Volume 106 Treatises 81: Selection and Examinations 1, Xue Xiao Yi

志八十一

Treatise 81

選舉一

Selection and Examinations, Part 1

古者取士之法，莫備於成周，而得人之盛，亦以成周為最。自唐以後，廢選舉之制，改用科目，歷代相沿。而明則專取四子書及易、書、詩、春秋、禮記五經命題試士，謂之制義。有清一沿明制，二百餘年，雖有以他途進者，終不得與科第出身者相比。康、乾兩朝，特開制科。博學鴻詞，號稱得人。然所試者亦僅詩、賦、策論而已。洎乎末造，世變日亟。論者謂科目人才不足應時務，毅然罷科舉，興學校。采東、西各國教育之新制，變唐、宋以來選舉之成規。前後學制，判然兩事焉。今綜其章制沿革新舊異同之故著於篇。

Of all ancient methods for recruiting talent, none was more fully developed than that of the Western Zhou—and nowhere was talent gathered in greater abundance. From the Tang dynasty onward, the older selection system was set aside in favor of subject-based examinations, a practice successive dynasties retained. The Ming went further, confining examination topics to the Four Books and the Five Classics (Changes, Documents, Odes, Spring and Autumn, and Record of Rites)—essays on these themes were known as regulated exposition. The Qing adhered to the Ming system for more than two centuries. Men who entered service by other paths might rise, but they never stood on equal footing with graduates of the civil examinations. Under the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors, special examination categories were instituted. The erudition and eminent literary composition examinations were celebrated for bringing genuine talent into service. Even so, candidates were tested only in poetry, fu, policy essays, and disquisitions. In the dynasty's closing years, the pace of change accelerated daily. Reformers argued that examination graduates could no longer meet the demands of the age; the examinations were abolished and modern schools established. New educational models from East and West were adopted, overturning the selection and examination conventions that had governed China since Tang and Song times. The school systems of the earlier and later periods were altogether different institutions. The present chapter summarizes these regulations—their continuity and reform—and records how the old and new systems diverged.

學校一

Schools, Part 1

有清學校，向沿明制。京師曰國學，並設八旗、宗室等官學。直省曰府、州、縣學。

Qing dynasty schools followed the Ming system. In the capital the National University served as the apex institution, alongside banner schools, schools for the imperial clan, and other official academies. In the provinces, education was organized through prefectural, departmental, and district schools.

世祖定鼎燕京，修明北監為太學。順治元年，置祭酒、司業及監丞、博士、助教、學正、學錄、典籍、典簿等官。設六堂為講肄之所，曰率性、修道、誠心、正義、崇志、廣業，一仍明舊。少詹事李若琳首為祭酒，請仿明初制，廣收生徒，官生除恩廕外，七品以上官子弟勤敏好學者，民生除貢生外，廩、增、附生員文義優長者，並許提學考選送監。又言學以國子名，所謂國之貴遊子弟學焉。前朝公、侯、伯、駙馬初襲授者，皆入國學讀書。滿洲勛臣子弟有志向學者，並請送監肄業。詔允增設滿洲司業、助教等官，是為八旗子弟入監之始。厥後定為限制，條例屢更，益臻詳備。肄業生徒，有貢、有監。貢生凡六：曰歲貢、恩貢、拔貢、優貢、副貢、例貢。監生凡四：曰恩監、廕監、優監、例監。廕監有二：曰恩廕、難廕。通謂之國子監生。

After the Shizu Emperor established the capital at Beijing, the Ming Northern Directorate was renovated as the Imperial University. In Shunzhi 1 (1644), the posts of libationer, vice director, directorate assistant, erudite, instructor, study director, study recorder, archivist, and registrar were created. Six lecture halls were established for instruction and study—Following Nature, Cultivating the Way, Sincere Heart, Correct Righteousness, Honoring Aspiration, and Broadening Enterprise—retaining Ming nomenclature. Li Ruolin, Junior Mentor of the Heir Apparent, became the first libationer. He petitioned to follow the early Ming model and broaden enrollment: official students included, beyond grace enfeoffment cases, sons of seventh-rank officials and above who were diligent and studious; common students included, beyond tribute graduates, stipendiary, augmented, and attached licentiates of superior literary attainment—all to be examined by the provincial education intendant and sent to the Directorate. He noted that the institution's name, guozi, signified that the sons of the state's elite were to study there. Under the previous dynasty, newly invested dukes, marquises, earls, and imperial sons-in-law all entered the National University to study. He also asked that sons of Manchu meritorious officials who wished to study be sent to the Directorate. The throne approved additional Manchu vice directors and instructors—marking the beginning of Eight Banner students' enrollment at the Directorate. Subsequently enrollment was restricted, regulations revised repeatedly, until the system grew increasingly detailed. Students at the Directorate fell into two categories: tribute students and directorate students. There were six types of tribute student: annual, grace, selected, superior, supplementary, and quota tribute. There were four types of directorate student: grace, enfeoffment, superior, and quota directorate students. Enfeoffment directorate students were of two types: grace enfeoffment and hardship enfeoffment. All were known collectively as Imperial University students.

