3
Guo Zixing's forebears were from Caozhou. His father, known as Master Guo, traveled in his youth through Dingyuan as a practitioner of calendrical divination; his predictions of good or ill fortune always proved accurate. A wealthy townsman had a blind daughter with no place to turn; Master Guo married her, and the household grew steadily more prosperous. She bore three sons; Zixing was the middle son. When he was born, Master Guo divined an auspicious outcome. As he matured, he lived by the code of the knight-errant and loved to entertain guests. With the Yuan regime falling into chaos, Zixing spent the family fortune—slaughtering oxen and broaching wine—to win over bold followers. In the spring of the Zhizheng twelfth year (1352), he rallied several thousand young men and seized Haozhou in a sudden attack. The future Hongwu Emperor went to join his cause. A sentry took him for a spy, arrested him, and reported to Zixing. Zixing was struck by the newcomer's striking appearance; he had him unbound, spoke with him, and took him into his service. He was appointed chief of ten; he fought again and again and won distinction. Zixing was delighted, and his second wife, the younger Lady Zhang, gestured toward the future emperor and said, "This is no ordinary man." He then gave him in marriage the daughter he had raised—the daughter of Master Ma—who became Empress Xiaoci the Great.
4
At first Zixing and four fellow insurgents—Sun Deya among them—together with Zixing made five commanders, each styling himself marshal and refusing to yield to the others. The four were crude and rash, plundering every day; Zixing looked down on them. The four resented this and plotted together to bring Zixing down. Zixing therefore spent much of his time at home and neglected command duties. When he had a moment alone with Zixing, the future emperor warned, "They are drawing closer together while we drift apart; in time they will control us." Zixing would not heed him.
5
元師破徐州，徐帥彭大、趙均用帥餘眾奔濠。 德崖等以其故盜魁有名，乃共推奉之，使居己上。 大有智數，子興與相厚而薄均用。 於是德崖等譖諸均用曰：「子興知有彭將軍耳，不知有將軍也。」 均用怒，乘間執子興，幽諸德崖家。 太祖自他部歸，大驚，急帥子興二子訴於大。 大曰：「吾在，孰敢魚肉而翁者！」 與太祖偕詣德崖家，破械出子興，挾之歸。 元師圍濠州，乃釋故憾，共城守五閱月。 圍解，大、均用皆自稱王，而子興及德崖等為元帥如故。 未幾，大死，子早住領其眾。 均用專狠益甚，挾子興攻盱眙、泗州，將害之。 太祖已取滁，乃遣人說均用曰：「大王窮迫時，郭公開門延納，德至厚也。 大王不能報，反聽細人言圖之，自剪羽翼，失豪傑心，竊為大王不取。 且其部曲猶眾，殺之得無悔乎？」 均用聞太祖兵甚盛，心憚之，太祖又使人賂其左右，子興用是得免，乃將其所部萬余就太祖于滁。
Yuan armies took Xu Prefecture; the Xu commanders Peng Da and Zhao Junyong led their surviving forces to Haozhou. Because Peng and Zhao were famous former bandit leaders, Deya and the others jointly elevated them above their own ranks. Peng Da was shrewd and capable; Zixing favored him while slighting Zhao Junyong. Deya and his allies then slandered Zixing to Junyong: "Zixing knows only General Peng—he acts as if you did not exist." Enraged, Junyong seized Zixing at an opportune moment and imprisoned him in Deya's house. The future emperor returned from another command, was alarmed, and hurried to Peng Da with Zixing's two sons to appeal for help. Peng Da said, "As long as I am here, who would dare abuse your father-in-law!" He went with the future emperor to Deya's house, broke Zixing's chains, and escorted him back. When Yuan forces besieged Haozhou, the factions set aside old grudges and held the city together for five months. After the siege lifted, Peng Da and Zhao Junyong each proclaimed himself king, while Zixing, Deya, and the others retained the title of marshal. Before long Peng Da died, and his son Zao Zhuo inherited his troops. Zhao Junyong grew ever more vicious; he forced Zixing to attack Xuyi and Sizhou, plotting to destroy him in the process. By then the future emperor had taken Chuzhou; he sent an envoy to Zhao Junyong: "When you were desperate, Lord Guo welcomed you in—his kindness was profound. Yet instead of repaying him, you heed petty advisers plotting his ruin—you are cutting away your own wings and forfeiting the loyalty of great men; I cannot believe this serves you well. Besides, his followers are still numerous—will you not regret killing him?" Junyong, hearing how strong the future emperor's forces had become, was afraid; the future emperor also bribed his confidants, and Zixing was spared. He then brought his division of more than ten thousand men to join the future emperor at Chuzhou.
