1
泥婆羅國
Nepal
2
泥婆羅國，在吐蕃西。 其俗翦髮與眉齊，穿耳，揎以竹桶牛角，綴至肩者以為姣麗。 食用手，無匕箸。 其器皆銅。 多商賈，少田作。 以銅為錢，面文為人，背文為馬牛，不穿孔。 衣服以一幅蔽布身，日數盥浴。 以板為屋，壁皆雕畫。 俗重博戲，好吹蠡擊鼓。 頗解推測盈虛，兼通歷術。 事五天神，鐫石為像，每日清水浴神，烹羊而祭。 其王那陵提婆，身著真珠、玻璃、車渠、珊瑚、琥珀、瓔珞，耳垂金鉤玉榼，佩寶裝伏突，坐獅子床，其堂內散花燃香。 大臣及諸左右並坐於地，持兵數百列侍其側。 宮中有七層之樓，覆以銅瓦，欄檻楹栿皆飾珠寶。 樓之四角，各懸銅槽，下有金龍，激水上樓，註於槽中，從龍口而出，狀若飛泉。 那陵提婆之父，為其叔父所篡，那陵提婆逃難於外，吐蕃因而納焉，克復其位，遂羈屬吐蕃。
The kingdom of Nepal lay to the west of Tibet. By custom they cropped their hair even with the eyebrows and pierced their ears, inserting bamboo tubes and ox horns as ornaments—those that dangled to the shoulders were regarded as especially lovely. They ate with their hands and used neither spoons nor chopsticks. All their tableware was made of bronze. Merchants were numerous, field labor scarce. Their coinage was bronze, stamped on one side with a human figure and on the other with horses and cattle, without a central hole. They wore a single length of cloth wrapped about the body and bathed many times each day. Their houses were built of planks, every wall carved and painted. They prized games of chance and delighted in wind instruments and drumming. They were adept at astronomical calculation and well versed in calendrical science. They worshipped the deities of the Five Heavens, carving stone images whom they bathed daily in fresh water and honored with boiled sheep. King Narendradeva was arrayed in pearls, crystal, lapis lazuli, coral, amber, and strings of gems; golden hooks and jade flasks hung from his ears, a jeweled blade at his waist. He sat upon a lion throne while flowers were strewn and incense burned in his hall. His ministers and attendants all sat upon the floor, while several hundred armed guards stood in ranks beside him. The palace contained a seven-tiered tower roofed in bronze tiles, its balustrades, pillars, and beams all inlaid with precious stones. At each corner of the tower hung a bronze channel; beneath stood golden dragons that drove water upward into the channels, whence it poured from the dragons' mouths in the likeness of cascading springs. Narendradeva's father had been deposed by an uncle; the prince fled into exile, where Tibet took him in, helped him regain his throne, and thereafter held Nepal as a tributary state.
3
貞觀中，衛尉丞李義表往使天竺，塗經其國，那陵提婆見之，大喜，與義表同出觀阿耆婆沴池。 周回二十余步，水恆沸，雖流潦暴集，爍石焦金，未嘗增減。 以物投之，即生煙焰，懸釜而炊，須臾而熟。 其後王玄策為天竺所掠，泥婆羅發騎與吐蕃共破天竺有功。 永徽二年，其王屍利那連陀羅又遣使朝貢。
During the Zhenguan era, Vice Director of the Imperial Stud Li Yibiao traveled to India and passed through Nepal en route. Narendradeva was delighted to meet him and accompanied Yibiao to see the Ajapala hot spring. The pool measured a little over twenty paces around. Its waters boiled perpetually; even when floods poured in hot enough to make stone glow and metal run, the level never rose or fell. Cast anything into it and smoke and flame burst forth; hang a pot above it and a meal cooks in moments. Later, when Wang Xuance was seized in India, Nepal dispatched horsemen who, fighting alongside Tibet, helped defeat the Indians—a deed rewarded by the court. In the second year of Yonghui (651), King Śrī Narendradeva again sent envoys bearing tribute.
4
党項羌
The Tangut (Dangxiang) Qiang
5
党項羌，在古析支之地，漢西羌之別種也。 魏、晉之後，西羌微弱，或臣中國，或竄山野。 自周氏滅宕昌、鄧至之後，党項始強。 其界東至松州，西接葉護，南雜舂桑、迷桑等羌，北連吐谷渾，處山谷間，互三千里。 其種每姓別自為部落，一姓之中復分為小部落，大者萬余騎，小者數千騎，不相統一。 有細封氏、費聽氏、往利氏、頗超氏、野辭氏、房當氏、米擒氏、拓拔氏，而拓拔最為強族。 俗皆土著，居有棟宇，其屋織牦牛尾及羊毛覆之，每年一易。 俗尚武，無法令賦役。 其人多壽，年一百五六十歲。 不事產業，好為盜竊，互相淩劫。 尤重復仇，若仇人未得，必蓬頭垢面跣足蔬食，要斬仇人而後復常。 男女並衣裘褐，仍被大氈。 畜牦牛、馬、驢、羊，以供其食。 不知稼穡，土無五谷。 氣候多風寒，五月草始生，八月霜雪降。 求大麥於他界，醖以為酒。 妻其庶母及伯叔母、嫂、子弟之婦，淫穢烝褻，諸夷中最為甚，然不婚同姓。 老死者以為盡天年，親戚不哭； 少死者則雲夭枉，乃悲哭之。 死則焚屍，名為火葬。 無文字，但候草木以記歲時。 三年一相聚，殺牛羊以祭天。 自周及隋，或叛或朝，常為邊患。
The Tangut Qiang inhabited the ancient territory of Qizhi and were a distinct branch of the Western Qiang known to the Han. After the Wei and Jin periods the Western Qiang had weakened—some submitted to the Chinese states, others scattered into the mountains. Only after the Northern Zhou destroyed Dangchang and Dengzhi did the Tangut begin to rise in power. Their territory extended east to Songzhou, west to the lands of Yehu, south among the Chunsang, Misang, and other Qiang peoples, and north to Tuyuhun—some three thousand li of mountain valleys. Each surname formed its own tribe, and within each surname smaller bands split off—the largest mustered more than ten thousand horsemen, the smallest several thousand, with no single authority over all. Among their clans were the Xifeng, Feiting, Wangli, Pichao, Yeci, Fangdang, Miqin, and Tuoba—the Tuoba being the most powerful. They were sedentary, living in framed houses roofed with woven yak tails and wool that they replaced each year. They valued martial prowess and knew neither written law nor regular taxation. Many lived to a great age—one hundred fifty or even one hundred sixty years. They did little honest labor and were fond of raiding and robbing one another. Vengeance weighed above all: until an enemy was slain, a man went unkempt, barefoot, and abstinent, vowing to kill his foe before resuming ordinary life. Men and women alike wore furs and coarse woolens, wrapped additionally in heavy felt cloaks. They kept yaks, horses, donkeys, and sheep for food. They did not farm; their land produced none of the staple grains. The climate was bitter and windy; grass scarcely appeared before the fifth month, and frost and snow came by the eighth. They obtained barley from neighboring peoples and brewed it into wine. They married stepmothers, uncles' wives, sisters-in-law, and brothers' wives—practices more depraved than among any other frontier people, though they would not wed within the same clan name. When the elderly died, kin took it as the completion of a full life and did not mourn; but when the young died, they called it a wrongful early death and wept bitterly. The dead were cremated in what they called fire burial. They had no writing and reckoned the seasons only by watching when plants bloomed or withered. Every three years they assembled to slaughter cattle and sheep in sacrifice to Heaven. From the Zhou through the Sui they alternately rebelled and submitted, a perennial trouble on the frontier.
6
貞觀三年，南會州都督鄭元璹遣使招諭，其酋長細封步賴舉部內附，太宗降璽書慰撫之。 步賴因來朝，宴賜甚厚，列其地為軌州，拜步賴為刺史。 仍請率所部討吐谷渾。 其後諸姓酋長相次率部落皆來內屬。 請同編戶，太宗厚加撫慰，列其地為崌、奉、巖、遠四州，各拜其首領為刺史。
In the third year of Zhenguan (629), Nanhui Prefecture commissioner Zheng Yuansui sent envoys to win them over. The chieftain Xifeng Bulai brought his people to submit, and Emperor Taizong sent a sealed letter of reassurance. Bulai came to court in person and received a lavish feast and gifts. His territory was organized as Gui Prefecture, and Bulai was named its prefect. He also offered to lead his tribesmen against Tuyuhun. Thereafter chieftains of the other clans brought their tribes to submit one after another. They asked to be registered as ordinary subjects. Taizong treated them generously, organizing their lands into the four prefectures of Qi, Feng, Yan, and Yuan and appointing each chieftain prefect.
7
有羌酋拓拔赤辭者，初臣屬吐谷渾，甚為渾主伏允所暱，與之結婚。 及貞觀初，諸羌歸附，而赤辭不至。 李靖之擊吐谷渾，赤辭屯狼道坡以抗官軍。 廓州刺史久且洛生遣使諭以禍福，赤辭曰：「我被渾主親戚之恩，腹心相寄，生死不貳，焉知其他。 汝可速去，無令汙我刀也。」 洛生知其不悟，於是率輕騎襲之，擊破赤辭於肅遠山，斬首數百級，虜雜畜六千而還。 太宗又令岷州都督李道彥說諭之，赤辭從子思頭密送誠款，其黨拓拔細豆又以所部來降。 赤辭見其宗黨離，始有歸化之意。 後岷州都督劉師立復遣人招誘，於是與思頭並率眾內屬，拜赤辭為西戎州都督，賜姓李氏。 自此職貢不絕。 其後吐蕃強盛，拓拔氏漸為所逼，遂請內徙，始移其部落於慶州，置靜邊等州以處之。 其故地陷於吐蕃，其處者為其役屬，吐蕃謂之「弭藥」。
One chieftain, Tuoba Chici, had initially submitted to Tuyuhun and was a favorite of King Fuyun, who gave him a princess in marriage. At the opening of the Zhenguan era, when the other Qiang submitted, Chici held back. When Li Jing campaigned against Tuyuhun, Chici stationed his forces at Langdao Slope to block the imperial army. Guo Prefecture inspector Jiujie Luosheng sent envoys to warn him of the consequences. Chici replied: "The Tuyuhun king has treated me as kin and entrusted me with his innermost counsel. I shall not waver in life or death—why should I heed anything else? Be off at once, lest you stain my blade. Seeing that Chici would not listen, Luosheng led light cavalry in a surprise attack, routed him at Mount Suyuan, took several hundred heads, seized six thousand head of livestock, and withdrew. Taizong then sent Minzhou commissioner Li Daoyan to negotiate. Chici's nephew Sitou secretly sent assurances of loyalty, and his follower Tuoba Xidou brought his band to surrender. When Chici saw his kin and followers slipping away, he at last considered submission. Minzhou commissioner Liu Shili sent envoys again, and Chici and Sitou together led their people to submit. Chici was appointed commissioner of Xirong Prefecture and given the imperial surname Li. From then on their tribute missions never ceased. Later, as Tibet grew powerful, the Tuoba were increasingly squeezed and petitioned to move within the frontier. Their tribes were resettled in Qingzhou, with Jingbian and other prefectures established to receive them. Their former homeland fell to Tibet; those who stayed behind became Tibetan subjects, whom the Tibetans called the Miyao.
8
又有黑党項，在於赤水之西。 李靖之擊吐谷渾也，渾主伏允奔黑党項，居以空閑之地。 及吐谷渾舉國內屬，黑党項酋長號敦善王因貢方物。 又有雪山党項，姓破醜氏，居於雪山之下，及白狗、舂桑、白蘭等諸羌，自龍朔已後，並為吐蕃所破而臣屬焉。
There were also the Black Tangut, dwelling west of the Red River. When Li Jing struck Tuyuhun, King Fuyun fled to the Black Tangut, who granted him open pastureland. After Tuyuhun submitted en masse, the Black Tangut chieftain known as King Dunshan presented local goods in tribute. There were also the Snow Mountain Tangut of the Pochou clan, the White Dog, Chunsang, Bailan, and other Qiang bands—all of whom, from the Longshuo era onward, were defeated by Tibet and brought under its rule.
9
其在西北邊者，天授三年內附，凡二十萬口，分其地置朝、吳、浮、歸等十州，仍散居靈、夏等界內。 自至德已後，常為吐蕃所誘，密以官告授之，使為偵道，故時或侵叛，尋亦底寧。 寶應初，其首領來朝，請助國供靈州軍糧，優詔褒美。
Those on the northwest frontier submitted in the third year of Tianshou (690)—some two hundred thousand people. Their territory was divided into ten prefectures including Chao, Wu, Fu, and Gui, while the people were settled among the Ling and Xia borderlands. After the Zhide era (756–758) Tibet often won them over with secret commissions, using them as scouts—hence periodic raids and rebellions, soon quieted again. Early in the Baoying era (762) a chieftain came to court offering to supply grain for the Lingzhou garrison; an edict of praise was issued in reply.
10
其在涇、隴州界者，上元元年率其眾十余萬，詣鳳翔節度使崔光遠請降。 寶應元年十二月，其歸順州部落、乾封州部落、歸義州部落、順化州部落、和寧州部落、和義州部落、保善州部落、寧定州部落、羅雲州部落、朝鳳州部落，並詣山南西道都防禦使、梁州刺史臧希讓請州印。 希讓以聞，許之。
Those in the Jing and Long region, in the first year of Shangyuan (674), led more than one hundred thousand followers to Fengxiang commissioner Cui Guangyuan to surrender. In the twelfth month of the first year of Baoying (762), the tribes of Guishun, Qianfeng, Guiyi, Shunhua, Heping, Heyi, Baoshan, Ningding, Luoyun, and Chaofeng prefectures all went to Southwest Shannan defender and Liangzhou inspector Zang Xirang to request official prefectural seals. Xirang reported the request, and it was approved.
