂於後。 以竹筒如筆，長三四寸，斜貫其耳，貴者亦有珠榼。 土多女少男，為婚之法，女氏必先貨求男族，貧者無以嫁女，多賣與富人為婢。 俗皆婦人執役。 其王姓硃氏，號為劍荔王，遣使內附，以其地隸於渝州。
The Nanping Liao border Zhi Prefecture on the east, Yuzhou on the south, Nan Prefecture on the west, and Fu Prefecture on the north. They comprise more than four thousand households. Malarial miasma is rife, and the mountains harbor poisonous plants, sand fleas, and pit vipers. All live in raised dwellings reached by ladder. These are called ganlan. Men wear the left lapel, leave their hair loose, and go barefoot; women wear a garment of two horizontal cloth panels with the head passed through the middle, called a tong skirt. They have fine hair worn in coiled buns down the back. Bamboo tubes three or four inches long, like writing brushes, are worn diagonally through the ears; the wealthy also wear pearl plugs. Women outnumber men; by marriage custom the bride's clan must first pay the groom's clan, and the poor, unable to marry off their daughters, often sell them as maidservants to the wealthy. By custom women perform all the labor. Their king, surnamed Zhu and styled King Jianli, sent envoys to submit; his territory was placed under Yuzhou.
22
東女國，西羌之別種，以西海中復有女國，故稱東女焉。 俗以女為王。 東與茂州、党項接，東南與雅州接，界隔羅女蠻及白狼夷。 其境東西九日行，南北二十日行。 有大小八十余城。 其王所居名康延川，中有弱水南流，用牛皮為船以渡。 戶四萬余眾，勝兵萬余人，散在山谷間。 女王號為「賓就」。 有女官，曰「高霸」，平議國事。 在外官僚，並男夫為之。 其王侍女數百人，五日一聽政。 女王若死，國中多斂金錢，動至數萬，更於王族求令女二人而立之。 大者為王，其次為小王。 若大王死，即小王嗣立，或姑死而婦繼，無有篡奪。 其所居，皆起重屋，王至九層，國人至六層。 其王服青毛綾裙，下領衫，上披青袍，其袖委地。 冬則羔裘，飾以紋錦。 為小鬟髻，飾之以金。 耳垂榼，足履索蜺。 俗重婦人而輕丈夫。 文字同於天竺。 以十一月為正。 其俗每至十月，令巫者賫楮詣山中，散糟麥於空，大咒呼鳥。 俄而有鳥如雞，飛入巫者之懷，因剖腹而視之，每有一谷，來歲必登，若有霜雪，必多災異。 其俗信之，名為鳥卜。 其居喪，服飾不改，為父母則三年不櫛沐。 貴人死者，或剝其皮而藏之，內骨於瓶中，糅以金屑而埋之。 國王將葬，其大臣親屬殉死者數十人。
The Eastern Women's State is a branch of the Western Qiang; because another Women's State lies beyond the western sea, this one is called the Eastern Women's State. By custom a woman holds the throne. It borders Mao Prefecture and the Tangut on the east and Ya Prefecture on the southeast, with the Luonü Man and White Wolf Yi in between. The realm measures nine days' journey east to west and twenty days north to south. It contains more than eighty cities large and small. The capital is Kangyanchuan, through which the Weak Water flows southward; crossings are made in boats of oxhide. The population exceeds forty thousand households with more than ten thousand fighting men scattered through the valleys. The queen bears the title Binjiu. Female officials called Gaoba deliberate on state affairs. External offices are all held by men. The queen is attended by several hundred women and holds audience every five days. When a queen dies, the state collects gold and coin by the tens of thousands and selects two worthy daughters of the royal clan to succeed her. The elder becomes the Great Queen, the younger the Lesser Queen. If the Great Queen dies, the Lesser Queen succeeds; sometimes an aunt's daughter-in-law inherits—usurpation is unknown. Dwellings are built as towered houses—the queen's up to nine stories, those of her subjects up to six. The queen wears a green wool damask skirt and collared undershirt beneath a green robe with sleeves trailing to the ground. In winter she wears lamb fur trimmed with brocade. Her hair is worn in small coiled buns adorned with gold. She wears ear plugs and sandals on her feet. Women are held in honor and men in low regard. Their script is the same as that of India. The eleventh month is reckoned the start of the year. Each tenth month shamans carry paper offerings into the mountains, scatter grain and lees in the open air, and chant loudly to summon birds. Presently a chicken-sized bird flies into the shaman's arms; its belly is opened and inspected—each grain found foretells a good harvest the following year, while frost or snow portends many calamities. They trust this practice, which they call bird divination. In mourning they do not change their dress; for parents they neither comb their hair nor bathe for three years. When nobles die, sometimes the skin is flayed and preserved, the bones placed in a jar mixed with gold dust, and buried. When a queen is buried, dozens of her ministers and relatives follow her in death.