6
子興為人梟悍善鬥，而性悻直少容。 方事急，輒從太祖謀議，親信如左右手。 事解，即信讒疏太祖。 太祖左右任事者悉召之去，稍奪太祖兵柄。 太祖事子興愈謹。 將士有所獻，孝慈皇后輒以貽子興妻。 子興至滁，欲據以自王。 太祖曰：「滁四面皆山，舟楫商旅不通，非可旦夕安者也。」 子興乃已。 及取和州，子興命太祖統諸將守其地。 德崖饑，就食和境，求駐軍城中，太祖納之。 有讒於子興者。 子興夜至和，太祖來謁，子興怒甚，不與語。 太祖曰：「德崖嘗困公，宜為備。」 子興默然。 德崖聞子興至，謀引去。 前營已發，德崖方留視後軍，而其軍與子興軍鬥，多死者。 子興執德崖，太祖亦為德崖軍所執。 子興聞之，大驚，立遣徐達往代太祖，縱德崖還。 德崖軍釋太祖，達亦脫歸。 子興憾德崖甚，將甘心焉，以太祖故強釋之，邑邑不樂。 未幾，發病卒，歸葬滁州。
Zixing was fierce and warlike, yet obstinate and unforgiving by nature. In a crisis he relied on the future emperor's counsel and trusted him as he would his own hands. Once the danger passed, he believed slanders and distanced himself from the future emperor. He recalled all the future emperor's trusted lieutenants and gradually stripped him of command. The future emperor served Zixing with ever greater deference. Whenever his officers brought gifts, Empress Xiaoci would pass them on to Zixing's wife. After Zixing arrived at Chuzhou, he wanted to seize it and proclaim himself king. The future emperor said, "Chuzhou is ringed by mountains; no boats or trade routes reach it—it is no place to build a lasting base overnight." Zixing abandoned the plan. After He Prefecture was captured, Zixing put the future emperor in command of the garrison there. Deya, short of provisions, entered He territory to forage and asked to quarter his troops in the city; the future emperor agreed. Someone slandered the future emperor to Zixing. Zixing arrived at He by night; when the future emperor came to pay his respects, Zixing was furious and refused to speak with him. The future emperor said, "Deya once had you at his mercy—you should be on guard." Zixing said nothing. Hearing that Zixing had arrived, Deya planned to withdraw. The vanguard had already marched out; Deya had stayed behind with the rearguard, but his troops clashed with Zixing's, and many were killed on both sides. Zixing captured Deya, but Deya's men seized the future emperor in turn. Alarmed, Zixing sent Xu Da to take the future emperor's place as hostage and released Deya. Deya's men released the future emperor, and Xu Da returned safely as well. Zixing hated Deya and was ready to kill him, but released him only for the future emperor's sake—yet he remained bitter and dissatisfied. Before long he fell ill and died; his body was brought back for burial at Chuzhou.
7
Zixing had three sons. The eldest had died in battle earlier; the survivors were Tianxu and Tianjue. After Zixing's death, Han Lin'er appointed Tianxu commander-in-chief, with Zhang Tianyou and the future emperor as his deputies. Tianyou was the younger brother of Zixing's wife. When the future emperor crossed the Yangzi, Tianxu and Tianyou led an attack on Jiqing; Chen Yexian turned traitor, and both were killed. Lin'er then appointed Tianjue Right Chancellor of the Secretariat. Before long the future emperor became Vice Director of the Secretariat. Deposed and resentful, Tianjue eventually plotted against the future emperor and was executed; with him, Zixing's male line ended. He had a daughter by the younger Lady Zhang who became Consort Hui to the future emperor and bore the princes of Shu, Gu, and Dai.