11
貞元三年十二月，初禁商賈以牛、馬、器械於党項部落貿易。 十五年二月，六州党項自石州奔過河西。 党項有六府部落，曰野利越詩、野利龍兒、野利厥律、兒黃、野海、野窣等。 居慶州者號為東山部落，居夏州者號為平夏部落。 永泰、大歷已後，居石州，依水草。 至是永安城鎮將阿史那思昧擾其部落，求取駝馬無厭，中使又贊成其事，党項不堪其弊，遂率部落奔過河。 元和九年五月，復置宥州以護党項。
In the twelfth month of the third year of Zhenyuan (787), the court first forbade merchants to trade cattle, horses, and weapons with Tangut tribes. In the second month of the fifteenth year of Zhenyuan (799), the six-prefecture Tangut fled from Shizhou across the Yellow River to the west. The Tangut comprised six fu tribes: Yeliyueshi, Yelilong'er, Yelijuelü, Erhuang, Yehai, Yesu, and the like. Those in Qingzhou were known as the Eastern Mountain tribe; those in Xiazhou as the Pingxia tribe. After the Yongtai and Dali eras they had lived in Shizhou, following pasture and water. By then the Yong'an garrison commander Ashina Simo was harassing them, demanding camels and horses without limit, abetted by palace eunuchs. Unable to endure the exactions, the Tangut led their tribes across the river. In the fifth month of the ninth year of Yuanhe (814), You Prefecture was re-established to oversee the Tangut.
12
十五年十一月，命太子中允李寮為宣撫党項使。 以部落繁富，時遠近商賈，賫繒貨入貿羊馬。 至太和、開成之際，其籓鎮統領無緒，恣其貪婪，不顧危亡，或強市其羊馬，不酬其直，以是部落苦之，遂相率為盜，靈、鹽之路小梗。 會昌初，上頻命使安撫之，兼命憲臣為使，分三印以統之。 在邠、寧、延者，以侍御史、內供奉崔君會主之； 在鹽、夏、長、澤者，以侍御史、內供奉李鄠主之； 在靈、武、麟、勝者，以侍御史、內供奉鄭賀主之，仍各賜緋魚以重其事。 久而無狀，尋皆罷之。
In the eleventh month of the fifteenth year of Yuanhe (820), Li Liao, attendant to the heir apparent, was appointed commissioner to pacify the Tangut. Their tribes had grown prosperous, and merchants from far and near brought silks and goods to trade for sheep and horses. By the Taihe and Kaicheng eras (827–840) frontier commanders ruled without discipline, plundering recklessly—sometimes seizing sheep and horses by force without fair payment. The tribes, driven to desperation, turned to banditry in numbers, and traffic on the Ling and Yan routes was briefly disrupted. Early in the Huichang era (841) the emperor repeatedly sent commissioners to pacify them, appointing censorial officials and dividing authority among three seals. Attending censor and inner attendant Cui Junhui oversaw those in Bin, Ning, and Yan; attending censor and inner attendant Li E those in Yan, Xia, Chang, and Ze; and attending censor and inner attendant Zheng He those in Ling, Wu, Lin, and Sheng—each granted the crimson fish insignia to mark the importance of the post. After long service with little to show, all were soon dismissed.
13
高昌者，漢車師前王之庭，後漢戊己校尉之故地。 在京師西四千三百里。 其國有二十一城，王都高昌。 其交河城，前王庭也； 田地城，校尉城也。 勝兵且萬人。 厥土良沃，谷麥歲再熟； 有蒲萄酒，宜五果； 有草名白疊，國人采其花，織以為布。 有文字，知書計，所置官亦采中國之號焉。 其王麹伯雅，即後魏時高昌王嘉之六世孫也。 隋煬帝時入朝，拜左光祿大夫、車師太守、封弁國公，仍以戚屬宇文氏女為華容公主以妻之。
Gaochang occupied the seat of the Former King of the Front Cheshi in Han times and the old domain of the Wuji Colonel under the Later Han. It lay four thousand three hundred li west of the capital. The kingdom comprised twenty-one cities, with Gaochang as the royal capital. Jiaohe had been the earlier royal seat; and Tiandi the garrison city of the Han colonel. Its fighting strength approached ten thousand men. The soil was rich; grain and wheat ripened twice a year; there was grape wine and all manner of fruit; and a plant called baidie whose flowers the people wove into cloth. They had a written language and kept accounts; their official titles followed Chinese models. King Qu Boya was the sixth-generation descendant of King Jia of Gaochang under the Northern Wei. He had visited court under Emperor Yang of Sui and was appointed Left Grand Master of Splendid Happiness and colonel of Cheshi, enfeoffed as Duke of Bian, and given Princess Huarong of the imperial Yuwen clan in marriage.
14
武德二年，伯雅死，子文泰嗣，遣使來告哀，高祖遣前河州刺史硃惠表往吊之。 七年，文泰又獻狗雄雌各一，高六寸，長尺余，性甚慧，能曳馬銜燭，雲本出拂菻國。 中國有拂菻狗，自此始也。 太宗嗣位，復貢玄狐裘，因賜其妻宇文氏花鈿一具。 宇文氏復貢玉盤。 西域諸國所有動靜，輒以奏聞。 貞觀四年冬，文泰來朝，及將歸蕃，賜遺甚厚。 其妻宇文氏請預宗親，詔賜李氏，封常樂公主，下詔慰諭之。
In the second year of Wude (619), Qu Boya died and his son Wentai succeeded him, sending envoys to announce the death. Emperor Gaozu sent former Hezhou inspector Zhu Huibiao to offer condolences. In the seventh year (624), Wentai presented a male and female dog, each six inches tall and over a foot long—remarkably clever beasts that could draw a horse's bit and carry a candle. They were said to originate in Fulin (Byzantium). This was the first appearance in China of the famed Fulin lapdog. When Taizong came to the throne, Wentai again sent black fox furs as tribute, and the emperor granted his Yuwen wife a set of floral forehead ornaments. Lady Yuwen in turn sent a jade platter as tribute. Whatever happened among the Western Region states, he reported it to the court. In the winter of the fourth year of Zhenguan (630), Wentai came to court; when he prepared to return home, the emperor lavished gifts upon him. His wife Lady Yuwen asked to be enrolled among the imperial clan. An edict granted her the surname Li and the title Princess of Changle, with a letter of reassurance.
15
時西戎諸國來朝貢者，皆塗經高昌，文泰後稍壅絕之。 伊吾先臣西突厥，至是內屬，文泰又與葉護連結，將擊伊吾。 太宗以其反覆，下書切讓，征其大臣冠軍阿史那矩入朝，將與議事。 文泰竟不遣，乃遣其長史麹雍來謝罪。
Western Region states bound for court all passed through Gaochang, but Wentai gradually began intercepting them. Yiwu had once submitted to the Western Turks but now turned to China. Wentai allied with the Turkish yabghu and prepared to attack Yiwu. Taizong rebuked him sharply in writing and summoned his minister Ashina Ju to court for consultations. Wentai refused to send Ju and instead dispatched his chief administrator Qu Yong to apologize.
16
初，大業之亂，中國人多投於突厥。 及頡利敗，或有奔高昌者，文泰皆拘留不遣。 太宗詔令括送，文泰尚隱蔽之。 又尋與西突厥乙毗設擊破焉耆三城，虜其男女而去。 焉耆王上表訴之，太宗遣虞部郎中李道裕往問其狀。 十三年，太宗謂其使曰：「高昌數年來朝貢脫略，無籓臣禮，國中署置官號，準我百僚，稱臣於人，豈得如此！ 今茲歲首，萬國來朝，而文泰不至。 增城深塹，預備討伐。 日者我使人至彼，文泰云：『鷹飛於天，雉竄於蒿，貓遊於堂，鼠安於穴，各得其所，豈不活耶！』 又西域使欲來者，文泰悉拘留之。 又遣使謂薛延陀云：『既自為可汗，與漢天子敵也，何須拜謁其使。』 事人闕禮，離間鄰好，惡而不誅，善者何勸？ 明年，當發兵馬以擊爾。」 是時薛延陀可汗表請為軍向導，以擊高昌，太宗許之。 令民部尚書唐儉至延陀，與謀進取。 太宗冀其悔過，復下璽書，示以禍福，征之入朝。 文泰稱疾不至。 太宗乃命吏部尚書侯君集為交河道大總管，率左屯衛大將軍薛萬均及突厥、契、苾之眾，步騎數萬眾以擊之。 時公卿近臣，皆以行經沙磧，萬里用兵，恐難得誌； 又界居絕域，縱得之，不可以守，競以為諫。 太宗皆不聽。 文泰謂所親曰：「吾往者朝覲，見秦、隴之北，城邑蕭條，非復有隋之比。 設今伐我，發兵多則糧運不給； 若發三萬以下，吾能制之。 加以磧路艱險，自然疲頓，吾以逸待勞，坐收其弊，何足為憂也？」 及聞王師臨磧口，惶駭計無所出，發病而死。
During the disorders of the Daye era, many Chinese had fled to the Turks. After Jieli's defeat, some fled to Gaochang, and Wentai detained them all. Taizong ordered them rounded up and returned, but Wentai still hid many away. He soon joined the Western Turk Elibir she in attacking three Yanqi cities and carrying off their people. The king of Yanqi petitioned for redress, and Taizong sent Bureau of Parks director Li Daoyu to investigate. In the thirteenth year (639), Taizong told their envoy: "For years Gaochang has neglected tribute and court attendance, ignoring the rites of a vassal. You set up offices matching our own bureaucracy—how can a subject of another power behave so! At this New Year every state sent envoys—yet Wentai did not come. He has raised his walls and deepened his moats, preparing for war. When my envoy recently reached him, Wentai said: 'The hawk flies in heaven, the pheasant hides in the brush, the cat roams the hall, the rat rests in its hole—each in its place. Are they not alive? He has also detained every Western Region envoy trying to reach us. He sent word to the Xueyantuo: 'You have made yourself qaghan, equal to the Han emperor—why bow to his envoys? He shows no courtesy to his betters and sows discord among neighbors. If evil goes unpunished, what encourages the good? Next year I shall send an army against you. The Xueyantuo qaghan then petitioned to guide the army against Gaochang, and Taizong agreed. He sent Minister of Revenue Tang Jian to the Xueyantuo to coordinate the campaign. Still hoping Wentai would repent, Taizong sent another sealed letter warning of consequences and summoning him to court. Wentai pleaded illness and refused to come. Taizong then appointed Minister of Personnel Hou Junji grand commander of the Jiaohe campaign, with Left Garrison Guard general Xue Wanjun and tens of thousands of Turkish, Qibi, and Tiele troops. Court officials objected that marching across the desert to fight ten thousand li away could not succeed; and even if won, the land could not be held. They remonstrated in chorus. Taizong would hear none of it. Wentai told his intimates: "When I last visited court, I saw how desolate the lands north of Qin and Long had become—nothing like Sui times. If they attack now, a large army cannot be supplied; fewer than thirty thousand, and I can handle them. The desert march will exhaust them. I need only wait at ease while they wear themselves out. What is there to fear? When he learned the imperial army had reached the desert pass, terror left him no recourse—he fell ill and died.
17
其子智盛嗣立。 既而君集兵奄至柳谷，進趨田地城，將軍契苾何力為前軍，與之接戰而退。 大軍繼之，攻拔其城，虜男女七千余口。 進逼其都。 智盛移君集書曰：「有罪於天子者，先王也，咎深譴積，身已喪亡。 智盛襲位無幾，君其赦諸？」 君集謂曰：「若能悔禍，當面縛軍門也。」 又命諸軍引沖車、拋車以逼之，飛石雨下，城中大懼。 智盛窮蹙，出城降。 君集分兵掠地，下其三郡、五縣、二十二城。 戶八千，口三萬七千七百，馬四千三百匹。 其界東西八百里，南北五百里。 先是，其國童謠云：「高昌兵馬如霜雪，漢家兵馬如日月。 日月照霜雪，回手自消滅。」 文泰使人捕其初唱者，不能得。
His son Zhicheng succeeded him. Junji's army soon appeared at Willow Valley and advanced on Tiandi. Vanguard general Qibi Heli skirmished and withdrew. The main force followed, stormed the city, and took more than seven thousand captives. They pressed on toward the capital. Zhicheng wrote to Junji: "The one who offended the Son of Heaven was my father, who has already paid with his life. I have only just succeeded him. Will you not show mercy? Junji replied: "If you truly repent, come bound to my camp gate. He ordered battering rams and catapults forward; stones rained down and panic seized the city. Cornered, Zhicheng came out and surrendered. Junji sent columns to overrun the realm, taking three commanderies, five counties, and twenty-two cities. The tally: eight thousand households, thirty-seven thousand seven hundred people, and four thousand three hundred horses. The kingdom measured eight hundred li east to west and five hundred li north to south. A children's song had foretold: "Gaochang's armies are frost and snow; the Han armies are sun and moon. When sun and moon shine on frost and snow, it melts at a touch. Wentai had sent men to seize whoever first sang it, but none could be found.
18
初，文泰與西突厥欲谷設通和，遺其金帛，約有急相為表裏。 及聞君集兵至，欲谷設懼而西走，不敢救。 君集尋遣使告捷，太宗大悅，宴白僚，班賜各有差。 曲赦高昌部內從軍兵士已上，父子犯死罪已下，期親犯流已下，大功犯徒已下，小功緦麻犯杖罪，悉原之。
Wentai had allied with the Western Turk yabghu Elibir she, sending gold and silks with a pact of mutual aid in crisis. When Junji's army arrived, Elibir she fled west in fear and dared not intervene. Junji soon reported victory. Taizong was delighted, feasted his officials, and distributed rewards. A partial amnesty covered Gaochang soldiers and their kin for crimes up to and including capital offenses among close relatives, exile among collateral kin, penal servitude among more distant kin, and corporal punishment among the most distant.