23
隋大業中，蜀王秀遣使招之，拒而不受。 武德中，女王湯滂氏始遣使貢方物，高祖厚資而遣之。 還至隴右，會突厥入寇，被掠於虜庭。 及頡利平，其使復來入朝。 太宗送令反國，並降璽書慰撫之。 垂拱二年，其王斂臂遣大臣湯劍左來朝，仍請官號。 則天冊拜斂臂為左玉鈐衛員外將軍，仍以瑞錦制蕃服以賜之。
During the Daye era of Sui, Prince Xiu of Shu sent envoys to summon them, but they refused. During Wude, Queen Tangbangshi first sent tribute envoys; Gaozu rewarded them generously and sent them home. On the return through Longyou they met a Turkic raid and were carried off to the steppe. After Jieli was subdued, their envoys came to court again. Taizong sent them home with an imperial letter of reassurance. In the second year of Chuigong (686) Queen Lianbi sent the minister Tang Jianzuo to court to request an official title. Empress Wu appointed Lianbi acting general of the Left Jade Bell Guard and granted her barbarian dress of auspicious brocade.
24
貞元九年七月，其王湯立悉與哥鄰國王董臥庭、白狗國王羅陀忽、逋租國王弟鄧吉知、南水國王侄薛尚悉曩、弱水國王董辟和、悉董國王湯息贊、清遠國王蘇唐磨、咄霸國王董藐蓬，各率其種落詣劍南西川內附。 其哥鄰國等，皆散居山川。 弱水王即國初女國之弱水部落。 其悉董國，在弱水西，故亦謂之弱水西悉董王。 舊皆分隸邊郡，祖、父例授將軍、中郎、果毅等官，自中原多故，皆為吐蕃所役屬。 其部落，大者不過三二千戶，各置縣令十數人理之。 土有絲絮，歲輸於吐蕃。 至是悉與之同盟，相率獻款，兼賫天寶中國家所賜官誥共三十九通以進。 西川節度使韋臯處其眾於維、霸、保等州，給以種糧耕牛，鹹樂生業。 立悉等數國王自來朝，召見於麟德殿。 授立悉銀青光祿大夫、歸化州刺史； 鄧吉知試太府少卿兼丹州長史； 薛尚悉曩試少府少監兼霸州長史； 董臥庭行至綿州卒，贈武德州刺史，命其子利啰為保守都督府長史，襲哥鄰王。 立悉妹乞悉漫頗有才智，從其兄來朝，封和義郡夫人。 其大首領董臥卿等，皆授以官。 俄又授女國王兄湯厥銀青光祿大夫、試太府卿； 清遠王弟蘇歷顛銀青光祿大夫、試衛尉卿； 南水國王薛莫庭及湯息贊、董藐蓬，女國唱後湯拂庭、美玉缽、南郎唐，並授銀青光祿大夫、試太仆卿。
In the seventh month of the ninth year of Zhenyuan (793) Queen Tang Lixi, together with the kings of Geling, Baigou, Bozu, Nanshui, Ruoshui, Xidong, Qingyuan, and Duoba and their tribes, came to Jiannan West River to submit. Geling and the other states all live scattered among mountains and rivers. The Ruoshui king belongs to the Ruoshui tribe of the early Women's State. Xidong lies west of Ruoshui and is also known as the Xidong king west of the Weak Water. They had long been attached to frontier prefectures, their forebears appointed generals, palace gentlemen, and guoyi officers; since turmoil in the central plains they had all fallen under Tibetan control. The largest tribes numbered no more than two or three thousand households, each administered by a dozen or so magistrates. The land produces silk floss, which they paid annually to Tibet. Now they all joined in alliance, came forward in allegiance together, and presented the thirty-nine patents of office granted in the Tianbao era. Wei Gao, commissioner of Jiannan West River, settled them in Wei, Ba, Bao, and other prefectures, providing seed grain and oxen until they were content in their livelihoods. Lixi and several kings came to court in person and were received in the Linde Hall. Lixi was appointed Silver-Gleam Grand Master of Splendid Happiness and prefect of Guihua; Deng Jizhi was made acting vice minister of the Grand Storehouse and chief administrator of Dan Prefecture; Xue Shangxinang was made acting vice director of the Palace Storehouse and chief administrator of Ba Prefecture; Dong Woting died at Mian Prefecture and was posthumously made prefect of Wude; his son Lila was appointed chief administrator of Baoshou and succeeded as king of Geling. Lixi's sister Qiximan, a woman of considerable talent, accompanied her brother to court and was enfeoffed Lady of Heyi. Their great chieftains, including Dong Woqing, were all granted offices. Soon the queen's brother Tang Jue was appointed Silver-Gleam Grand Master and acting minister of the Grand Storehouse; the Qingyuan king's brother Su Lidian was appointed Silver-Gleam Grand Master and acting minister of the Imperial Guard; the Nanshui king Xue Moting, Tang Xizan, Dong Miaopeng, the queen's consort Tang Futing, Meiyubo, and Nanlang Tang were all appointed Silver-Gleam Grand Master and acting minister of the Imperial Stud.