六堂肄業，分內、外班。初，內班百五十名，堂各二十五名；外班百二十名，堂各二十名。戶部歲發帑銀，給膏火，獎勵有差，餘備周恤。乾隆初，改內班堂各三十名，內、外共三百名。既而裁外班百二十名，加內班膏火，撥內班二十四名為外班。嘉慶初，以八旗及大、宛兩縣肄業生距家近，不住舍，不許補內班。補班之始，赴監應試，曰考到。列一、二等者再試，曰考驗。貢生一、二等，監生一等，乃許肄業。假滿回監曰復班。內班生原依親處館，滿、蒙、漢軍恩監生習繙譯或騎射，不能竟月在學者，改外班。曠大課一次，無故離學至三次以上，例罰改外。置集愆冊，治諸不帥教者。出入必記於簿，監丞掌之。省親、完姻、丁憂、告病及同居伯、叔、兄長喪而無子者，予假歸里，限期回監。遲誤懲罰，私歸黜革，冒替除名。

Students in the six halls were divided into inner and outer classes. Initially the inner class numbered one hundred fifty, twenty-five per hall; the outer class one hundred twenty, twenty per hall. The Ministry of Revenue disbursed annual stipends for lamp oil and study expenses, with graded rewards; surplus funds covered emergency relief. Early in the Qianlong reign, the inner class was raised to thirty per hall, three hundred inner and outer combined. The outer class of one hundred twenty was then abolished, inner-class stipends increased, and twenty-four inner-class places reassigned to the outer class. Early in Jiaqing, Eight Banner students and those from Daxing and Wanping counties, living near home and not residing in dormitories, were barred from promotion to the inner class. To fill a class vacancy, students first presented themselves at the Directorate for examination—the kao dao. Those placed in the first or second rank underwent a second examination—the kao yan. Only tribute students in the first or second rank, or directorate students in the first rank, were permitted to enroll for study. Return after leave expired was termed fu ban. Inner-class students often lodged with relatives; Manchu, Mongol, and Han Banner grace directorate students training in translation or archery who could not attend for the full month were reassigned to the outer class. Missing one major examination, or absenting oneself without cause three or more times, carried demotion to the outer class by regulation. A register of accumulated faults disciplined students who failed to follow instruction. All comings and goings were recorded in a ledger maintained by the directorate assistant. Leave was granted to visit parents, complete marriage, observe mourning, report illness, or when a co-resident uncle or elder brother died childless; students were required to return by a fixed deadline. Late return brought punishment; unauthorized departure meant dismissal; impersonation meant expulsion.

課士之法，月朔、望釋奠畢，博士廳集諸生，講解經書。上旬助教講義。既望，學正、學錄講書各一次。會講、覆講、上書、覆背，月三回，周而復始。所習四書、五經、性理、通鑒諸書，其兼通十三經、二十一史，博極群書者，隨資學所詣。日摹晉、唐名帖數百字，立日課冊，旬日呈助教等批晰，朔、望呈堂查驗。祭酒、司業月望輪課四書文一、詩一，曰大課。祭酒季考，司業月課，皆用四書、五經文，並詔、誥、表、策論、判。月朔，博士廳課經文、經解及策論。月三日，助教課，十八日，學正、學錄課，各試四書文一、詩一、經文或策一。

Examination of students proceeded as follows: on the first and fifteenth of each month, after the libation ceremony, the erudite assembled students in the lecture hall to expound the classics. During the first ten days of the month, instructors delivered lectures on textual meaning. After the full moon, the study director and study recorder each lectured once. Joint lectures, review lectures, written presentations, and recitations from memory occurred three times monthly in rotation. Core curriculum comprised the Four Books, Five Classics, Nature and Principle, and Comprehensive Mirror; students who mastered the Thirteen Classics, Twenty-one Histories, or broader learning advanced according to their attainment. Students copied several hundred characters daily from Jin and Tang model calligraphy, recorded progress in a daily lesson book, submitted it to instructors every ten days for correction, and presented it to the hall on the first and fifteenth for inspection. On the fifteenth of each month, libationer and vice director alternated in examining one Four Books essay and one poem—the major examination. The libationer's quarterly and vice director's monthly examinations required Four Books and Five Classics essays, plus edicts, announcements, memorials, policy essays, and legal judgments. On the first of each month, the erudite's hall examined classic texts, exegesis, and policy essays. On the third, instructors examined students; on the eighteenth, study directors and recorders did so—each session requiring one Four Books essay, one poem, and one classic text or policy essay.