19
時太宗欲以高昌為州縣，特進魏征諫曰：「陛下初臨天下，高昌夫婦先來朝謁。 自後數月，商胡被其遏絕貢獻，加之不禮大國，遂使五誅載加。 若罪止文泰，斯亦可矣，未若撫其人而立其子，所謂伐罪吊民，威德被於遐外，為國之善者也。 今若利其土壤，以為州縣，常須千余人鎮守，數年一易，每及交蕃，死者十有三四，遣辦衣資，離別親戚，十年之後，隴右空虛。 陛下終不得高昌撮谷尺布以助中國，所謂散有用而事無用，臣未見其可。」 太宗不從，竟以其地置西州，又置安西都護府，留兵以鎮之。 初，西突厥遣其葉護，屯兵於可汗浮圖城，與高昌相影響，至是懼而來降，以其地為庭州。 於是勒石紀功而旋。 其智盛君臣及其豪右，皆徙中國。
Taizong wished to annex Gaochang as prefectures and counties. Wei Zheng remonstrated: "When you first took the throne, the Gaochang king and queen came to court in person. Within months they were blocking merchants and showing disrespect to the empire—hence the campaign of punishment. If the guilt ended with Wentai, that would suffice. Better to comfort the people and install his son—punishing crime while succoring the people, spreading virtue to distant lands. That is true statecraft. If you seize their land for prefectures, you will need a thousand garrison troops rotated every few years. A third die crossing the frontier. After ten years Longyou will be drained of men and resources. You will never see a grain of Gaochang millet or a foot of its cloth aid China. You would scatter useful resources on a useless venture. I see no wisdom in it. Taizong overruled him, established Xizhou and the Protectorate General of the Pacified West, and left troops to garrison the region. The Western Turk yabghu had garrisoned Qaghan Buddha City in support of Gaochang; now, terrified, he surrendered, and his territory became Tingzhou. They carved a victory stele and withdrew. Zhicheng, his court, and the leading families were all resettled within China.
20
麹氏有國，至智盛凡九世，一百三十四年而滅。 尋拜智盛為左武衛將軍，封金城郡公； 弟智湛為右武衛中郎將，天山縣公。 及太宗崩，刊石像智盛之形，列於昭陵玄闕之下。 智湛，麟德中終於左驍衛大將軍、西州刺史。 天授初，其子崇裕授左武衛大將軍，交阿郡王。 卒，封襲遂絕。
The Qu dynasty had ruled for nine generations over one hundred thirty-four years before its fall. Zhicheng was soon appointed general of the Left Martial Guard and enfeoffed as Duke of Jincheng; his brother Zhizhan became middle general of the Right Martial Guard and Duke of Tianshan. At Taizong's death, a stone statue of Zhicheng was carved and placed below the Dark Gate of Zhaoling. Zhizhan died in the Linde era as grand general of the Left Valiant Cavalry and inspector of Xizhou. Early in the Tianshou era, his son Chongyu was appointed grand general of the Left Martial Guard and King of Jiao'a. At his death the line of enfeoffment ended.
21
吐谷渾
Tuyuhun
22
吐谷渾，其先居於徒河之清山，屬晉亂，始度隴，止於甘松之南，洮水之西，南極白蘭，地數千里。 有城郭而不居，隨逐水草，廬帳為室，肉酪為糧。 其官初有長史、司馬、將軍。 近代已來，有王公、僕射、尚書、郎中。 其俗頗識文字。 男子通服長裙繒帽，或戴冪苾，婦人以金花為首飾，辮髮縈後，綴以珠貝。 其婚姻富家厚出聘財，貧人竊女而去。 父卒，妻其庶母； 兄亡，妻其諸嫂。 喪有服制，葬訖而除。 國無常稅，用度不給，輒斂富室商人，以取足而止。 殺人及盜馬者罪死，他犯則征物以贖罪。 氣候多寒，土宜大麥、蔓菁，頗有菽粟。 出良馬、牦牛、銅、鐵、硃砂之類。 有青海，周回八百里，中有小山，至冬，放牝馬於其上，言得龍種。 嘗得波斯馬，放入海，因生驄駒，能日行千里，故代稱「青海驄」焉。 地兼鄯善、且沫。 西北有流沙數百里，夏有熱風，傷弊行旅，風之將至，老駝便知之，則引項而鳴，以口鼻埋沙中。 人以為候，即以氈擁蔽口鼻而避其患。
The Tuyuhun originally lived at Clear Mountain on the Tuo River. During the Jin disorders they crossed Long into the region south of Gansong and west of the Tao River, extending south to Bailan—a domain of several thousand li. They had walled towns but did not live in them, following pasture and water, dwelling in felt tents and living on meat and curds. Their government at first had chief administrators, marshals, and generals. In recent times they added princes, dukes, vice premiers, ministers, and directors. They were fairly literate. Men wore long skirts and silk caps, sometimes felt hoods. Women adorned their braided hair with golden flowers, pearls, and shells. Wealthy families paid lavish bride-prices; the poor simply abducted brides. Upon a father's death, a son married his stepmothers; upon a brother's death, his brothers married the widows. They observed mourning garments until burial, then ended mourning. There were no regular taxes; when funds ran short, they levied the wealthy and merchants until enough was raised. Murder and horse theft were capital crimes; lesser offenses were redeemed with goods. The climate was cold; barley and turnips flourished, with some beans and millet. They produced fine horses, yaks, copper, iron, cinnabar, and the like. Qinghai Lake measured eight hundred li around, with a small hill in its midst. Each winter they turned brood mares loose upon it, claiming they bred with dragons. They once bred Persian stallions with these mares, producing piebald colts said to run a thousand li a day—the famed Qinghai piebalds. Their territory included Shanshan and Qiemo. To the northwest lay drifting sands hundreds of li across. Summer brought killing hot winds; old camels sensed them coming, stretched their necks and bellowed, and buried their muzzles in the sand. Travelers took this as warning and wrapped felt over their faces to survive.
23
隋煬帝時，其王伏允來犯塞，煬帝親總六軍以討之，伏允以數十騎潛於泥嶺而遁，其仙頭王率男女十余萬口來降。 煬帝立其質子順為王，送之本國，令統余眾，尋復追還。 大業末，伏允悉收故地，復為邊患。 高祖受禪，順自江都來歸長安。 時李軌猶據涼州，高祖遣使與伏允通和，令擊軌以自效，當放順返國。 伏允大悅，興兵擊之，戰於庫門，交綏而退。 頻遣使朝貢，以順為請，高祖乃遣之。
Under Emperor Yang, King Fuyun raided the frontier. The emperor led the Six Armies in person; Fuyun escaped through Ni Ridge with a few dozen riders while his Xiantou king surrendered with more than one hundred thousand people. Yang installed his hostage Shun as king and sent him home to rule the remnant, but soon recalled him. By the end of the Daye era, Fuyun had recovered all his old territory and again troubled the frontier. When Gaozu took the throne, Shun came from Jiangdu to Chang'an. Li Gui still held Liangzhou. Gaozu sent envoys to Fuyun, promising to return Shun if Fuyun attacked Li Gui. Fuyun was delighted, marched against Li Gui, fought at Kumen, and withdrew after an indecisive clash. He sent frequent tribute missions asking for Shun's return, and Gaozu finally sent him home.
24
太宗即位，伏允遣其洛陽公來朝。 使未返，大掠鄯州而去。 太宗遣使責讓之，征伏允入朝，稱疾不至。 仍為其子尊王求婚，於是責其親迎以羈縻之。 尊王又稱疾不肯入朝，有詔停婚，遣中郎將康處直諭以禍福。 伏允遣兵寇蘭、廓二州。
When Emperor Taizong came to the throne, Fuyun sent his Duke of Luoyang to pay court. Before the envoy had even returned home, Fuyun launched a major raid on Shan Prefecture and withdrew. Taizong sent envoys to rebuke him and summoned Fuyun to court, but Fuyun pleaded illness and refused to come. Fuyun also asked that his son Prince Zun be granted a marriage alliance, whereupon the court insisted that he come in person to escort the bride—a move intended to keep him under control. Prince Zun again pleaded illness and would not come to court. An edict canceled the marriage, and Central Commandant Kang Chuzhi was dispatched to spell out the consequences. Fuyun sent troops to raid Lan and Kuo prefectures.
25
時鄯州刺史李玄運上言：「吐谷渾良馬悉牧青海，輕兵掩之，可致大利。」 於是遣左驍衛大將軍段誌玄率邊兵及契苾、党項之眾以擊之。 去青海三十里，誌玄與左驍衛將軍梁洛仁不欲戰，頓軍遲留不進，吐谷渾遂驅青海牧馬而遁。 亞將李君羨率精騎別路，及賊於青海之南懸水鎮，擊破之，虜牛羊二萬余頭而還。 時伏允年老昏耄，其邪臣天柱王惑亂之，拘我行人鴻臚丞趙德楷。 太宗頻遣宣諭，使者十余返，竟無悛心。
At that time Li Xuanyun, inspector of Shan Prefecture, memorialized: "All of Tuyuhun's best horses are pastured at Qinghai Lake. A light strike force could take them by surprise and win a great prize. The court thereupon dispatched Duan Zhixuan, Grand General of the Left Xiao-wei Guard, with frontier troops and Qibi and Tangut auxiliaries to attack them. Thirty li from Qinghai Lake, Zhixuan and Liang Luoren of the Left Xiao-wei Guard hung back and refused to fight. Tuyuhun drove off the horses pastured at Qinghai and escaped. Deputy commander Li Junxian took a separate route with elite cavalry, caught the enemy at Xuanshui Town south of Qinghai Lake, routed them, and returned with more than twenty thousand head of cattle and sheep. By then Fuyun was old and failing. His wicked minister Tianzhu Wang misled him and had Zhao Dekai, Vice Director of the Herald's Office and imperial envoy, seized and detained. Taizong sent envoy after envoy to reason with him. More than ten missions came and went, yet Fuyun never showed the slightest sign of reform.
26
貞觀九年，詔特進李靖為西海道行軍大總管； 兵部尚書侯君集為積石道行軍總管，任城王道宗為鄯州道行軍總管，仍為靖副； 涼州都督李大亮為且沫道行軍總管，岷州都督李道彥為赤水道行軍總管，利州刺史高甑生為鹽澤道行軍總管，並突厥、契苾之眾以擊之。 諸將頻與賊遇，連戰破之，獲其高昌王慕容孝雋。 孝雋有雄略，伏允心膂之臣也。 靖等進至赤海，遇其天柱三部落，擊大破之，遂歷於河源。 李大亮又俘其名王二十人，雜畜數萬，至且沫西境，或傳伏允西走，渡圖倫磧，欲入於闐。 將軍薛萬均率輕銳追奔，入磧數百里，及其余黨，破之。 磧中乏水，將士皆刺馬血而飲之。 侯君集與江夏王道宗趣南路，登漢哭山，飲馬烏海，獲其名王梁屈忽，經塗二千餘里空虛之地，盛夏降霜，多積雪，其地乏水草，將士啖冰，馬皆食雪。 又達於柏梁，北望積石山，觀河源之所出焉。 兩軍會於大非川，至破邏貞谷，伏允子大寧王順窮蹙，斬其國相天柱王，舉國來降。 伏允大懼，與千余騎遁於磧中，眾稍亡散，能屬之者才百余騎，乃自縊而死。 國人乃立順為可汗，稱臣內附。
In the ninth year of Zhenguan, Li Jing was appointed Special Advancement and Grand Commander of the Western Sea Route campaign army; Hou Junji, Minister of War, as Route Commander of the Jishi Route; Prince Daizong of Rencheng as Route Commander of the Shanzhou Route and Li Jing's deputy; Li Daliang, Protector-General of Liangzhou, on the Qiemo Route; Li Daoyan, Protector-General of Minzhou, on the Chishui Route; and Gao Zengsheng, prefect of Lizhou, on the Yanzhe Route—all with Turkic and Qibi auxiliaries to strike Tuyuhun. The generals met the enemy again and again, winning battle after battle, and captured Murong Xiaojun, king of Gaochang. Xiaojun was a man of bold strategy and one of Fuyun's most trusted advisers. Li Jing and his commanders pushed on to Red Sea, smashed the three Tianzhu tribes, and then marched through the region of the Yellow River's source. Li Daliang captured twenty Tuyuhun noble kings and tens of thousands of livestock. At the western edge of Qiemo, word came that Fuyun had fled west across the Tulun Desert, aiming to reach Khotan. General Xue Wanjun led light crack troops in pursuit, plunged several hundred li into the desert, overtook the fleeing remnant, and destroyed them. Water ran out in the desert, and officers and soldiers pierced their horses and drank the blood to survive. Hou Junji and Prince Daozong of Jiangxia took the southern route, climbed Mount Hanku, watered their horses at Wuhai, and captured the noble king Liang Quhu. They crossed more than two thousand li of empty wasteland where frost fell even in midsummer and snow lay deep. With no water or fodder, the men ate ice and the horses fed on snow. They also reached Bailiang, looked north toward Jishi Mountain, and beheld the place where the Yellow River rises. The two armies joined at the Great Non River and pushed on to Poluo Valley. Fuyun's son, Great Tranquility King Shun, was driven to desperation, executed the state counselor Tianzhu Wang, and surrendered with the whole kingdom. Fuyun was terrified. He fled into the desert with a thousand riders, but his followers steadily deserted him until barely a hundred remained. Then he hanged himself. The people then enthroned Shun as khan and submitted to the Tang as vassals.