25
其年，西山松州生羌等二萬余戶，相繼內附。 其粘信部落主董夢蔥，龍諾部落主董辟忽，皆授試衛尉卿。 立悉等並赴明年元會訖，錫以金帛，各遣還。 尋詔加韋臯統押近界羌、蠻及西山八國使。 其部落代襲刺史等官，然亦潛通吐蕃，故謂之「兩面羌」。
That year more than twenty thousand households of the western Song Prefecture Qiang submitted in succession. The Zhanxin chieftain Dong Mengcong and the Longnuo chieftain Dong Pihu were both appointed acting minister of the Imperial Guard. Lixi and the others attended the New Year assembly, received gifts of gold and silk, and were sent home. An edict soon added to Wei Gao's duties overall command of the near-border Qiang, Man, and the eight western hill states. Their tribes inherited prefectural offices generation after generation, yet also maintained secret ties with Tibet and were called the two-faced Qiang.
26
南詔蠻，本烏蠻之別種也，姓蒙氏。 蠻謂王為「詔。」 自言哀牢之後，代居蒙舍州為渠帥，在漢永昌故郡東，姚州之西。 其先渠帥有六，自號「六詔」，兵力相埒，各有君長，無統帥。 蜀時為諸葛亮所征，皆臣服之。 國初有蒙舍龍，生迦獨龐。 迦獨生細奴邏，高宗時來朝。 細奴邏生邏盛，武後時來朝。 其妻方娠，邏盛次姚州，聞妻生子，曰：「吾且有子，死於唐地足矣。」 子名曰盛邏皮。 邏盛至京師，賜錦袍金帶歸國。
The Nanzhao tribes are a branch of the Wuman and bear the surname Meng. The Man word for king is zhao. They claim descent from Ailao and for generations have ruled as chiefs in Mengshe Prefecture, east of the old Han Yongchang commandery and west of Ya Prefecture. Six chiefs styled themselves the Six Zhao; their forces were evenly matched, each with its own ruler, and none held overall command. In the Shu-Han era Zhuge Liang campaigned against them and they all submitted. At the dynasty's founding there was Mengshe Long, who fathered Jiadu Pang. Jiadu's son Xinuluo came to court in Gaozong's reign. Xinuluo's son Luosheng came to court under Empress Wu. While his wife was pregnant, Luosheng was at Ya Prefecture; hearing she had borne a son, he said, "I am about to have a son—to die in Tang territory would be enough. The child was named Shengluopi. Luosheng reached the capital, received a brocade robe and gold belt, and returned home.
27
開元初，邏盛死，子盛邏皮立。 盛邏皮死，子皮邏閣立。 二十六年，詔授特進，封越國公，賜名曰歸義。 其後破洱河蠻，以功策授雲南王。 歸義漸強盛，余五詔浸弱。 先是，劍南節度使王昱受歸義賂，奏六詔合為一詔。 歸義既並五詔，服群蠻，破吐蕃之眾，兵日以驕大。 每入覲，朝廷亦加禮異。
Early in Kaiyuan Luosheng died and his son Shengluopi succeeded him. When Shengluopi died, his son Piluoge succeeded. In the twenty-sixth year of Kaiyuan (738) he was appointed specially advanced, enfeoffed Duke of Yue, and given the name Guiyi. He later defeated the Er River tribes and was enfeoffed King of Yunnan for his merit. Guiyi grew steadily stronger while the other five zhao weakened. Earlier the Jiannan commissioner Wang Yu, having accepted Guiyi's bribes, memorialized that the six zhao be united into one. Having annexed the five zhao, subdued the other tribes, and defeated Tibetan forces, Guiyi's power grew daily more arrogant. Whenever he came to court the throne treated him with exceptional honor.
28
二十七年，徙居大和城。 天寶四載，歸義遣孫鳳迦異來朝，授鴻臚卿。 歸國，恩賜甚厚，歸義意望亦高。 時劍南節度使章仇兼瓊遣使至雲南，與歸義言語不相得，歸義常銜之。
In the twenty-seventh year of Kaiyuan (739) he moved his capital to Taihe. In the fourth year of Tianbao (745) Guiyi sent his grandson Feng Jiayi to court and he was appointed director of the Court for Dependencies. He returned home richly rewarded, and Guiyi's ambitions rose accordingly. The Jiannan commissioner Zhang Chou Jianqiong sent envoys to Yunnan whose dealings with Guiyi were abrasive, and Guiyi bore a lasting grudge.