8
In Hongwu year 3 (1370), Zixing was posthumously enfeoffed as Prince of Chuyang; the court built a temple and offered the middle sacrifice; the You clan of his neighborhood was restored to guard the tomb in perpetuity. In year 16 (1383), the Hongwu Emperor wrote Zixing's life story in his own hand and commissioned Zhang Laiyi, Vice Director of Imperial Sacrifices, to compose the stele inscription. A Chu townsman named Guo Laoshe, claiming to be kin to the Prince of Chuyang, presented himself at court during the Xuande reign (1426–1435). During Hongzhi (1488–1505), a Guo Hu claimed his fourth-generation ancestor Laoshe was the prince's fourth son and was granted official rank to conduct sacrifices. Later the You clan denounced him. The Board of Rites ruled: "The Hongwu Emperor established these rites and declared the prince had no heirs; the temple stele is explicit—Laoshe was not his son." His right to conduct sacrifices was revoked.
10
Han Lin'er was from Luancheng; some said he was actually a son of the Li clan. His ancestors, who had used the White Lotus Society to gather followers through incense rites, were exiled to Yongnian. Late in the Yuan, Lin'er's father Shantong preached sedition: "The realm will soon be in chaos; Maitreya Buddha is coming down to earth." Many simple folk between Henan and the Yangzi–Huai region believed him. Liu Futong of Yingzhou and his followers—Du Zundao, Luo Wensu, Sheng Wenyu, and others—again declared, "Shantong is the eighth-generation descendant of Song Huizong and should rule China." They sacrificed a white horse and a black ox, swore an oath to Heaven and Earth, plotted rebellion, and took the red turban as their emblem. In the fifth month of Zhizheng 11 (1351), the plot was exposed; Futong and his men rose immediately in Yingzhou, while officials captured and executed Shantong. Lin'er and his mother, Lady Yang, fled into the Wu'an mountains. Futong seized Zhugao and stormed Luoshan, Shangcai, Zhenyang, Queshan, Ye, and Wuyang, capturing Runing, Guang, and Xi; his forces swelled past a hundred thousand, and Yuan armies could not stop him. Meanwhile Xu Shouhui rose in Qi and Huang, Bu Wangsan and Meng Haima in Xiang and Han, Sesame Li in Feng and Pei, and Guo Zixing seized Haozhou in sympathy. They were all called the "Red Army," also known as the "Incense Army."
11
In the second month of year 15 (1355), Futong found Lin'er between the rivers at Dangshan; brought him to Bo, where Lin'er was proclaimed emperor and styled Little Ming King; the state was named Song and the era Longfeng. Timber from the Taiqing Palace at Luyi was torn down to build palaces at Bo. Lady Yang was honored as Empress Dowager; Zundao and Wenyu became chancellors; Futong and Wensu, Vice Directors of the Secretariat; Liu Liu, Director of the Bureau of Military Affairs. Liu Liu was Futong's younger brother. Zundao held favor and wielded power. Futong, jealous, had armed men beat Zundao to death; he took the chancellorship himself, added the title Grand Guardian, and concentrated all power in his own hands. Soon Yuan forces routed Futong at Taikang and besieged Bo; Futong fled with Lin'er to Anfeng. Before long their armies revived; he sent his followers on separate campaigns to seize territory.