27
順，即伏允之嫡子也。 初為侍子於隋，拜金紫光祿大夫，久不得歸，伏允遂立他子為太子，及得返國，意常怏怏。 會李靖等諸軍所向克捷，自以失位，欲因此立功，由是遂降。 乃詔曰：
Shun was Fuyun's eldest son by his principal wife. He had first served as a hostage at the Sui court and been made Grand Master of Splendid Happiness with Golden Seal and Purple Ribbon. Kept away for years, he could not return home; Fuyun had meanwhile named another son crown prince. When Shun finally came back, he remained bitter at heart. When Li Jing's armies began winning everywhere, Shun saw that he had lost his place at court and hoped to redeem himself through merit. That was why he surrendered. An edict thereupon stated:
28
吐谷渾擅相君長，竊據荒裔，誌在兇德，政出權門。 酋渠攜貳，種落怨憤，長惡不悛，野心彌熾。 莫顧籓臣之禮，曾無事上之節，草竊疆場，虐割兆庶，積惡既稔，天亡有征。 朕君臨四海，含育萬類，一物失所，責深在予。 所以爰命六軍，申茲九伐，義存活國，情非黷武。 其子大寧王慕容順，隋氏之甥，誌懷明悟，長自中土，幸慕華風，爰見時機，深識逆順。 以其愎諫違眾，獨陷迷途，遂誅邪臣，存茲大計。 翻然改轍，代父歸罪，忠孝之美，深有可嘉。 子能立功，足以補過，既往之釁，特宜原免。 然其建國西鄙，已歷年代，即從廢絕，情所未忍，繼其宗祀，允歸命胤。 可封順為西平郡王，仍授趉胡呂烏甘豆可汗。
Tuyuhun had presumptuously chosen their own rulers, seized a remote frontier, set their hearts on wicked deeds, and let power pass through factional hands. Their chieftains turned disloyal, the tribes seethed with anger, they persisted in evil without reform, and their wild ambitions burned ever hotter. They ignored the duties of a frontier vassal and showed no deference to the throne, raiding the borders and cruelly preying on the people. Their wickedness had ripened, and Heaven's judgment was already at hand. We rule the four seas and nurture every living thing; when even one creature suffers harm, the fault lies deeply with Us. Therefore We have ordered the Six Armies forth and proclaimed this righteous punitive campaign—not from any love of war, but to preserve the realm in justice. His son, Great Tranquility King Murong Shun, a nephew of the House of Sui, is clear-minded and quick to understand. Raised in the Central Plains, he gladly admired civilized ways, saw the moment for what it was, and understood clearly which course was right. Though his stubborn counsel once defied the people and led him astray, he then executed the wicked minister and preserved the greater design. He turned sharply from his former course, took guilt upon himself in his father's place, and in that union of loyalty and filial duty showed merit truly worthy of praise. When a son can achieve merit, that is enough to redeem past faults; his earlier offenses should therefore be specially forgiven. Yet they founded a state on the western marches that had endured for generations. To cut it off entirely Our heart cannot bear; to continue their ancestral rites, fittingly the mandate should pass to this heir. Shun is to be enfeoffed as Prince of Xiping Commandery and further invested as Khan Tuohulu Wugandou.
29
太宗恐順不能靜其國，仍遣李大亮率精兵數千，為其聲援。 順既久質於隋，國人不附，未幾為臣下所殺。 其子燕王諾曷缽嗣立。
Taizong feared that Shun could not pacify the kingdom on his own and still sent Li Daliang with several thousand elite troops to support him. Because Shun had spent so many years as a hostage at the Sui court, his people would not rally to him, and before long his own subordinates killed him. His son Nuohebo, Prince of Yan, succeeded to the throne.
30
諾曷缽既幼，大臣爭權，國中大亂。 太宗遣兵援之，封為河源郡王。 仍授烏地也拔勒豆可汗，遣淮陽王道明持節冊拜，賜以鼓纛。 諾曷缽因入朝請婚。 十四年，太宗以弘化公主妻之，資送甚厚。 十五年，諾曷缽所部丞相王專權，陰謀作難。 將征兵，詐言祭山神，因欲襲擊公主，劫諾曷缽奔於吐蕃，期有日矣。 諾曷缽知而大懼，率輕騎走鄯善城，其威信王以兵迎之。 鄯州刺史杜鳳舉與威信王合軍擊丞相王，破之，殺其兄弟三人，遣使言狀。 太宗命民部尚書唐儉持節撫慰之。 太宗崩，刻石圖諾曷缽之形，列於昭陵之下。
Nuohebo was still young. Ministers fought for power, and the kingdom fell into chaos. Taizong sent troops to support him and enfeoffed him as Prince of Heyuan Commandery. He was also invested as Khan Wudiye Baledou. Prince Daoming of Huaiyang was sent with ceremonial credentials to confer the title, and drums and banners were granted. Nuohebo then came to court to request a marriage alliance. In the fourteenth year, Taizong gave him Princess Honghua in marriage with a lavish dowry. In the fifteenth year, Prime Minister Wang in Nuohebo's domain seized power and secretly plotted rebellion. As he prepared to levy troops, he claimed he was sacrificing to the mountain god, but in fact planned to surprise the princess, seize Nuohebo, and flee to Tibet. The day had already been set. When Nuohebo learned of the plot, he was terrified. He fled with a light escort to Shanshan City, where the Weixin King came out with troops to receive him. Du Fengju, inspector of Shan Prefecture, joined the Weixin King in attacking Prime Minister Wang, defeated him, killed his three brothers, and sent envoys to report what had happened. Taizong ordered Tang Jian, Minister of Revenue, to proceed with ceremonial credentials and offer reassurance. When Taizong died, a stone carving of Nuohebo's likeness was placed below Zhaoling.
31
高宗嗣位，以其尚主，拜駙馬都尉，賜物四十段。 其後與吐蕃互相攻伐，各遣使請兵救援，高宗皆不許之。 吐蕃大怒，率兵以擊吐谷渾。 諾曷缽既不能禦，脫身及弘化公主走投涼州。 高宗遣右威衛大將軍薛仁貴等救吐谷渾，為吐蕃所敗，於是吐谷渾遂為吐蕃所並。 諾曷缽以親信數千帳來內屬，詔左武衛大將軍蘇定方為安置大使，始徙其部眾於靈州之地，置安樂州，以諾曷缽為刺史，欲其安而且樂也。
When Gaozong succeeded to the throne, Nuohebo was made Commandant Escort because he had married an imperial princess, and was granted forty rolls of goods. Thereafter Tuyuhun and Tibet attacked each other in turn. Each side sent envoys asking for military aid, and Gaozong refused them all. Enraged, Tibet marched against Tuyuhun in force. Nuohebo could not hold them off. He escaped with Princess Honghua and fled to Liangzhou. Gaozong sent Xue Rengui, Grand General of the Right Weiw-wei Guard, and others to rescue Tuyuhun, but they were defeated by Tibet. Tuyuhun was then absorbed by Tibet. Nuohebo came to submit with several thousand households of trusted followers. Su Dingfang, Grand General of the Left Wuwei Guard, was appointed Settlement Commissioner. His people were first moved to territory around Lingzhou, where Anle Prefecture was established with Nuohebo as prefect—a name chosen in the hope that he would live in security and contentment.
32
垂拱四年，諾曷缽卒，子忠嗣。 忠卒，子宣趙嗣。 聖歷三年，授宣趙左豹韜衛員外大將軍，仍襲父烏地也拔勒豆可汗。 宣趙卒，子曦皓嗣。 曦皓卒，子兆嗣，及吐蕃陷我安樂州，其部眾又東徙，散在朔方、河東之境。 今俗多謂之退渾，蓋語急而然。 貞元十四年十二月，以朔方節度副使、左金吾衛大將軍同正慕容復為襲長樂州都督、青海國王、烏地也拔勒豆可汗。 未幾，卒，其封襲遂絕。
In the fourth year of Chuigong, Nuohebo died and was succeeded by his son Zhong. Zhong died and was succeeded by his son Xuanzhao. In the third year of Shenglu, Xuanzhao was made Supernumerary Grand General of the Left Baotao Guard and also inherited his father's title of Khan Wudiye Baledou. Xuanzhao died and was succeeded by his son Xihao. Xihao died and was succeeded by his son Zhao. When Tibet captured Anle Prefecture, the Tuyuhun tribes migrated east again and were scattered across Shuofang and Hedong. People today commonly call them Tuihun—simply because the name is spoken quickly. In the twelfth month of the fourteenth year of Zhenyuan, Murong Fu—Deputy Military Commissioner of Shuofang and Left Jinwu Guard Grand General with Full Rank—was invested to succeed as Protector-General of Changle Prefecture, King of Qinghai, and Khan Wudiye Baledou. Before long he died, and the enfeoffment and succession came to an end.
33
葉谷渾自晉永嘉之末，始西渡洮水，建國於群羌之故地，至龍朔三年為吐蕃所滅，凡三百五十年。
Tuyuhun, from the end of the Yongjia era of Jin, first crossed the Tao River westward and founded a state in the old lands of the Qiang tribes. They endured until the third year of Longshuo, when Tibet destroyed them—a span of three hundred and fifty years in all.
34
焉耆國
Yanqi
35
焉耆國，在京師西四千三百里，東接高昌，西鄰龜茲，即漢時故地。 其王姓龍氏，名突騎支。 勝兵二千余人，常役屬於西突厥。 其地良沃，多蒲萄，頗有魚鹽之利。
The kingdom of Yanqi lay four thousand three hundred li west of the capital, bordering Gaochang to the east and Kucha to the west—the same territory known in Han times. Its king bore the surname Long and was named Tuqizhi. It could field more than two thousand fighting men and was regularly subject to the Western Turks. Its land was fertile and rich in grapes, and it enjoyed considerable profit from fish and salt.
36
貞觀六年，突騎支遣使貢方物，復請開大磧路以便行李，太宗許之。 自隋末罹亂，磧路遂閉，西域朝貢者皆由高昌。 及是，高昌大怒，遂與焉耆結怨，遣兵襲焉耆，大掠而去。 西突厥莫賀設與咄陸、弩失畢不協，奔於焉耆，咄陸復來攻之。
In the sixth year of Zhenguan, Tuqizhi sent envoys with local tribute and again asked that the Great Desert route be opened to ease travel. Taizong agreed. Since the chaos at the end of the Sui, the desert route had been closed, and tribute missions from the Western Regions all went through Gaochang. At this Gaochang was furious. It turned against Yanqi, sent troops to raid the kingdom, and withdrew after a major plunder. Mohe She of the Western Turks fell out with Duluo and the Nushibi, fled to Yanqi, and Duluo then attacked Yanqi again.
37
六年，遣使言狀，並貢名馬。 時西突厥國亂，太宗遣中郎將桑孝彥領左右胄曹韋弘機往安撫之，仍冊立咥利失可汗。 可汗既立，素善焉耆，令與焉耆為援。 十二年，處月、處密與高昌攻陷焉耆五城，掠男女一千五百人，焚其廬舍而去。 十四年，侯君集討高昌，遣使與之相結，焉耆王大喜，請為聲援。 及破高昌，其王詣軍門稱謁。 焉耆人先為高昌所虜者，悉歸之。 由是遣使謝恩，並貢方物。
In the sixth year, Tuqizhi sent envoys to report what had happened and also presented fine horses as tribute. At that time the Western Turk realm was in turmoil. Taizong sent Central Commandant Sang Xiaoyan with Armorer Clerk Wei Hongji of the Left and Right Bureaus to pacify them and invested Xielishi as khan. Once the khan was established, he—who had long been friendly with Yanqi—ordered that Yanqi be supported as an ally. In the twelfth year, Chuyue and Chumi together with Gaochang captured five Yanqi cities, carried off fifteen hundred people, burned their dwellings, and withdrew. In the fourteenth year, as Hou Junji campaigned against Gaochang, he sent envoys to ally with Yanqi. The Yanqi king was delighted and offered to support him. When Gaochang fell, the Yanqi king came to the army camp to pay his respects. All Yanqi people who had earlier been taken captive by Gaochang were returned. Thereupon Tuqizhi sent envoys to express gratitude and also presented local tribute.
38
其年，西突厥重臣屈利啜為其弟娶焉耆王女，由是相為脣齒，朝貢遂闕。 安西都護郭孝恪請擊之，太宗許焉。 會焉耆王弟頡鼻葉護兄弟三人來至西州，孝恪選步騎三千出銀山道，以頡鼻弟栗婆準為鄉導。 焉耆所都城，四面有水，自恃險固，不虞於我。 孝恪倍道兼行，夜至城下，潛遣將士浮水而渡。 至曉，一時攀堞，鼓角齊震，城中大擾。 孝恪縱兵擊之，虜其王突騎支，首虜千余級。 以栗婆準導軍有功，留攝國事而還。 時駕幸洛陽宮，孝恪鎖突騎支並其妻子送行在所，詔宥之。 初，西突厥屈利啜將兵來援焉耆，孝恪還師三日，屈利啜乃囚栗婆準，而西突厥處般啜令其吐屯來攝焉耆，遣使朝貢。 太宗數之曰：「焉耆者，我兵擊得，汝何人，輒來統攝。」 吐屯懼而返國。 焉耆又立栗婆準從父兄薛婆阿那支為王。 處般啜乃執栗婆準送於龜茲，為所殺。 薛婆阿那支既得處般啜為援，遂有國。 及阿史那社爾之討龜茲，阿那支大懼，遂奔龜茲，保其東城，以禦官軍。 社爾擊擒之，數其罪而斬焉。 求得阿那支從父弟先那準，立為王，以修職貢。 及太宗葬昭陵。 乃刻石像龍突騎支之形，列於玄闕之下。 自是朝貢不絕。
That year the Western Turk senior minister Qulichuo had his younger brother marry the Yanqi king's daughter. The two sides became close as lips and teeth, and Yanqi's tribute missions ceased. Guo Xiaoke, Protector-General of Anxi, asked permission to attack Yanqi, and Taizong agreed. It happened that the Yanqi king's younger brother Xieni Yehu and his three brothers came to Xizhou. Xiaoke chose three thousand infantry and cavalry to march out by the Yinshan route, with Xieni's younger brother Lipozhun as guide. Yanqi's capital was surrounded by water on all four sides. Trusting in its natural defenses, it did not expect an attack from the Tang. Xiaoke forced the march day and night, reached the city after dark, and secretly sent his men across the water. At dawn they scaled the walls all at once. Drums and horns sounded together, and the city erupted in chaos. Xiaoke unleashed his troops, captured King Tuqizhi, and took more than a thousand heads and prisoners. Because Lipozhun had guided the army well, Xiaoke left him in charge of state affairs and withdrew. The emperor was then at Luoyang Palace. Xiaoke sent Tuqizhi in chains, together with his wife and children, to the imperial residence, and an edict pardoned them. Earlier, Qulichuo of the Western Turks had marched to aid Yanqi. Three days after Xiaoke withdrew, Qulichuo imprisoned Lipozhun. Chubanchuo of the Western Turks then sent his tutun to take control of Yanqi and dispatched envoys with tribute. Taizong rebuked him, saying, "Yanqi was taken by our armies—who are you to come and rule it? The tutun, terrified, returned home. Yanqi then enthroned Lipozhun's cousin Xiepo Anazhi as king. Chubanchuo seized Lipozhun and sent him to Kucha, where he was put to death. Once Xiepo Anazhi gained Chubanchuo as an ally, he secured control of the kingdom. When Ashina She'er marched against Kucha, Anazhi was terrified. He fled to Kucha and defended its eastern city against the Tang forces. She'er captured him, enumerated his crimes, and executed him. He found Anazhi's cousin Xiannazhun, installed him as king, and restored Yanqi's tribute obligations. When Emperor Taizong was interred at Zhaoling. A stone likeness of Long Tuoqizhi was carved and placed before the Spirit Gate of the tomb. Tribute missions thereafter never ceased.