29
七年，歸義卒，詔立子閣羅鳳襲雲南王。 無何，鮮于仲通為劍南節度使，張虔陀為雲南太守。 仲通褊急寡謀，虔陀矯詐，待之不以禮。 舊事，南詔常與其妻子謁見都督，虔陀皆私之。 有所征求，閣羅鳳多不應，虔陀遣人罵辱之，仍密奏其罪惡。 閣羅鳳忿怨，因發兵反攻，圍虔陀，殺之，時天寶九年也。
In the seventh year of Tianbao (748) Guiyi died; an edict installed his son Geluofeng as King of Yunnan. Soon Xianyu Zhongtong became Jiannan commissioner and Zhang Qiantuo prefect of Yunnan. Zhongtong was narrow-minded and rash, Qiantuo deceitful, and neither treated Geluofeng with courtesy. By custom Nanzhao came with his wife and children to call on the area commander; Qiantuo appropriated them for himself. When demands were made Geluofeng often refused; Qiantuo sent men to revile him and secretly memorialized his offenses. Geluofeng, enraged, raised troops, besieged Qiantuo, and killed him in the ninth year of Tianbao (750).
30
明年，仲通率兵出戎、巂州。 閣羅鳳遣使謝罪，仍與雲南錄事參軍姜如芝俱來，請還其所虜掠，且言：「吐蕃大兵壓境，若不許，當歸命吐蕃，雲南之地，非唐所有也。」 仲通不許，囚其使，進兵逼大和城，為南詔所敗。 自是閣羅鳳北臣吐蕃。 吐蕃令閣羅鳳為贊普鐘，號曰東帝，給以金印。 蠻謂弟為「鐘」，時天寶十一年也。 十二年，劍南節度使楊國忠執國政，仍奏征天下兵，俾留後、侍御史李宓將十余萬，輦餉者在外。 涉海，瘴死者相屬於路，天下始騷然苦之。 宓復敗於大和城北，死者十八、九。 會安祿山反，閣羅鳳乘釁攻陷巂州及會同軍，西復降尋傳蠻。
The following year Zhongtong led troops out from Rong and Xi prefectures. Geluofeng sent envoys to apologize, coming with the Yunnan registrar Jiang Ruzhi to request the return of captives and saying: "Tibetan armies press the border; if you refuse, I must submit to Tibet, for Yunnan is no longer Tang territory. Zhongtong refused, imprisoned the envoys, advanced on Taihe, and was defeated by Nanzhao. From that time Geluofeng submitted to Tibet. Tibet made Geluofeng Eastern Brother of the Zanpu, styled Eastern Emperor, and granted him a gold seal. The Man word for younger brother is zhong; this was in the eleventh year of Tianbao (752). In the twelfth year of Tianbao (753) Yang Guozhong, holding state power, memorialized for troops from across the empire; the acting commissioner Li Mi led more than a hundred thousand men, with supply convoys strung out behind. Crossing pestilential marshes, the dead lined the roads, and the empire began to groan under the burden. Li Mi was again defeated north of Taihe; eight or nine in ten of his men perished. When An Lushan rebelled, Geluofeng seized the moment to capture Xi Prefecture and the Huitong garrison and subdue the Xunchuan tribes to the west.
31
大歷十四年，閣羅鳳子鳳迦異先閣羅鳳死，立迦異子，是為異牟尋。 頗知書，有才智，善撫其眾。 吐蕃役賦南蠻重數，又奪諸蠻險地立城堡，歲征兵以助鎮防，牟尋益厭苦之。 有鄭回者，本相州人，天寶中舉明經，授巂州西瀘縣令。 巂州陷，為所虜。 閣羅鳳以回有儒學，更名曰蠻利。 甚愛重之，命教鳳迦異。 及異牟尋立，又命教其子尋夢湊。 回久為蠻師，凡授學，雖牟尋、夢湊，回得箠撻，故牟尋以下皆嚴憚之。 蠻謂相為清平官，凡置六人。 牟尋以回為清平官，事皆咨之，秉政用事。 余清平官五人，事回卑謹，或有過，回輒撻之。 回嘗言於牟尋曰：「自昔南詔嘗款附中國，中國尚禮義，以惠養為務，無所求取。 今棄蕃歸唐，無遠戍之勞、重稅之困，利莫大焉。」 牟尋善其言，謀內附者十余年矣。 會劍南西川節度使韋臯招撫諸蠻，苴烏星、虜望等歸化，微聞牟尋之意，因令蠻寓書於牟尋，且招懷之，時貞元四年也。
In the fourteenth year of Dali (779) Geluofeng's son Feng Jiayi predeceased his father; Feng Jiayi's son Yimouxun succeeded. He was literate, talented, and skilled at winning the loyalty of his people. Tibet imposed heavy levies on the southern tribes, seized their strategic lands for fortresses, and conscripted troops yearly for frontier defense—Yimouxun grew ever more resentful. There was a man named Zheng Hui from Xiang Prefecture who passed the classics examination in the Tianbao era and was appointed magistrate of Xilu in Xi Prefecture. When Xi Prefecture fell he was taken captive. Geluofeng, finding Hui learned in the classics, renamed him Manli. He valued him highly and appointed him tutor to Feng Jiayi. When Yimouxun succeeded, he appointed Manli tutor to his son Xunmengchou as well. Manli had long served as their teacher and would beat even Yimouxun and Xunmengchou in lessons, so all feared him. The Man term for minister is qingpingguan; six are appointed. Yimouxun made Manli a qingpingguan and consulted him on all affairs; he held real power. The other five qingpingguan served Manli humbly; when they erred he beat them. Manli once told Yimouxun: "Nanzhao has long been loyal to China, which esteems ritual and righteousness and nurtures its allies without demanding tribute. To abandon Tibet and return to Tang now would free you from distant garrisons and heavy levies—the benefit could hardly be greater. Yimouxun approved and had been plotting submission to Tang for more than ten years. When Wei Gao, commissioner of Jiannan West River, was winning over the tribes and Juwuxing and Luwang submitted, he caught wind of Yimouxun's intentions and had a Man deliver a letter of outreach—it was the fourth year of Zhenyuan (788).