12
In year 17 (1357), Li Wu and Cui De took Shangzhou and broke through Wuguan toward Guanzhong, while Mao Gui seized Jiao, Lai, Yidu, and Binzhou; most of Shandong fell. That June, Futong led his forces against Bianliang and divided them into three columns: Master Guan, Potou Pan, Feng Changjiu, Shaliu Er, and Wang Shicheng marched on Shanxi and Hebei; Bai Buxin, Dadao Ao, and Li Xixi marched on Guanzhong; Mao Gui marched out of Shandong and struck northeast. His momentum was fierce. Tian Feng had been a Yuan commander of militia along the Yellow River; he defected to Futong, seized Jining, but was soon defeated and driven off. That autumn Futong's forces took Daming, then advanced from Cao and Pu to seize Weihui. Bai Buxin, Dadao Ao, and Li Xixi took Xingyuan and entered Fengxiang, but were repeatedly defeated by Chaghan Temür and Li Siqi and driven into Sichuan.
13
In year 18 (1358), Tian Feng recaptured Dongping, Jining, Dongchang, Yidu, Guangping, and Shunde. Mao Gui also defeated Yuan forces several times, seized Qing and Cang, held Changlu, and soon took Jinan; then pushed north, killed the Pacification Commissioner Dong Boxiao at Nanpi, took Jizhou, raided Huozhou, and swept through Liulin toward Dadu. Emperor Shundi summoned troops from all quarters to defend the capital; courtiers debated relocating the capital to escape Mao's advance, but ministers dissuaded him. Mao Gui was soon beaten back and retreated to Jinan. Meanwhile Futong ranged across Henan; in the fifth month he took Bianliang, the defender Zhuzhen fled, and he installed Lin'er as his capital there. Master Guan, Potou Pan, and the others split their forces again—one column from Jiangzhou, one from Qinzhou. They crossed the Taihang Mountains, overran Liao and Lu, and seized Jining; they failed to take Baoding but seized Wanzhou, raided Datong, Xinghe, and frontier districts, captured Shangdu and destroyed its palaces, then swept through Liaoyang as far as Goryeo. In year 19 (1359) they took Liaoyang and killed Lü Zhen, the Yizhou circuit intendant. With Shangdu's palaces in ruins, Emperor Shundi never toured the north again. Li Xixi's remaining followers seized Ningxia and raided the Lingwu frontier.
14
是時承平久，川郡皆無守備。 長吏聞賊來，輒棄城遁，以故所至無不摧破。 然林兒本起盜賊，無大志，又聽命福通，徒擁虛名。 諸將在外者率不遵約束，所過焚劫，至啖老弱為糧，且皆福通故等夷，福通亦不能制。 兵雖盛，威令不行。 數攻下城邑，元兵亦數從其後復之，不能守。 惟毛貴稍有智略。 其破濟南也，立賓興院，選用元故官姬宗周等分守諸路。 又於萊州立屯田三百六十所，每屯相距三十里，造挽運大車百輛，凡官民田十取其二。 多所規畫，故得據山東者三年。 及察罕帖木兒數破賊，盡復關、隴，是年五月大發秦、晉之師會汴城下，屯杏花營，諸軍環城而壘。 林兒兵出戰輒敗，嬰城守百餘日，食將盡。 福通計無所出，挾林兒從百騎開東門遁還安豐，後宮官屬子女及符璽印章寶貨盡沒於察罕。 時毛貴已為其党趙均用所殺，有續繼祖者，又殺均用，所部自相攻擊。 獨田豐據東平，勢稍強。
After long peace, inland prefectures had no defenses. Local officials fled at the first rumor of rebels, so the Red Army swept through almost unopposed. Yet Lin'er was a bandit chieftain at heart, without grand ambition, and obeyed Futong—holding only a hollow title. Generals in the field ignored discipline, burning and looting wherever they went—even eating the old and weak for food; as Futong's former equals, they obeyed him no better than he could command them. For all their numbers, they had no real authority. They took cities again and again, but Yuan forces recaptured them just as often—they could not hold what they seized. Only Mao Gui showed any real strategic sense. When he took Jinan, he established an academy for recruiting scholars and appointed former Yuan officials such as Ji Zongzhou to govern the various circuits. He established three hundred sixty military farms in Lai, spaced thirty li apart, built a hundred large transport carts, and levied a tax of two-tenths on all public and private land. With such planning he held Shandong for three years. After Chaghan Temür had repeatedly defeated the rebels and recovered Guanzhong and Longyou, in the fifth month of that year he massed Qin and Jin armies below Bianliang, encamped at Apricot Blossom Camp, and ringed the city with siege works. Lin'er's forces sallied out and were beaten each time; after more than a hundred days of siege, food was nearly gone. Futong, at his wits' end, fled through the east gate with Lin'er and a hundred horsemen back to Anfeng; the harem, officials, children, seals, and treasures all fell to Chaghan. By then Mao Gui had been killed by his follower Zhao Junyong; Xu Jizu then killed Junyong, and their factions turned on one another. Only Tian Feng held Dongping, and his position was somewhat stronger.