39
龜茲國，即漢西域舊地也。 在京師西七千五百里。 其王姓白氏。 有城郭屋宇，耕田畜牧為業。 男女皆翦髮，垂與項齊，唯王不翦髮。 學胡書及婆羅門書、算計之事，尤重佛法。 其王以錦蒙項，著錦袍金寶帶，坐金獅子床。 有良馬、封牛。 饒蒲萄酒，富室至數百碩。
The kingdom of Kucha occupied the same lands known as the Western Regions in Han times. It lay seven thousand five hundred li west of the capital. The royal house bore the surname Bai. The people lived in walled towns and houses, earning their livelihood by farming and raising livestock. Men and women alike cropped their hair to hang level with the nape of the neck; only the king wore his hair long. They studied foreign scripts and Brahmi writing, as well as arithmetic; above all they revered Buddhism. The king draped brocade over his neck, wore a brocade robe with a jeweled gold belt, and sat upon a golden lion throne. The country produced fine horses and zebu cattle. Grape wine was plentiful; affluent families stored several hundred shi of it.
40
高祖即位，其主蘇伐勃駃遣使來朝。 勃駃尋卒，子蘇伐疊代立，號時健莫賀俟利發。 貞觀四年，又遣使獻馬，太宗賜以璽書，撫慰甚厚，由此歲貢不絕，然臣於西突厥。 安西都護郭孝恪來伐焉耆，龜茲遣兵援助，自是職貢頗闕。 伐疊死，其弟訶黎布失畢代立，漸失籓臣禮。
When Emperor Gaozu ascended the throne, the Kuchan ruler Suwafu sent envoys to pay court. Suwafu died soon afterward. His son Suwafdie succeeded him, taking the title Shijian Mohe Shilifa. In the fourth year of the Zhenguan reign, Kucha again sent horses as tribute. Taizong responded with an imperial letter of reassurance and lavish kindness. Annual tribute thereafter continued without interruption, though the kingdom remained subject to the Western Turks. When Protector-General Guo Xiaoke of Anxi marched against Yanqi, Kucha sent troops to aid it. Official tribute to the Tang thereafter largely ceased. When Suwafdie died, his younger brother Helibushi succeeded him and gradually abandoned the manners due a vassal state.
41
二十年，太宗遣左驍衛大將軍阿史那社爾為昆山道行軍大總管，與安西都護郭孝恪、司農卿楊弘禮率五將軍，又發鐵勒十三部兵十余萬騎，以伐龜茲。 社爾既破西蕃處月、處密，乃進師趨其北境，出其不意，西突厥所署焉耆王棄城而遁，社爾遣輕騎追擒之。 龜茲大震，守將多棄城而走。 社爾進屯積石，去其都城三百里。 遣伊州刺史韓威率千余騎為前鋒，右驍衛將軍曹繼叔次之。 西至多褐城，與龜茲王相遇，及其相那利、將羯獵顛等，有眾五萬，逆拒王師。 威乃偽遁而引之，其王俟利發見威兵少，悉眾而至。 威退行三十里，與繼叔軍會，合擊大破之。 其王退保都城，社爾進軍逼之，王乃輕騎而走，遂下其城，令孝恪守之。 遣沙州刺史蘇海政、尚輦奉禦薛萬備以精騎逼之，行六百里，其王窘急，退保於撥換城。 社爾等進軍圍之，擒其王及大將羯獵顛等。 其相那利僅以身免，潛引西突厥之眾並其國兵萬余人，來襲孝恪，殺之，官軍大擾。 倉部郎中崔義起與曹繼叔、韓威等擊之，那利敗走。 尋為龜茲人所執以詣軍。 前後破其大城五所，虜男女數萬口。 社爾因立其王之弟葉護為王，勒石紀功而旋。 俘其王訶黎布失畢及那利、羯獵顛等獻於社廟。 尋以訶黎布失畢為左武翊衛中郎將，那利已下授官各有差。 太宗之葬昭陵，乃刻石像其形，列於玄闕之前。 永徽元年，又以訶黎布失畢為右驍衛大將軍，尋放還蕃，撫其余眾，依舊為龜茲王，賜物一千段。
In the twentieth year, Taizong appointed Left Xiaoqiwei Grand General Ashina She'er commander of the Kunshan Route campaign. Together with Protector-General Guo Xiaoke of Anxi and Minister of Public Works Yang Hongli, he led five generals and mustered more than one hundred thousand cavalry from the thirteen Tiele tribes to invade Kucha. After defeating the Chuyue and Chumi tribes in the west, She'er marched on Kucha's northern frontier by surprise. The Yanqi king appointed by the Western Turks abandoned his city and fled, but She'er's light cavalry pursued and captured him. Kucha was thrown into panic, and many garrison commanders abandoned their cities and fled. She'er advanced and encamped at Jishi, three hundred li from the Kuchan capital. He sent Yizhou prefect Han Wei ahead with more than a thousand cavalry as vanguard, with Right Xiaoqiwei General Cao Jishu following in support. West of Duohe City they met the Kuchan king, his minister Nali, General Jieliedian, and others at the head of fifty thousand men, who marched out to oppose the Tang army. Han Wei feigned a retreat to draw them in. King Shilifa, seeing how few Tang horsemen faced him, marched out with his entire army. Han Wei fell back thirty li, linked up with Cao Jishu's force, and together they delivered a crushing defeat. The king retreated to defend his capital. She'er pressed the siege, and the king fled with a small cavalry escort. The Tang forces then took the city and left Guo Xiaoke to hold it. She'er sent Shazhou prefect Su Haizheng and Palace Steeds Attendant Xue Wanbei after him with elite cavalry. After a pursuit of six hundred li, the beleaguered king took refuge in Bolanhuan. She'er and his officers besieged the city and captured the king and General Jieliedian along with his officers. Minister Nali alone escaped. Secretly rallying Western Turk allies and more than ten thousand Kuchan troops, he launched a surprise attack on Guo Xiaoke and killed him, throwing the Tang army into chaos. Cui Yiqi of the Bureau of Granaries, together with Cao Jishu, Han Wei, and others, counterattacked and drove Nali into flight. He was soon seized by Kuchans and delivered to the Tang camp. In the campaign they captured five major cities and took tens of thousands of men and women captive. She'er installed the king's younger brother Yehu on the throne, erected a stone monument to commemorate the victory, and withdrew. The captives—King Helibushi, Nali, Jieliedian, and the rest—were presented at the imperial ancestral temple. Helibushi was soon appointed Commandant of the Third Rank in the Left Wuyiwei Guard; Nali and the others received offices of varying rank. When Taizong was buried at Zhaoling, stone likenesses of the captives were carved and set before the Spirit Gate. In the first year of the Yonghui reign, Helibushi was again appointed Right Xiaoqiwei Grand General. He was soon sent back to his homeland to reassure his remaining followers and resume his rule as king of Kucha, and was granted one thousand bolts of goods.
42
先是，太宗既破龜茲，移置安西都護府於其國城，以郭孝恪為都護，兼統於闐、疏勒、碎葉，謂之「四鎮」。 高宗嗣位，不欲廣地勞人，復命有司棄龜茲等四鎮，移安西依舊於西州。 其後吐蕃大入，焉耆已西四鎮城堡，並為賊所陷。 則天臨朝，長壽元年，武威軍總管王孝傑、阿史那忠節大破吐蕃，克復龜茲、於闐等四鎮，自此復於龜茲置安西都護府，用漢兵三萬人以鎮之。 既征發內地精兵，遠逾沙磧。 並資遣衣糧等，甚為百姓所苦。 言事者多請棄之，則天竟不許。 其安西都護，則天時有田揚名，中宗時有郭元振，開元初則張孝暠、杜暹，皆有政績，為夷人所伏。
Earlier, after Taizong's conquest of Kucha, the Protectorate General of Anxi was relocated to the Kuchan capital. Guo Xiaoke served as Protector-General, with authority over Khotan, Kashgar, and Suyab as well—the so-called Four Garrisons. When Emperor Gaozong succeeded to the throne, unwilling to overextend the realm and exhaust the people, he ordered the Four Garrisons including Kucha abandoned and the Anxi Protectorate moved back to Xizhou as before. Tibet later invaded in force, and the fortresses of the Four Garrisons west of Yanqi all fell to the enemy. After Empress Wu assumed power, Wang Xiaojie, commander of the Wuwei Army, and Ashina Zhongjie routed the Tibetans in the first year of Changshou and recaptured the Four Garrisons, including Kucha and Khotan. The Anxi Protectorate was then reestablished at Kucha, garrisoned by thirty thousand Han soldiers. Elite troops were conscripted from the interior and marched far across the desert wastes. The provisioning of clothing and grain for these deployments inflicted severe hardship on the people. Many memorialists urged abandoning the garrisons, but Empress Wu refused. The Anxi Protectors-General included Tian Yangming under Empress Wu, Guo Yuanzhen under Emperor Zhongzong, and early in the Kaiyuan era Zhang Xiaohao and Du Xian—all men of proven achievement whom the frontier peoples respected.
43
疏勒國
Kashgar
44
疏勒國，即漢時舊地也。 西帶蔥嶺，在京師西九千三百里。 其王姓裴氏。 貞觀中，突厥以女妻王。 勝兵二千人。 俗事祅神，有胡書文字。 貞觀九年，遣使獻名馬，自是朝貢不絕。 開元十六年，玄宗遣使冊立其王裴安定為疏勒王。
Kashgar occupied territory known in Han times. It bordered the Pamirs to the west and lay nine thousand three hundred li from the capital. The royal house bore the surname Pei. During the Zhenguan reign, the Turks gave a princess in marriage to the Kashgar king. It could field two thousand soldiers. The people worshipped the Zoroastrian fire god and used a foreign script. In the ninth year of Zhenguan it sent famed horses as tribute, and tribute missions thereafter continued without interruption. In the sixteenth year of Kaiyuan, Emperor Xuanzong sent envoys to invest Pei Anding as king of Kashgar.
45
於闐國
Khotan
46
於闐國，西南帶蔥嶺，與龜茲接，在京師西九千七百里。 勝兵四千人。 其國出美玉。 俗多機巧，好事祅神，崇佛教。 先臣於西突厥。 其王姓尉遲氏，名屈密。
Khotan bordered the Pamirs to the southwest, adjoined Kucha, and lay nine thousand seven hundred li west of the capital. It could field four thousand soldiers. The kingdom was famed for its fine jade. The people were ingenious by nature, honored the Zoroastrian cult, and also fervently embraced Buddhism. The kingdom had formerly been subject to the Western Turks. The king belonged to the Yuchi clan and was named Qumi.
47
貞觀六年，遣使獻玉帶，太宗優詔答之。 十三年，又遣子入侍。 及阿史那社爾伐龜茲，其王伏阇信大懼，使其子以駝萬三百匹饋軍。 及將旋師，行軍長史薛萬備請社爾曰：「今者既破龜茲，國威已振，請因此機，願以輕騎羈取於闐之王。」 社爾乃遣萬備率五十騎抵於闐之國，萬備陳國威靈，勸其入見天子，伏阇信於是隨萬備來朝。
In the sixth year of Zhenguan it sent a jade belt as tribute, and Taizong replied with a gracious edict. In the thirteenth year the king sent his son to serve at the Tang court. When Ashina She'er invaded Kucha, King Fuxinxin was terrified and sent his son with thirteen hundred camels as a gift to the Tang army. As the army prepared to withdraw, campaign chief administrator Xue Wanbei proposed to She'er: "Now that Kucha has fallen and our prestige stands high, I ask that we seize this moment and take the king of Khotan with a detachment of light cavalry. She'er sent Xue Wanbei with fifty horsemen to Khotan. Xue Wanbei proclaimed the Tang dynasty's majesty and urged the king to come pay homage to the Son of Heaven. Fuxinxin accordingly accompanied him to court.
48
高宗嗣位，拜右驍衛大將軍，又授其子葉護玷為右驍衛將軍，並賜金帶、錦袍、布帛六十段，並宅一區，留數月而遣之，因請留子弟以宿衛。 太宗葬昭陵，刻石像其形，列於玄闕之下。
When Emperor Gaozong succeeded to the throne, he appointed Fuxinxin Right Xiaoqiwei Grand General and his son Yehu Dian Right Xiaoqiwei General, granting them gold belts, brocade robes, sixty bolts of silk, and a residence in the capital. After several months at court Fuxinxin was sent home, having asked to leave younger relatives behind as palace guards. When Taizong was buried at Zhaoling, a stone likeness of Fuxinxin was carved and placed before the Spirit Gate.
49
垂拱三年，其王伏阇雄復來入朝。 天授三年，伏阇雄卒，則天封其子璥為於闐國王。 開元十六年，復冊立尉遲伏師為於闐王，數遣使朝貢。 乾元三年，以於闐王尉遲勝弟守左監門衛率葉護曜為太仆員外卿，仍同四鎮節度副使。 權知本國事。 以勝至德初領兵赴國難，因堅請留宿衛，故有是命，事有勝傳。
In the third year of the Chuigong reign, King Fuhu Xiong again came to pay court. Fuhu Xiong died in the third year of Tianshou, and Empress Wu enfeoffed his son Jin as king of Khotan. In the sixteenth year of Kaiyuan, Yuchi Fushi was again invested as king of Khotan, and tribute missions followed in number. In the third year of Qianyuan, Yehu Yao—the younger brother of Khotan king Yuchi Sheng and Commandant of the Left Gate Guard—was appointed Vice Minister of the Imperial Stud and named deputy commissioner of the Four Garrisons command. He was authorized to govern Khotan on a provisional basis. Because Yuchi Sheng had marched to the capital's aid at the start of the Zhide reign and insisted on remaining as a palace guard, this appointment was made; the fuller account appears in his biography.