32
七年，又遣間使持書喻之。 道出磨些蠻，其魁主潛告吐蕃，使至雲南。 吐蕃已知之，令詰牟尋。 牟尋懼，因紿吐蕃曰：「唐使，本蠻也，韋臯許其求歸，無他謀。」 遂執送吐蕃。 吐蕃益疑之，多召南詔大臣之子為質，牟尋愈怨。
In the seventh year of Zhenyuan (791) he again sent a secret envoy with a letter. The route passed through Mosuo territory whose chief secretly informed Tibet, and the envoy reached Yunnan. Tibet learned of it and summoned Yimouxun for questioning. Yimouxun, afraid, deceived Tibet: "The Tang envoy was a Man whom Wei Gao allowed to return home—there is no other plot. The envoy was seized and handed over to Tibet. Tibet grew more suspicious and took many sons of Nanzhao ministers as hostages, deepening Yimouxun's resentment.
33
九年四月，牟尋乃與酋長定計遣使：趙莫羅眉由兩川，楊大和堅由黔中，或由安南。 使凡三輩，致書與韋臯，各賫生金丹砂為贄。 三分前臯所與牟尋書，各持其一為信。 歲中，三使皆至京師，且曰：「牟尋請歸大國，永為籓國。 所獻生金，以喻向北之意如金也； 丹砂，示其赤心耳。」 上嘉之，乃賜牟尋詔書，因命韋臯遣使以觀其情。 臯遂命巡官崔佐時至牟尋所都陽苴咩城，南去太和城十餘里，東北至成都二千四百里，東至安南如至成都，通水陸行。 是時也，吐蕃使數百人，先佐時在南詔。 牟尋悉召諸種落與議歸化，或未畢至，未敢公言，密令佐時稱牂牁使，衣以牂牁服而入。 佐時不肯，曰：「我大唐使，安得服小夷之服。」 牟尋不得已，乃夜迎佐時，設位陳燈燭。 佐時乃大宣詔書。 牟尋恐吐蕃知，顧左右無色，而業已歸唐，久之，歔欷流涕，皆俯伏受命。
In the fourth month of the ninth year of Zhenyuan (793) Yimouxun and his chiefs sent envoys by three routes: Zhao Moluomei through the two rivers, Yang Dahejian through Qianzhong, and another through Annan. Three missions bore letters to Wei Gao, each carrying raw gold and cinnabar as gifts. They divided among them a letter Wei Gao had earlier given Yimouxun, each carrying a third as proof. Within the year all three envoys reached the capital with the message: "Yimouxun asks to return to the great empire and be its vassal forever. The raw gold they offered symbolized their turn toward the north, steadfast as gold; the cinnabar showed their loyal hearts. The emperor was pleased, granted Yimouxun an imperial edict, and ordered Wei Gao to send envoys to ascertain his intentions. Gao dispatched the touring officer Cui Zuoshi to Yimouxun's capital Yangjuemie, a little over ten li south of Taihe—two thousand four hundred li northeast of Chengdu and as far east as Annan, reachable by water and land alike. At that time several hundred Tibetan envoys were already in Nanzhao when Zuoshi arrived. Yimouxun had summoned all the tribes to discuss submission, but not all had yet arrived and he dared not speak openly; he secretly asked Zuoshi to pose as a Zangge envoy and enter in Zangge dress. Zuoshi refused: "I am an envoy of Great Tang—how could I wear the garb of petty tribes? Yimouxun had no choice but to receive Zuoshi by night, setting out seats and lamps. Zuoshi then proclaimed the imperial edict aloud. Yimouxun, fearing Tibet would learn of it, glanced at his attendants, who turned pale; but having already committed to Tang, he wept at length, and all prostrated themselves to receive the command.