15
In year 20 (1360), Master Guan and his men took Daning and raided Shangdu again. Tian Feng took Baoding; when the Yuan sent envoys to negotiate, he had them killed. Wang Shicheng overran Shanxi and Hebei again. The Yuan general Boluo defeated him at Taizhou; he then entered Dongping and joined Tian Feng. Futong once blamed Li Wu and Cui De for foot-dragging and was about to punish them. In the summer of year 21 (1361), the two defected and surrendered to Li Siqi. By then Li Xixi, Master Guan, and others had fought across the realm; many had died in flight; remnant bands returning from Goryeo raided Shangdu, and Boluo defeated and accepted their surrender. After Chaghan took Bianliang, he sent his son Köke Temür against Dongping, forced Tian Feng and Wang Shicheng to submit, and pacified Shandong in the wake of victory. Only Chen Yaotou held out in Yidu, giving distant support to Futong.
16
In the sixth month of year 22 (1362), Feng and Shicheng assassinated Chaghan when his guard was down and entered Yidu. The Yuan gave military command to Köke Temür, who laid siege in concentric rings; Yaotou sent urgent appeals for aid. Futong marched from Anfeng to relieve the siege but was routed at Mars Ford and driven back. Yuan forces stormed Yidu, tunneled into the city, killed Feng and Shicheng, and sent Yaotou in chains to the capital; Lin'er's position collapsed. The following year Zhang Shicheng's general Lü Zhen besieged Anfeng, and Lin'er appealed to the future emperor for help. The future emperor said, "If Anfeng falls, Zhang Shicheng will grow stronger still." He led the army personally to the rescue, but Lü Zhen had already entered the city and killed Futong. The future emperor drove Lü Zhen off, brought Lin'er back, and installed him at Chuzhou. The following year the future emperor became King of Wu. Two years later Lin'er died. Some say the Hongwu Emperor ordered Liao Yongzhong to escort Lin'er to Yingtian; at Guabu the boat capsized and he drowned in the river—or so it is said.
17
Early on, while the future emperor was stationed at Heyang, Guo Zixing died; Lin'er issued an edict appointing Zixing's son Tianxu commander-in-chief, Zhang Tianyou right deputy marshal, and the future emperor left deputy marshal. At that time the future emperor held a lone city with a small force; Lin'er claimed to be heir to the Song, the realm answered from all sides, and he adopted Lin'er's era name to command his troops. After Lin'er's death, the next year was reckoned as the first year of Wu. That year he sent a great general to pacify the Central Plains; Emperor Shundi fled north, barely more than a year after Lin'er died. Lin'er's usurped reign lasted twelve years in all.
18
The encomium says: In the Yuan's final years, rival warlords rose everywhere. Zixing held Haozhou—a remote post with little strength. Yet the Ming enterprise truly began with that single brigade at Chuyang. That Zixing was enfeoffed as a prince, given a temple, and honored for generations was well deserved. Lin'er dominated the central plains, his armies ravaging the land and shielding the Yangzi–Huai region for more than a decade. The future emperor was able to build his realm at leisure in part because Lin'er absorbed his rivals' attention. When an emperor rises, forerunners must pave the way for his success—how could it be mere chance!