50
天竺國
India
51
天竺國，即漢之身毒國，或云婆羅門地也。 在蔥嶺西北，周三萬餘里。 其中分為五天竺：其一曰中天竺，二曰東天竺，三曰南天竺，四曰西天竺，五曰北天竺。 地各數千里，城邑數百。 南天竺際大海，北天竺拒雪山，四周有山為壁，南面一谷，通為國門； 東天竺東際大海，與扶南、林邑鄰接； 西天竺與罽賓、波斯相接； 中天竺據四天竺之會，其都城周回七十餘里，北臨禪連河。 云昔有婆羅門領徒千人，肄業於樹下，樹神降之，遂為夫婦。 宮室自然而立，僮仆甚盛。 於是使役百神，築城以統之，經日而就。 此後有阿育王，復役使鬼神，累石為宮闕，皆雕文刻鏤。 非人力所及。 阿育王頗行茍政，置砲烙之刑，謂之地獄，今城中見有其跡焉。
India was known in Han times as Shendu—the land of the Brahmins, as some accounts have it. It lay northwest of the Pamirs and measured more than thirty thousand li in circumference. The subcontinent was divided into five Indias: Middle, East, South, West, and North. Each region spanned several thousand li and contained hundreds of towns and cities. South India bordered the ocean; North India abutted the Snow Mountains. Mountains walled it on every side, with a single southern valley serving as the nation's gateway; East India faced the eastern sea and bordered Funan and Linyi; West India adjoined Kapisa and Persia; Middle India stood at the heart of the four regions. Its capital measured more than seventy li in circumference and looked north upon the Chanlian River—the Ganges. Legend holds that a Brahmin once led a thousand disciples in study beneath a sacred tree. The tree spirit descended and took him as her husband. Palaces sprang up as if of their own accord, attended by a vast host of servants. He then commanded the hundred spirits and built a city to rule over them—a task completed in a single day. Later came King Ashoka, who likewise pressed ghosts and spirits into service, stacking stone into palaces adorned with elaborate carving and inlay. Such works lay beyond human capacity. Ashoka ruled harshly, instituting a branding-pillar torture he called "Hell"—traces of which can still be seen in the city.
52
中天竺王姓乞利咥氏，或云剎利氏，世有其國，不相篡弒。 厥土卑濕暑熱，稻歲四熟，有金剛，似紫石英，百煉不銷，可以切玉。 又有旃檀、郁金諸香。 通於大秦，故其寶物或至扶南、交趾貿易焉。 百姓殷樂，俗無簿籍，耕王地者輸地利。 以齒貝為貨。 人皆深目長鼻。 致敬極者，舐足摩踵。 家有奇樂倡伎。 其王與大臣多服錦罽。 上為螺髻於頂，餘髮翦之使拳。 俗皆徒跣。 衣重白色，唯梵誌種姓披白疊以為異。 死者或焚屍取灰，以為浮圖； 或委之中野，以施禽獸； 或流之於河，以飼魚鱉。 無喪紀之文。 謀反者幽殺之，小犯罰錢以贖罪。 不孝則斷手刖足，截耳割鼻，放流邊外。 有文字，善天文算歷之術。 其人皆學《悉曇章》，云是梵天法。 書於貝多樹葉以紀事。 不殺生飲酒。 國中往往有舊佛跡。
Middle India's kings belonged to the Qilidie clan—or the Kshatriya, as some say—and held the throne by hereditary succession without usurpation or regicide. The land was low, humid, and sweltering; rice yielded four harvests a year. There was diamond—hard as amethyst, indestructible even after repeated firing—that could slice through jade. Sandalwood, turmeric, and other aromatics grew there as well. The kingdom had contact with Rome, and its treasures were traded as far as Funan and Jiaozhi. The people were prosperous and untroubled. No land registry was kept; farmers working royal lands paid a share of the produce. Cowrie shells served as currency. The people had deep-set eyes and prominent noses. The deepest obeisance was paid by licking the feet and massaging the heels. Well-to-do households maintained fine music and courtesans. The king and his chief ministers commonly wore brocade and felted wool. Men wore a coiled topknot on the crown and cropped the rest of the hair into tight curls. Going barefoot was the universal custom. White was the favored color of dress; only Brahmins wore white layered robes as a mark of their caste. Some disposed of the dead by cremation, placing the ashes in a stupa; others left the body in the open country for birds and beasts; still others cast the body into rivers to feed fish and turtles. No written code of mourning rites was kept. Rebels were executed in secret; lesser offenses were punished by fines paid in coin. Unfilial conduct was punished by mutilation—severed hands, amputated feet, cropped ears, sliced noses—and exile beyond the borders. They had a written language and were adept at astronomy, mathematics, and calendrical science. Everyone studied the Siddham script, which they held to be the sacred law of Brahma. Records were written on pattra-leaf pages. They abstained from killing and from wine. Ancient traces of the Buddha were found throughout the land.
53
隋煬帝時，遣裴矩應接西蕃，諸國多有至者，唯天竺不通，帝以為恨。 當武德中，其國大亂。 其嗣王屍邏逸多練兵聚眾，所向無敵。 象不解鞍，人不釋甲，居六載而四天竺之君皆北面以臣之，威勢遠振，刑政甚肅。
During the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui, Pei Ju was dispatched to receive Western envoys. Many kingdoms sent missions, but India alone remained out of contact—a source of regret to the emperor. During the Wude reign the country was torn by civil war. The heir Shiluoyiduo drilled armies and gathered followers, sweeping all before him without defeat. For six years elephants never shed their howdahs and soldiers never laid down their armor. Within that time the rulers of all four Indias submitted and faced north as his vassals. His authority resounded across the subcontinent, and his rule was sternly enforced.
54
貞觀十五年，屍羅逸多自稱摩伽陀王，遣使朝貢。 太宗降璽書慰問，屍羅逸多大驚，問諸國人曰：「自古曾有摩訶震旦使人至吾國乎？」 皆曰：「未之有也。」 乃膜拜而受詔書，因遣使朝貢。 太宗以其地遠，禮之甚厚，復遣衛尉丞李義表報使。 屍羅逸多遣大臣郊迎，傾城邑以縱觀，焚香夾道，逸多率其臣下東面拜受敕書，復遣使獻火珠及郁金香、菩提樹。
In the fifteenth year of Zhenguan, Shiraditya styled himself King of Magadha and dispatched a tribute mission. Taizong sent an imperial letter of greeting. Shiraditya was astonished and asked his courtiers: "Has an envoy from Great China ever reached our kingdom before? They all answered: "Never." He then prostrated himself to receive the edict and sent another tribute mission in return. Because India lay so far away, Taizong treated the mission with exceptional honor and sent Li Yibiao of the Court of Imperial Regalia as a return envoy. Shiraditya sent ministers to greet Li Yibiao beyond the walls, and the whole city turned out to watch. Incense lined the roads. Shiraditya led his court to face east and receive the imperial letter, then sent fresh envoys bearing fire pearls, tulips, and a bodhi tree.
55
貞觀十年，沙門玄奘至其國，將梵本經論六百餘部而歸。 先是遣右率府長史王玄策使天竺，其四天竺國王咸遣使朝貢。 會中天竺王屍羅逸多死，國中大亂，其臣那伏帝阿羅那順篡立，乃盡發胡兵以拒玄策。 玄策從騎三十人與胡禦戰，不敵，矢盡，悉被擒。 胡並掠諸國貢獻之物。 玄策乃挺身宵遁，走至吐蕃，發精銳一千二百人，並泥婆羅國七千餘騎，以從玄策。 玄策與副使蔣師仁率二國兵進至中天竺國城，連戰三日，大破之，斬首三千餘級，赴水溺死者且萬人，阿羅那順棄城而遁，師仁進擒獲之。 虜男女萬二千人，牛馬三萬餘頭匹。
In the tenth year of Zhenguan the monk Xuanzang reached India and returned with more than six hundred volumes of Sanskrit scriptures and treatises. Earlier Wang Xuance, chief administrator of the Right Commandant of the Left Guard, had been sent as envoy to India, and the kings of all four Indias had dispatched tribute missions. Just then Shiraditya of Middle India died and the country plunged into chaos. His minister Arunadasy seized the throne and mobilized every available force to repel Xuance. Xuance and his thirty mounted escorts fought the Indian forces but were overwhelmed. When their arrows ran out, all were taken prisoner. The rebels also looted the tribute goods that the other kingdoms had sent. Xuance escaped alone under cover of night and made his way to Tibet, where he raised twelve hundred elite troops and more than seven thousand Nepalese cavalry to follow him. Xuance and his deputy Jiang Shiren led the combined Tibetan and Nepalese forces to the capital of Middle India. After three days of battle they routed the enemy, killing more than three thousand and drowning nearly ten thousand in flight. Arunadasy abandoned the city and fled, but Jiang Shiren pursued and captured him. They took twelve thousand captives and more than thirty thousand head of cattle and horses.
56
於是天竺震懼，俘阿羅那順以歸。 二十二年至京師，太宗大悅，命有司告宗廟，而謂群臣曰：「夫人耳目玩於聲色，口鼻耽於臭味，此乃敗德之源。 若婆羅門不劫掠我使人，豈為俘虜耶？ 昔中山以貪寶取弊，蜀侯以金牛致滅，莫不由之。」 拜玄策朝散大夫。 是時就其國得方土那邇娑婆寐，自言壽二百歲，云有長生之術。 太宗深加禮敬，館之於金飈門內。 造延年之藥。 令兵部尚書崔敦禮監主之，發使天下，采諸奇藥異石，不可稱數。 延歷歲月，藥成，服竟不效，後放還本國。 太宗之葬昭陵也，刻石像阿羅那順之形，列於玄闕之下。
India was shaken with fear. Arunadasy was taken prisoner and brought back to Tang. They reached the capital in the twenty-second year. Taizong was delighted and ordered the rites reported to the ancestral temple. Addressing his ministers, he said: "When eyes and ears are lost in pleasure and mouth and nose are steeped in indulgence, virtue is undone at the root. Had the Brahmins not robbed our envoy, would they now be captives? Zhongshan was ruined by greed for treasure; the Lord of Shu was destroyed by the golden ox. Every such fall follows the same road. Xuance was appointed Gentleman for Promoting Good Governance. At that time an alchemist named Narendrasena was brought from India. He claimed to be two hundred years old and professed to know the secret of immortality. Taizong received him with great honor and housed him inside the Jinbiao Gate. There he prepared an elixir of longevity. Minister of War Cui Dunli was appointed to supervise the work, and envoys were dispatched across the empire to gather rare drugs and exotic stones beyond number. Months passed before the elixir was ready, but when it was taken it had no effect. Narendrasena was eventually sent home. When Taizong was buried at Zhaoling, a stone likeness of Arunadasy was carved and placed before the Spirit Gate.
57
五天竺所屬之國數十，風俗物產略同。 有伽沒路國，其俗開東門以向日。 王玄策至，其王發使貢以奇珍異物及地圖，因請老子像及《道德經》。 那揭陀國，有醯羅城，中有重閣，藏佛頂骨及錫杖。 貞觀二十年，遣使貢方物。 天授二年，東天竺王摩羅枝摩、西天竺王屍羅逸多、南天竺王遮婁其拔羅婆、北天竺王婁其那那、中天竺王地婆西那，並來朝獻。 景龍四年，南天竺國復遣使來朝。 景雲元年，復遣使貢方物。 開元二年，西天竺復遣使貢方物。 八年，南天竺國遣使獻五色能言鸚鵡。 其年，南天竺國王屍利那羅僧伽請以戰象及兵馬討大食及吐蕃等，仍求有及名其軍。 玄宗甚嘉之，名軍為懷德軍。 九月，南天竺王屍利那羅僧伽寶多枝摩為國造寺，上表乞寺額，敕以歸化為名賜之。 十一月，遣使冊利那羅伽寶多為南天竺國王，遣使來朝。 十七年六月，北天竺國藏沙門僧密多獻質汗等藥。 十九年十月，中天竺國王伊沙伏摩遣其大德僧來朝貢。
Several dozen kingdoms were subject to the five Indias, and their customs and products were broadly similar. Among them was Kamarupa, whose people opened the eastern gate to face the rising sun. When Wang Xuance arrived, the king sent envoys bearing rare treasures and a map, and asked for a statue of Laozi and a copy of the Daodejing. In Nalanda stood the city of Hirapura, where a multi-storied pavilion housed the Buddha's cranial relic and his iron staff. In the twentieth year of Zhenguan it sent envoys bearing local products as tribute. In the second year of Tianshou the kings of East, West, South, North, and Middle India—Molozhimo, Shiraditya, Zhelouqibaluopo, Louqinanana, and Diboxina—all came to court with tribute. In the fourth year of Jinglong South India again sent envoys to court. In the first year of Jingyun it again sent tribute missions. In the second year of Kaiyuan West India again sent tribute missions. In the eighth year South India sent a five-colored parrot that could speak. That same year the South Indian king Shilinaluosengqie offered war elephants and troops to campaign against the Arabs, Tibet, and others, and asked that the court confer a name upon his army. Emperor Xuanzong was much pleased and named the force the Army of Cherished Virtue. In the ninth month the South Indian king Shilinaluosengqie Baoduozhimo built a temple for his kingdom and petitioned for an official name. The emperor granted the name Return to Civilization. In the eleventh month envoys were sent to invest Linaluojiabaoduo as king of South India, and a mission came to pay court. In the sixth month of the seventeenth year the Tripitaka monk Miduo of North India presented medicines including zhihan. In the tenth month of the nineteenth year the Middle Indian king Yishafumo sent a senior monk to court with tribute.
58
二十九年三月，中天竺王子李承恩來朝，授遊擊將軍，放還。 天寶中，累遣使來。
In the third month of the twenty-ninth year the Middle Indian prince Li Chengen came to court, was appointed General of Mobile Striking Force, and was sent home. During the Tianbao reign tribute missions came repeatedly.
59
罽賓國
Kapisa
60
罽賓國，在蔥嶺南，去京師萬二千二百里。 常役屬於大月氏。 其地暑濕，人皆乘象，土宜秔稻，草木淩寒不死。 其俗尤信佛法。 隋煬帝時，引致西域，前後至者三十余國，唯罽賓不至。
Kapisa lay south of the Pamirs, twelve thousand two hundred li from the capital. It was usually subject to the Great Yuezhi. The land was hot and humid. People traveled by elephant, long-grain rice flourished in the soil, and vegetation survived even severe cold. The people were especially devoted to Buddhism. During the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui more than thirty Western kingdoms sent missions, but Kapisa alone stayed away.