34
其明年正月，異牟尋使其子閣勸及清平官等與佐時，盟於點蒼山神祠。 盟書一藏於神室，一沈於西洱河，一置祖廟，一以進天子。 閣勸即尋夢湊也。 鄭回見佐時，多所指導，故佐時探得其情。 乃請牟尋斬吐蕃使數人，以示歸唐。 又得其吐蕃所與金印。 牟尋尋遣佐時歸，仍刻金契以獻。 閣勸賦詩以餞之。 牟尋乃去吐蕃所立帝號，私於佐時，請復南詔舊名。 佐時與盟訖，留二旬有六日而歸。
In the first month of the following year Yimouxun sent his son Gequan, the qingpingguan, and others to swear alliance with Zuoshi at the shrine of the Diancang Mountain spirit. One copy of the covenant was stored in the spirit shrine, one sunk in the Western Er River, one placed in the ancestral temple, and one sent to the emperor. Gequan was Xunmengchou. Zheng Hui met Zuoshi and gave much guidance, enabling him to grasp the full situation. He then asked Yimouxun to execute several Tibetan envoys as proof of submission to Tang. He also obtained the gold seal Tibet had granted them. Yimouxun soon sent Zuoshi home and presented a carved gold covenant. Gequan composed a farewell poem for him. Yimouxun then cast off the imperial title Tibet had imposed and privately asked Zuoshi to restore Nanzhao's former name. After completing the alliance Zuoshi stayed twenty-six days and returned.
35
初，吐蕃因爭北庭，與回鶻大戰，死傷頗眾。 乃征兵於牟尋，須萬人。 牟尋既定計歸我，欲因征兵以襲之。 乃示寡弱，謂吐蕃曰：「蠻軍素少，僅可發三千人。」 吐蕃少之，請益至五千，乃許。 牟尋遽遣兵五千人戍吐蕃，乃自將數萬踵其後，晝夜兼行，乘其無備，大破吐蕃於神川。 遂斷鐵橋，遣使告捷。 且請韋臯使閱其所虜獲及城堡，以取信焉。 時韋臯上言：「牟尋收鐵橋已來城壘一十六，擒其王五人，降其眾十余萬。」 以祠部郎中兼御史中丞袁滋持節冊南詔，仍賜牟尋印，鑄用黃金，以銀為窠。 文曰：「貞元冊南詔印。」 先是，韋臯奏南詔前遣清平官尹仇寬獻所受吐蕃印五，二用黃金，今賜請以黃金，從蠻夷所重，傳示無窮。 從臯之請也。
Earlier Tibet had fought the Uyghurs over Beiting and suffered heavy casualties. They then demanded ten thousand troops from Yimouxun. Yimouxun, having already resolved to return to Tang, planned to use the conscription as a pretext to strike Tibet. He feigned weakness, telling Tibet: "Our forces have always been few—we can send only three thousand men. Tibet protested the number was too small and pressed for five thousand; he agreed. Yimouxun sent five thousand men to garrison for Tibet, then personally led tens of thousands in their wake, marching day and night, and routing the Tibetans at Shenchuan by surprise. He severed the Iron Bridge and sent envoys to report victory. He also asked Wei Gao to send someone to inspect the captives and fortresses as proof. Wei Gao memorialized: "Yimouxun has taken sixteen fortresses from the Iron Bridge onward, captured five Tibetan kings, and received the submission of more than a hundred thousand men. Yuan Zi of the Sacrifices Bureau, concurrently censor-in-chief, was sent to enfeoff Nanzhao; Yimouxun was granted a seal cast in gold with a silver socket. The inscription read: "Zhenyuan Enfeoffment Seal of Nanzhao. Earlier Wei Gao had reported that the qingpingguan Yin Qiukuan had presented five seals received from Tibet, two of gold; he now requested that the new seal be of gold as well, in keeping with what the tribes value, to be handed down forever. The court granted Gao's request.
36
十年八月，遣使蒙湊羅棟及尹仇寬來獻鐸槊、浪人劍及吐蕃印八紐。 湊羅棟，牟尋之弟也，錫賚甚厚，以尹仇寬為檢校左散騎常侍，余各授官有差。 俄又封尹仇寬為高溪郡王。 十一年三月，遣清平官尹輔酋隨袁滋來朝。 又得先沒蕃將衛景升、韓演等，並南詔所獲吐蕃將帥俘馘百人至京師。 湊羅棟歸國，在道而卒，贈右散騎常侍。 授尹輔酋檢校太子詹事兼御史中丞，余亦差次授官。 又降敕書賜異牟尋及子閣勸，清平官鄭回、尹仇寬等各一書，書左列中書三官宣奉行，復舊制也。 九月，異牟尋遣使獻馬六十匹。
In the eighth month of the tenth year of Zhenyuan (794) they sent Meng Chouluodong and Yin Qiukuan with iron maces, wave-man swords, and eight Tibetan seals. Chouluodong was Yimouxun's brother and was richly rewarded; Yin Qiukuan was appointed acting left regular attendant of the Palace Steeds, and the others received offices in due order. Soon Yin Qiukuan was enfeoffed King of Gaoxi. In the third month of the eleventh year (795) the qingpingguan Yin Fushou came to court with Yuan Zi. They also recovered the former Tang generals Wei Jingsheng and Han Yan, lost to Tibet, together with a hundred Tibetan officers captured by Nanzhao, all brought to the capital. Chouluodong died on the road home and was posthumously made right regular attendant of the Palace Steeds. Yin Fushou was appointed acting grand mentor of the heir apparent and censor-in-chief; the others received offices in due order. Imperial letters were sent to Yimouxun, his son Gequan, and the qingpingguan Zheng Hui and Yin Qiukuan, each bearing on the left the names of the three Secretariat officials proclaiming execution—the old format restored. In the ninth month Yimouxun sent sixty horses as tribute.
37
十二年，韋臯於雅州會野路招收得投降蠻首領高萬唐等六十九人，戶約七千，兼萬唐等先受吐蕃金字告身五十片。 十四年，異牟尋遣酋望大將軍王丘各等賀正，兼獻方物。 十九年正月旦，上御含元殿受南詔朝賀。 以其使楊鏌龍武為試太仆少卿，授黎州廓清道蠻首領襲恭化郡王劉誌寧試太常卿。 二十年，南詔遣使朝貢。
In the twelfth year Wei Gao at Yazhou on the Huiye road received the submission of sixty-nine Man chieftains including Gao Wantang, about seven thousand households, along with fifty golden patents of office they had earlier received from Tibet. In the fourteenth year Yimouxun sent the chieftain-general Wang Qiuge and others for the New Year audience with local tribute. On New Year's Day of the nineteenth year of Zhenyuan (803) the emperor received Nanzhao's homage in the Hanyuan Hall. Their envoy Yang Minglongwu was appointed acting vice minister of the Imperial Stud, and the Man chieftain Liu Zhining of Lizhou Kuoqing Road, who had succeeded as King of Gonghua, was appointed acting minister of Ceremonies. In the twentieth year of Zhenyuan (804) Nanzhao sent tribute envoys.
38
元和二年八月，遣使鄧傍傳來朝，授試殿中監。 三年十二月，以異牟尋卒，廢朝三日。 四年正月，以太常少卿武少儀充吊祭使，仍冊牟尋之子驃信苴蒙閣勸為南詔王，仍命鑄「元和冊南詔印」。 七年十月，皆遣使朝貢。
In the eighth month of the second year of Yuanhe (807) they sent the envoy Deng Bangchuan to court and he was appointed acting director of the Palace Administration. In the twelfth month of the third year of Yuanhe (808) court mourning was observed for three days upon Yimouxun's death. In the first month of the fourth year of Yuanhe (809) Wu Shaoyi, vice minister of Ceremonies, was sent as condolence envoy to enfeoff Mouxun's son, the piaoxin Jumeng Gequan, as king of Nanzhao and to cast the Yuanhe Enfeoffment Seal of Nanzhao. In the tenth month of the seventh year of Yuanhe (812) they all sent tribute envoys.
39
十一年五月，以龍蒙盛卒，廢朝三日。 遣使來請冊立其君長。 以少府少監李銑充冊立吊祭使，左贊善大夫許堯佐副之。 十二年至十五年，比年遣使來朝，或年內二三至者。
In the fifth month of the eleventh year of Yuanhe (816) court mourning was observed for three days upon Longmengsheng's death. They sent envoys requesting investiture of their new ruler. Li Xian, vice director of the Palace Workshops, was sent as investiture and condolence envoy with Xu Yaozuo, left aide to the heir apparent, as deputy. From the twelfth to the fifteenth year they sent envoys annually, sometimes two or three missions in a single year.
40
明年正月，其王蒙嵯顛以表自陳請罪，兼疏元穎過失。 國家方事柔遠，尋釋其罪，復遣使來朝。 五年、八年，亦遣使來貢方物。 開成四年、五年，會昌二年，皆遣使來朝。
In the first month of the following year King Mengcuandian submitted a memorial confessing guilt and detailing Yuan Ying's misconduct. The court, pursuing a policy of gentle treatment of distant peoples, soon pardoned him and again received his envoys. In the fifth and eighth years they again sent envoys with local tribute. In the fourth and fifth years of Kaicheng (839–840), and the second year of Huichang (842), they all sent envoys to court.