61
貞觀十一年，遣使獻名馬，太宗嘉其誠款，賜以繒彩。 十六年，又遣使獻褥特鼠，喙尖而尾赤，能食蛇，有被蛇螫者，鼠輒嗅而尿之，其瘡立愈。 顯慶三年，訪其國俗，雲「王始祖馨孽，至今曷擷支，父子傳位，已十二代。」 其年，改其城為修鮮都督府。 龍朔初，授其王修鮮等十一州諸軍事兼修鮮都督。
In the eleventh year of Zhenguan it sent famed horses as tribute. Taizong commended its sincerity and rewarded it with silk. In the sixteenth year it sent the rute rat—a creature with a pointed snout and red tail that ate snakes. When someone was snake-bitten, the rat would sniff the wound and urinate on it, and the injury healed at once. In the third year of Xianqing an inquiry into local custom reported: "The founding king was Xinnie; the present ruler is Hejiezhi. The throne has passed from father to son through twelve generations. That year its capital was made the Xiuxian Protectorate Prefecture. At the beginning of the Longshuo reign its king was appointed commander of military affairs for the eleven prefectures including Xiuxian and concurrently Protector of Xiuxian.
62
勃律國
Bolü
63
又有勃律國，在罽賓、吐蕃之間。 開元中頻遣使朝獻。 八年，冊立其王蘇麟陀逸之為勃律國王，朝貢不絕。 二十二年，為吐蕃所破。
There was also Bolü, situated between Kapisa and Tibet. During the Kaiyuan reign it sent tribute missions frequently. In the eighth year its king Sulintuoyizhi was invested as king of Bolü, and tribute continued without interruption. In the twenty-second year it was destroyed by Tibet.
64
康國，即漢康居之國也。 其王姓溫，月氏人也。 先居張掖祁連山北昭武城，為突厥所破，南依蔥嶺，遂有其地。 枝庶皆以昭武為姓氏，不忘本也。 其人皆深目高鼻，多須髯。 丈夫翦髮或辮髮。 其王冠氈帽。 飾以金寶。 婦人盤髻，幪以皁巾，飾以金花。 人多嗜酒，好歌舞於道路。 生子必以石蜜內口中，明膠置掌內，欲其成長口常甘言，掌持錢如膠之黏物。 俗習胡書。 善商賈，爭分銖之利。 男子年二十，即遠之旁國，來適中夏，利之所在，無所不到。 以十二月為歲首，有婆羅門為之占星候氣，以定吉兇。 頗有佛法。 至十一月，鼓舞乞寒，以水相潑，盛為戲樂。
Kang was the kingdom known in Han times as Kangju. The royal house bore the surname Wen and was of Yuezhi descent. They had once lived at Zhaowu City north of the Qilian Mountains in Zhangye. Driven south by the Turks, they settled along the Pamirs and took possession of this territory. Cadet branches all took Zhaowu as their surname, preserving memory of their origins. The people had deep-set eyes, high noses, and heavy beards. Men wore their hair cropped short or braided. The king wore a felt cap. It was adorned with gold and jewels. Women wore coiled topknots veiled in black kerchiefs and ornamented with gold flowers. The people were fond of wine and given to singing and dancing in the streets. At birth a child was given rock honey in the mouth and clear glue in the palm—a blessing that it would grow up speaking kindly and grasping wealth as glue clings to what it touches. They used a foreign script. They were skilled merchants who haggled over the smallest profit. At twenty a man would travel to neighboring kingdoms and onward to China itself. Wherever profit beckoned, Kang merchants would go. The year began in the twelfth month. Brahmins read the stars and watched the seasonal qi to determine good and ill fortune. Buddhism was also widely practiced. In the eleventh month they held the Cold-Dispelling Festival with drumming, dancing, and water-splashing—a great communal revel.
65
隋煬帝時，其王屈術支娶西突厥葉護可汗女，遂臣於西突厥。 武德十年，屈術支遣使獻名馬。 貞觀九年，又遣使貢獅子，太宗嘉其遠至，命秘書監虞世南為之賦，自此朝貢歲至。 十一年，又獻金桃、銀桃，詔令植之於苑囿。
During the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui, King Qushuzhi married a daughter of the Western Turk Yabghu Qaghan and thereafter submitted to the Western Turks. In the tenth year of Wude Qushuzhi sent famed horses as tribute. In Zhenguan 9 Kang sent lions as tribute. Taizong, delighted at their journey from so far away, had Yu Shinan compose a rhapsody in their honor; thereafter tribute arrived annually. In the eleventh year they presented golden and silver peaches, and the court ordered them planted in the palace gardens.
66
萬歲通天年，則天封其大首領篤婆缽提為康國王，仍拜左驍衛大將軍。 缽提尋卒，又冊其子泥涅師師為康國王。 師師以神龍中卒，國人又立突昏為王。 開元六年，遣使貢獻鎖子甲、水精杯、馬腦瓶、駝鳥卵及越諾之類。 十九年，其王烏勒上表，請封其子咄曷為曹國王，默啜為米國王，許之。 二十七年，烏勒卒，遣使冊咄曷襲父位。 天寶三年，又封為欽化王，其母可敦封為郡夫人。 十一載、十三載，並遣使朝貢。
During the Wansui Tongtian era Wu Zetian enfeoffed the great chieftain Dubo Boti as King of Kang and made him General-in-Chief of the Left Xiaowei Guard. Boti died soon after, and the court enfeoffed his son Nienishi as King of Kang. Nienishi died during the Shenlong reign, and the Kang people enthroned Tuhun as king. In Kaiyuan 6 envoys brought chain-mail armor, crystal cups, agate bottles, ostrich eggs, and other exotic goods including Yuenuo cloth. In Kaiyuan 19 King Wule petitioned to have his son Duoge enfeoffed as King of Cao and Mochuo as King of Mi; the court granted both requests. Wule died in Kaiyuan 27, and envoys were dispatched to invest Duoge as his successor. In Tianbao 3 he was further enfeoffed as Prince of Qinhua, and his mother the Khatun was made Lady of a Commandery. Tribute missions were sent in Tianbao 11 and Tianbao 13.
67
波斯國
Persia
68
波斯國，在京師西一萬五千三百里，東與吐火羅、康國接，北鄰突厥之可薩部，西北拒拂菻，正西及南俱臨大海。 戶數十萬。 其王居有二城，復有大城十余，猶中國之離宮。 其王初嗣位，便密選子才堪承統者，書其名字，封而藏之。 王死後，大臣與王之群子共發封而視之，奉所書名者為主焉。 其王冠金花冠，坐獅子床，服錦袍，加以瓔珞。 俗事天地日月水火之諸神，西域諸胡事火祅者，皆詣波斯受法焉。 其事神，以麝香和蘇塗須點額，及於耳鼻，用以為敬，拜必交股。 文字同於諸胡。 男女皆徒跣。 丈夫翦髮，戴白皮帽，衣不開襟，並有巾帔，多用蘇方青白色為之，兩邊緣以織成錦。 婦人亦巾帔裙衫，辮髮垂後，飾以金銀，其國乘象而戰，每一象，戰士百人，有敗恤者則盡殺之。 國人生女，年十歲已上有姿貌者，其王收而養之，以賞有功之臣。 俗右尊而左卑。 以六月一日為歲首。 斷獄不為文書約束，口決於庭。 其系囚無年限，唯王者代立則釋之。 其叛逆之罪，就火祅燒鐵灼其舌，瘡白者為理直，瘡黑者為有罪。 其刑有斷手、刖足、髡鉗、劓刖，輕罪翦須，或系牌於項以誌之，經時月而釋焉。 其強盜一入獄，至老更不出，小盜罰以銀錢。 死亡則棄之於山，制服一月而即吉。 氣候暑熱，土地寬平，知耕種，多畜牧，有鳥形如橐駝，飛不能高，食草及肉，亦能敢犬攫羊，土人極以為患。 又多白馬、駿犬，或赤日行七百里者駮，金犬今所謂波斯犬也。 出婁及大驢、師子、白象、珊瑚樹高一二尺，琥珀、車渠、瑪瑙、火珠、玻璃、琉璃、無食子、香附子、訶黎勒、胡椒、蓽撥、石蜜、千年棗、甘露桃。
Persia lay fifteen thousand three hundred li west of the capital, bordering Tuhuoluo and Kang to the east, the Turkic Khazars to the north, and Fulin to the northwest; its western and southern frontiers all faced the open sea. The kingdom had hundreds of thousands of households. The king maintained two capitals and more than ten major cities, rather like the detached palaces of China. Upon acceding, the king secretly chose whichever son seemed fit to inherit, wrote down the name, sealed it, and kept it hidden. After the king's death, ministers and royal sons opened the sealed name together and enthroned the prince it named. The king wore a crown of golden flowers, sat upon a lion throne, dressed in brocade robes, and was hung with jeweled necklaces. They worshiped the gods of heaven and earth, sun and moon, water and fire; Western peoples who practiced Zoroastrian fire worship all went to Persia to receive the faith. In worship they anointed forehead, nose, and ears with musk mixed in ghee as a mark of reverence and bowed with legs crossed. Their writing was the same as that of other Western peoples. Both men and women went barefoot. Men wore their hair cropped, white felt caps, and closed-front robes with kerchiefs and shawls—usually dyed indigo or white with sappanwood and edged in woven brocade. Women dressed in kerchiefs, shawls, skirts, and jackets, their braided hair hanging down and ornamented with gold and silver. In war the Persians fought from elephants, each supported by a hundred warriors; any who suffered defeat were executed without exception. The king collected girls of ten or older who showed beauty, reared them at court, and bestowed them upon ministers who had earned merit. By custom the right was honored and the left subordinate. The new year began on the first day of the sixth month. Cases were decided orally in court without reliance on written pleadings. Prisoners were held indefinitely and released only when a new king succeeded. Rebels were tried at the fire altar by burning iron pressed to the tongue: a white blister meant innocence, a black one guilt. Penalties ranged from amputation of hands and feet to nose-cutting, head-shaving with fetters, and beard-clipping for lesser crimes; some offenders wore placards at the neck for months before release. Major robbers were imprisoned for life; petty thieves paid fines in silver. The dead were left on the mountains; mourners wore funeral garb for a month before returning to ordinary life. The climate was sweltering and the land broad and fertile; agriculture and herding both flourished. A camel-shaped bird that flew low fed on grass and flesh and even preyed on dogs and sheep, to the natives' great distress. White horses and swift hounds abounded, along with piebald steeds said to cover seven hundred li in a day; the golden hounds are what we now call Persian dogs. Exports included camels and great donkeys, lions, white elephants, coral trees a foot or two tall, amber, giant clams, agate, fire pearls, glass, lapis lazuli, myrobalan, cyperus, chebulic myrobalan, pepper, long pepper, rock honey, millennial jujubes, and honey peaches.
69
隋大業末，西突厥葉護可汗頻擊破其國，波斯王庫薩和為西突厥所殺，其子施利立，葉護因分其部帥，監統其國，波斯竟臣於葉護。 及葉護可汗死，其所令監統者因自擅於波斯，不復役屬於西突厥。 施利立一年卒，乃立庫薩和之女為王，突厥又殺之。 施利之子單羯方奔拂菻，於是國人迎而立之，是為尹恆支，在位二年而卒。 兄子伊嗣候立。
In the closing years of Emperor Yang's Daye reign the Western Turk Yabghu Qaghan repeatedly crushed Persia. King Kusahe was killed; his son Shili was enthroned, but Yabghu partitioned the realm among his own chieftains to rule it, and Persia fell under Turkic domination. After Yabghu's death the Turkic governors he had left in Persia seized power for themselves and ceased obeying the Western Turks. Shili died after a year on the throne; Kusahe's daughter was then made queen, but the Turks killed her as well. Shili's son Danjiefang fled to Fulin; the Persians recalled him and enthroned him as Yin Hengzhi, who reigned two years and died. His nephew Yisi Hou succeeded him.
70
儀鳳三年，令吏部侍郎裴行儉將兵冊送卑路斯為波斯王，行儉以其路遠，至安西碎葉而還，卑路斯獨返，不得入其國，漸為大食所侵，客於吐火羅國二十余年，有部落數千人，後漸離散。 至景龍二年，又來入朝，拜為左威衛將軍，無何病卒，其國遂滅，而部眾猶存。
In Yifeng 3 Pei Xingjian was sent with an army to invest Peroz as King of Persia. Finding the route too long, he turned back at Suyab in the Western Regions; Peroz returned alone but could not re-enter his kingdom. Gradually overrun by the Arabs, he lived as a guest in Tuhuoluo for more than twenty years with a following of several thousand, which later dispersed. In Jinglong 2 Peroz came to court again and was made General of the Left Weiwu Guard; he soon died of illness. The Persian kingdom was extinguished, though scattered clans remained.
71
自開元十年至天寶六載，凡十遣使來朝，並獻方物。 四月，遣使獻瑪瑙床。 九年四月，獻火毛繡舞筵、長毛繡舞筵、無孔真珠。 乾元元年，波斯與大食同寇廣州，劫倉庫，焚廬舍，浮海而去。 大歷六年，遣使來朝，獻真珠等。
From Kaiyuan 10 through Tianbao 6, ten embassies arrived at court bearing regional goods. In the fourth month an embassy presented an agate couch. In the fourth month of the ninth year they sent fire-fur and long-fur embroidered dance mats and flawless pearls. In Qianyuan 1 Persian and Arab forces jointly raided Guangzhou, looted the warehouses, burned the buildings, and escaped by sea. In Dali 6 an embassy came to court with pearls and other gifts.
72
拂菻國
Fulin
73
拂菻國，一名大秦，在西海之上，東南與波斯接，地方萬餘里，列城四百，邑居連屬。 其宮宇柱櫳，多以水精琉璃為之。 有貴臣十二人共治國政，常使一人將囊隨王車，百姓有事者，即以書投囊中，王還宮省發，理其枉直。 其王無常人，簡賢者而立之。 國中災異及風雨不時，輒廢而更立。 其王冠形如鳥舉翼，冠及瓔珞，皆綴以珠寶，著錦繡衣，前不開襟，坐金花床。 有一鳥似鵝，其毛綠色，常在王邊倚枕上坐，每進食有毒，其鳥輒鳴。 其都城疊石為之，尤絕高峻，凡有十萬余戶，南臨大海。 城東面有大門，其高二十余丈，自上及下，飾以黃金，光輝燦爛，連曜數里。 自外至王室，凡有大門三重，列異寶雕飾。 第二門之樓中，懸一大金秤，以金丸十二枚屬於衡端，以候日之十二時焉； 為一金人，其大如人，立於側，每至一時，其金丸輒落，鏗然發聲，引唱以紀日時，毫厘無失。 其殿以瑟瑟為柱，黃金為地，象牙為門扇，香木為棟梁。 其俗無瓦，搗白石為末，羅之塗屋上，其堅密光潤，還如玉石。 至於盛暑之節，人厭囂熱，乃引水潛流，上遍於屋宇，機制巧密，人莫之知。 觀者惟聞屋上泉鳴，俄見四檐飛溜，懸波如瀑，激氣成涼風，其巧妙如此。
Fulin, also known as Daqin, stood on the Western Sea. Bordering Persia to the southeast, its domain stretched more than ten thousand li, with four hundred walled cities and linked settlements. Palace pillars and balustrades were largely fashioned from crystal and glass. Twelve senior ministers shared governance; one always carried a pouch in the royal train. Citizens dropped petitions into it, and the king reviewed them upon returning to the palace to judge grievances. The throne was not hereditary—the worthiest man was chosen to rule. Disasters, omens, or untimely weather led to the ruler's deposition and replacement. The king wore a crown shaped like wings outspread, hung with jewels from crown to necklace, brocade robes closed at the front, and sat upon a golden-flower throne. A goose-like bird with green feathers perched beside the king's pillow; whenever food was poisoned, the bird cried out. The capital was built of stacked stone, towering and steep, with more than one hundred thousand households and the sea to the south. On the city's east stood a gate more than twenty zhang high, gilded from summit to base so that its brilliance shone for miles. Three great gates, each lavishly carved and set with exotic treasures, led from the outer precinct to the royal residence. In the tower of the second gate hung a great golden scale with twelve golden balls at the beam's end to mark the twelve hours of the day; beside it stood a life-sized golden figure; at each hour a ball dropped with a clang while a voice announced the time, never missing by the slightest measure. The hall had lapis-lazuli pillars, golden floors, ivory doors, and fragrant-wood beams. They used no roof tiles; crushed white stone, sifted and plastered over roofs, hardened to a polish like jade. In midsummer, when the heat grew unbearable, water was piped in hidden channels through the buildings by mechanisms so ingenious that none could explain them. One heard only springs murmuring overhead, then saw cascades pour from every eave like waterfalls, stirring cool breezes—such was the ingenuity of the design.
74
風俗，男子翦髮，披帔而右袒，婦人不開襟，錦為頭巾。 家資滿億，封以上位。 有羊羔生於土中，其國人候其欲萌，乃築墻以院之，防外獸所食也。 然其臍與地連，割之則死，唯人著甲走馬及擊鼓以駭之，其羔警鳴而臍絕，便遂水草。 俗皆髡而衣繡，乘輜軿白蓋小車，出入擊鼓，建旌旗幡幟。 土多金銀奇寶，有夜光璧、明月珠、駭雞犀、大貝、車渠、瑪瑙、孔翠、珊瑚、琥珀，凡西域諸珍異多出其國。 隋煬帝常將通拂菻，竟不能致。
Men cropped their hair, draped shawls, and bared the right shoulder; women wore closed-front dress and brocade head kerchiefs. Households whose wealth reached a hundred million were ennobled. Lambs were said to grow from the earth; when they were about to emerge, the people walled the spot to keep wild beasts from devouring them. Their navels remained attached to the soil and severing them meant death; only when armored horsemen galloped up beating drums would the lambs cry out, the cord break, and the animals run to pasture. People shaved their heads and wore embroidered dress, traveling in white-canopied carriages with drums beating and banners flying whenever they went abroad. Gold, silver, and exotic treasures abounded—luminous jade, moon pearls, cock-startling rhinoceros horn, giant clams, agate, kingfisher feathers, coral, amber—most of the West's wonders came from Fulin. Emperor Yang repeatedly tried to establish contact with Fulin but never succeeded.
75
貞觀十七年，拂菻王波多力遣使獻赤玻璃、綠金精等物，太宗降璽書答慰，賜以綾綺焉。 自大食強盛，漸陵諸國，乃遣大將軍摩栧伐其都城，因約為和好，請每歲輸之金帛，遂臣屬大食焉。 乾封二年，遣使獻底也伽。 大足元年，復遣使來朝。 開元七年正月，其主遣吐火羅大首領獻獅子、羚羊各二。 不數月，又遣大德僧來朝貢。
In Zhenguan 17 King Bodoli of Fulin sent red glass, green gold ore, and other gifts; Taizong replied with an imperial letter of reassurance and a gift of silks. As the Arabs grew powerful and subjugated neighboring states, they sent General Muhan against the Fulin capital, then imposed a treaty requiring annual tribute of gold and silk; Fulin became a vassal of Dashi. In Qianfeng 2 an embassy presented a Dayaga image. In Dazu 1 another embassy arrived at court. In the first month of Kaiyuan 7 the ruler sent a Tuhuoluo chieftain with two lions and two antelopes. Within months a senior monk arrived with further tribute.
76
大食國
Dashi
77
大食國，本在波斯之西。 大業中，有波斯胡人牧駝於俱紛摩地那之山，忽有獅子人語謂之曰：「此山西有三穴，穴中大有兵器，汝可取之。 穴中並有黑石白文，讀之便作王位。」 胡人依言，果見穴中有石及槊刃甚多，上有文，教其反叛。 於是糾合亡命，渡恆曷水，劫奪商旅，其眾漸盛，遂割據波斯西境，自立為王。 波斯、拂菻各遣兵討之，皆為所敗。
Dashi originally lay west of Persia. During the Daye era a Persian herdsman was tending camels on Mount Jufen Modina when a lion addressed him in human speech: "West of this mountain are three caves filled with weapons. Take them. Inside are also black stones inscribed in white; whoever reads them may claim the throne." The herdsman did as told and found many stones and spearheads bearing inscriptions that commanded rebellion. He gathered outlaws, crossed the Henyi River, and preyed on merchants until his band grew strong enough to seize Persia's western marches and proclaim himself king. Persia and Fulin sent armies against him, but he defeated them both.
78
永徽二年，始遣使朝貢。 其王姓大食氏，名噉密莫末膩，自云有國已三十四年，歷三主矣。 其國男兒色黑多須，鼻大而長，似婆羅門； 婦人白皙。 亦有文字。 出駝馬，大於諸國。 兵刃勁利。 其俗勇於戰鬥，好事天神。 土多沙石，不堪耕種，唯食駝馬等肉。 俱紛摩地那山在國之西南，鄰於大海，其王移穴中黑石置之於國。 又嘗遣人乘船，將衣糧入海，經八年而未及西岸。 海中見一方石，石上有樹，幹赤葉青，樹上總生小兒； 長六七寸，見人皆笑，動其手腳，頭著樹枝，其使摘取一枝，小兒便死，收在大食王宮。 又有女國，在其西北，相去三月行。
In Yonghui 2 Dashi first sent tribute envoys to court. The king bore the royal clan name of Dashi; he was called Tanmi Momoni and said his realm had stood thirty-four years under three successive rulers. The men were dark-skinned and heavily bearded, with large long noses rather like Brahmins; the women fair and pale. They had a written language as well. Their camels and horses surpassed those of other lands. Their arms were exceptionally sharp and strong. They were fierce in battle and devout toward their heavenly god. The land was mostly sand and rock, fit for neither farming nor much else; they lived chiefly on camel and horse flesh. Mount Jufen Modina stood in the kingdom's southwest near the sea; the king removed the black stone from the cave and enshrined it in his realm. They once dispatched a ship loaded with provisions; after eight years at sea it had still not reached the western shore. At sea they came upon a square stone bearing a tree with a red trunk and green leaves, its branches thick with infant figures; each six or seven cun tall, laughing and waving at sight of the crew. Rooted by the head to the branches, the infants died when a branch was broken off; one was taken to the Dashi king's palace. Northwest lay a women's kingdom three months' journey away.
79
龍朔初，擊破波斯，又破拂菻，始有米面之屬。 又將兵南侵婆羅門，吞並諸胡國，勝兵四十余萬。 長安中，遣使獻良馬。 景雲二年，又獻方物。 開元初，遣使來朝，進馬及寶鈿帶等方物。 其使謁見，唯平立不拜，憲司欲糾之，中書令張說奏曰：「大食殊俗，慕義遠來，不可置罪。」 上特許之。」 尋又遣使朝獻，自云在本國惟拜天神，雖見王亦無致拜之法，所司屢詰責之，其使遂請依漢法致拜。 其時西域康國、石國之類，皆臣屬之。 其境東西萬里，東與突騎施相接焉。
In the early Longshuo era they conquered Persia and Fulin and only then acquired grain, flour, and similar staples. They then marched south against Brahman, annexed the Western kingdoms, and fielded more than four hundred thousand battle-ready troops. During the Chang'an era they sent envoys bearing fine horses. In the second year of Jingyun (711) they again sent regional tribute. Early in the Kaiyuan reign they came to court with horses, jeweled belts, and other tribute goods. At audience their envoy stood without bowing. The Censorate moved to punish him, but Grand Councilor Zhang Yue argued: "The Arabs follow different customs; they have come from afar out of respect for our virtue—we cannot treat this as a crime. The emperor granted an exception. Later envoys explained that at home they bowed only to Heaven—even before their own king they did not prostrate. Officials pressed them repeatedly until the envoys asked to follow Chinese court etiquette. By then the Sogdian states of Kang, Shi, and the like had all submitted to them. Their realm stretched ten thousand li from east to west, bordering the Turgesh in the east.
80
一云隋開皇中，大食族中有孤列種代為酋長，孤列種中又有兩姓：一號盆泥奚深，一號盆泥末換。 其奚深後有摩訶末者，勇健多智，眾立之為主，東西征伐，開地三千里，兼克夏臘，一名釤城 〈（釤音所鑒反）〉。 摩訶末後十四代，至末換。 末換殺其兄伊疾而自立，復殘忍，其下怨之。 有呼羅珊木粗人並波悉林舉義兵，應者悉令著黑衣，旬月間眾盈數萬。 鼓行而西，生擒末換，殺之。 遂求得奚深種阿蒲羅拔，立之。 末換已前謂之「白衣大食」，自阿蒲羅拔後改為「黑衣大食」。 阿蒲羅拔卒，立其弟阿蒲恭拂。 至德初遣使朝貢，代宗時為元帥，亦用其國兵以收兩都。
Another account holds that in Sui Kaihuang times the Gulie clan among the Arabs held the chieftainship in turn, divided into two lines: Peni Xishen and Peni Mohuan. From the Xishen line arose Mohemo, a man of courage and counsel whom the people made their leader. He campaigned east and west, carving out three thousand li of territory and conquering Xiala, also called Shancheng The name Shancheng is pronounced suo-jian fan.〉 Fourteen generations after Mohemo the line reached Mohuan. Mohuan killed his brother Yiji to seize power and ruled with such cruelty that his followers turned against him. A Khorasanian named Mucu and Boshilin raised a revolt; all who joined were commanded to wear black. Within a month their numbers swelled past ten thousand. They marched west with drums beating, took Mohuan alive, and put him to death. They then found Apoluoba of the Xishen line and enthroned him. Before Mohuan they were known as the White-Robed Arabs; after Apoluoba they became the Black-Robed Arabs. When Apoluoba died, his brother Apugongfu succeeded him. Early in the Zhide era they sent tribute missions; when Daizong was supreme commander, he employed Arab troops in the recovery of the two capitals.
81
寶應、大歷中頻遣使來。 恭拂卒，子迷地立。 迷地卒，子牟棲立，牟棲卒，弟訶論立。 貞元中，與吐蕃為勍敵。 蕃軍太半西禦大食，故鮮為邊患，其力不足也。 十四年，詔以黑衣大食使含嵯、焉雞、沙北三人並為中郎將，各放還蕃。
During the Baoying and Dali eras they sent envoys repeatedly. Gongfu died and his son Midi succeeded. Midi was followed by his son Mouqi, and Mouqi by his brother Helun. In the Zhenyuan era they were formidable foes of Tibet. Tibet had to commit most of its forces to the west against the Arabs, so it seldom troubled the Tang frontier—its strength was spent elsewhere. In the fourteenth year of Zhenyuan an edict named the Black-Robed Arab envoys Hanzuo, Yanji, and Shabei central commandants and sent them home.
82
史臣曰：西方之國，綿亙山川，自張騫奉使已來，介子立功之後，通於中國者多矣。 有唐拓境，遠極安西，弱者德以懷之，強者力以制之。 開元之前，貢輸不絕。 天寶之亂，邊僥多虞，邠郊之西，即為戎狄，槁街之邸，來朝亦稀。 故古先哲王，務寧華夏，語曰：「近者悅，遠者來。」 斯之謂矣！
The historian comments: The western lands stretch across mountains and rivers. Since Zhang Qian's mission and Jiezi's exploit, countless peoples have opened ties with China. The Tang pushed its frontiers to distant Anxi, winning the weak through virtue and the strong through force. Before the Kaiyuan era tribute flowed without cease. The Tianbao rebellion brought constant alarms on the frontier; west of Bin lay only barbarian lands, and the guest lodges at court saw ever fewer visitors. The sage kings of old sought tranquility for the Central Realm, as the proverb says: "Make the near content, and the distant will come. This is precisely what was meant!
83
贊曰：大蒙之人，西方之國，與時盛衰，隨世通塞。 勿謂戎心，不懷我德； 貞觀、開元，槁街充斥。
Encomium: The peoples of the great west rise and fall with the times, their roads to China opening and closing with the age. Do not suppose the barbarian heart incapable of honoring our virtue; under Zhenguan and Kaiyuan the court's guest lodges overflowed with visitors.