41
驃國，在永昌故郡南二千餘里，去上都一萬四千里。 其國境，東西三千里，南北三千五百里。 東鄰真臘國，西接東天竺國，南盡溟海，北通南詔些樂城界，東北拒陽苴咩城六千八百里。 往來通聘迦羅婆提等二十國，役屬者道林王等九城，食境土者羅君潛等二百九十部落。
Pyu lies more than two thousand li south of the old Yongchang commandery, fourteen thousand li from the capital. Its territory measures three thousand li east to west and three thousand five hundred li north to south. It borders Chenla on the east and Eastern India on the west, reaches the southern ocean, adjoins Nanzhao's Xile frontier on the north, and lies six thousand eight hundred li northeast of Yangjuemie. It exchanges embassies with twenty states including Kalapati, commands nine cities including Daolinwang, and holds two hundred ninety tribes including Luo Junqian within its domain.
42
其王姓困沒長，名摩羅惹。 其國相名摩訶思那。 其王近適則舁以金繩床，遠適則乘象。 嬪妹甚眾，常數百人。 其羅城構以專甃，周一百六十里，濠岸亦構專，相傳本是舍利佛城。 城內有居人數萬家，佛寺百余區。 其堂宇皆錯以金銀，塗以丹彩，地以紫鑛，覆以錦罽。 其俗好生惡殺。 其土宜菽粟稻梁，無麻麥。 其理無刑名桎梏之具，犯罪者以竹五十本束之，復犯者撻其背，數止五，輕者止三，殺人者戮之。 男女七歲則落發，止寺舍，依桑門，至二十不悟佛理，乃復長發為居人。 其衣服悉以白赩為朝霞，繞腰而已。 不衣繒帛，雲出於蠶，為其傷生故也。 君臣父子長幼有序。 華言謂之驃，自謂突羅成阇婆，人謂之徒裏掘。
The king's surname is Kunmozhang and his name Moluore. The state chancellor is named Mohesina. For short journeys the king is carried on a gold-cord litter; for long journeys he rides an elephant. His consorts and sisters number several hundred. Its outer city is built of brick, one hundred sixty li in circumference, with brick moat banks as well—tradition holds it was originally the city of the Buddha relic. Within the walls live tens of thousands of households and more than a hundred Buddhist monasteries. Their halls are inlaid with gold and silver, painted in cinnabar, floored with purple stone, and covered with brocade rugs. They cherish life and abhor killing. The soil supports beans, millet, rice, and sorghum, but not hemp or wheat. They have no penal instruments or shackles; offenders are bound with fifty bamboo staves, repeat offenders flogged on the back—five strokes for serious cases, three for minor—and murderers are executed. At seven boys and girls shave their heads and live in monasteries as novices; if by twenty they have not grasped Buddhist doctrine, they let their hair grow and return to lay life. Their clothing is white cotton cloth wrapped about the waist. They do not wear silk, holding that it harms life because it comes from silkworms. Ruler and subject, parent and child, elder and younger observe proper order. Chinese calls them Pyu; they call themselves Tulachengqiepo; others call them Tulijue.
43
古未嘗通中國。 貞元中，其王聞南詔異牟尋歸附，心慕之。 八年，乃遣其弟悉利移因南詔重譯來朝，又獻其國樂凡十曲，與樂工三十五人俱。 樂曲皆演釋氏經論之詞意。 尋以悉利移為試太仆卿。
They had never before had contact with China. During Zhenyuan its king heard that Nanzhao's Yimouxun had submitted to Tang and admired the example. In the eighth year of Zhenyuan (792) he sent his brother Xilijiao to court through Nanzhao's interpreters, presenting ten pieces of Pyu music with thirty-five musicians. The pieces all set to music the words of Buddhist sutras and treatises. Soon Xilijiao was appointed acting minister of the Imperial Stud.
44
史臣曰：禹畫九州，周分六服，斷長補短，止方七千。 國賦之所均，王教之所備，此謂華夏者也。 以圓蓋方輿之廣，廣谷大川之多，民生其間，胡可勝道，此謂蕃國者也。 西南之蠻夷不少矣，雖言語不通，嗜欲不同，亦能候律瞻風，遠修職貢。 但患己之不德，不患人之不來。 何以驗之？ 貞觀、開元之盛，來朝者多也！
The historiographer remarks: Yu delineated the Nine Provinces; Zhou divided the Six Domains—trimming long and patching short, the realm measured seven thousand square li. Where state levies were apportioned and royal instruction applied—this was Huaxia. Given the vastness of heaven and earth, the multitude of valleys and great rivers, and the peoples living among them beyond numbering—this is the barbarian world. The southwestern tribes are many; though their languages differ and their desires vary, they too can observe the seasons and winds and send tribute from afar. The concern should be one's own lack of virtue, not whether others will come. How may this be verified? In the prosperity of Zhenguan and Kaiyuan, how many came to court!
45
贊曰：五方異氣，所稟不同。 維南極海，曰蠻與戎。 惡我則叛，好我則通。 不可不德，使其瞻風。
The encomium reads: The five directions breathe different airs and receive different endowments. To the south lies the ocean, home to Man and Rong. Those who resent us rebel; those who favor us come. Virtue cannot be neglected if they are to turn toward our transforming influence.