積分歷事之法，國初行之。監生坐監期滿，撥歷部院練習政體。三月考勤，一年期滿送廷試。其免坐監，或免歷一月二月者，恩詔有之，非常例也。順治三年，祭酒薛所蘊奏定漢監生積分法，常課外，月試經義、策論各一，合式者拔置一等。歲考一等十二次為及格，免撥歷，送廷試超選。十五年，祭酒固爾嘉渾議：「令監生考到日，拔其尤者許積分；不與者，期滿咨部歷事。積分法一年為限。常課外，月試一等與一分，二等半分，二等以下無分。有五經兼通，全史精熟，或善摹鍾、王諸帖，雖文不及格，亦與一分。積滿八分為及格，歲不逾十餘人。恩、拔、歲、副，咨部歷滿考職，照教習貢生例，上上卷用通判，上卷用知縣。例監歷滿考職，與不積分貢生一體廷試。每百名取正印八名，餘用州、縣佐貳。積分不滿數，原分部者，咨部不得優選。原再肄業滿分者聽。」從之。是年，科臣王命岳以貢途壅塞，請暫停恩、拔、歲貢。於是坐監人少，難較分數。十七年，固爾嘉渾奏停積分法，後遂不復行。康熙初，並停撥歷，期滿咨部考試，用州同、州判、縣丞、主簿、吏目。自是部院諸司無監生，惟考選通文理能楷書者，送修書各館，較年勞議敘，照應得職銜選用，優者或加等焉。

The point-accumulation and departmental service system was practiced in the early dynasty. Upon completing residence, directorate students were assigned to ministries and courts to learn administrative practice. After three months of attendance verification and one year of service, they were sent to the palace examination. Exemptions from residence or from one or two months of service were granted by special edict, not as regular practice. In Shunzhi 3 (1646), Libationer Xue Suoyun established the point system for Han directorate students: beyond regular coursework, monthly tests in classic meaning and policy essays; those passing were ranked first class. Twelve first-class annual results constituted a passing grade, exempting students from departmental service and qualifying them for preferential selection at the palace examination. In Shunzhi 15 (1658), Libationer Gu'erjia Hun proposed: "On the kao dao examination day, select the most outstanding directorate students for point accumulation; those not selected would, upon completing their term, be referred to ministries for service. Point accumulation was limited to one year. Beyond regular lessons, monthly examinations awarded one point for first class, half a point for second class, and none below second class. Students who mastered all Five Classics, knew the complete histories thoroughly, or excelled at copying Zhong and Wang calligraphy received one point even if their essays failed. Eight points constituted a passing grade; fewer than a dozen students achieved this annually. Grace, selected, annual, and supplementary tribute students, upon completing service, took the office examination; following teaching-assistant precedent, top-top rolls received subprefect posts, top rolls magistracies. Quota directorate students and tribute students without accumulated points took the office examination together at the palace examination. Of every hundred candidates, eight received principal appointments; the remainder filled prefectural and district assistant posts. Students with insufficient points, though originally assigned to departments, could not receive preferential selection when referred to the ministry. They might return to study until accumulating full points if they wished." The proposal was approved. That year, Censor Wang Mingyue, citing congestion in the tribute pipeline, petitioned to suspend grace, selected, and annual tribute temporarily. Resident students became scarce, making point comparison impractical. In Shunzhi 17 (1660), Gu'erjia Hun memorialized to abolish the point system, which was never revived. Early in Kangxi, departmental assignments ceased; upon completing residence, students took the ministry examination and were appointed subprefect, subprefect judge, assistant magistrate, registrar, or clerk. Thereafter ministries and courts no longer received directorate students; only those proficient in literary studies and regular script were sent to compilation bureaus, where years of service determined appointment according to earned rank, with outstanding performers sometimes promoted.

監生坐監期，恩貢六月，歲貢八月，副貢廩膳六月，增、附八月，拔貢廩膳十四月，增、附十六月，恩廕二十四月，難廕六月，例貢廩膳十四月，增、附十六月，俊秀二十四月。例監計捐監月分三十六月。雍正五年，定除監期計算。各監生肄業，率以連閏扣滿三年為期。告假、丁憂、考劣、記過，則扣除月日。告假依限到監，或逾限而本籍有司官具牘者，仍前後通算。

Residence terms varied: grace tribute six months, annual tribute eight; supplementary tribute stipendiary six, augmented and attached eight; selected tribute stipendiary fourteen, augmented and attached sixteen; grace enfeoffment twenty-four, hardship enfeoffment six; quota tribute stipendiary fourteen, augmented and attached sixteen; talented youth twenty-four. Quota directorate students, including purchased enrollment, served thirty-six months. In Yongzheng 5 (1727), calculation excluding the residence term was standardized. All directorate students generally completed three years of study, intercalary months included. Leave, mourning, poor examination results, and recorded demerits extended the term by deducting corresponding time. Students returning within the leave limit, or late with documentation from home officials, had time counted continuously.

舊制，祭酒、司業總理監務。雍正三年，始設管理監事大臣。乾隆二年，孫嘉淦以刑部尚書管監事。初嘉淦在世宗朝官司業，奏言：「學校之教，宜先經術，請敕天下學臣，選拔諸生貢太學，九卿舉經明行修之士為助教，一以經術造士。三年考成，舉以待用。」議未及行，遷祭酒，申前請，世宗韙之。先是太學生名為坐監肄業，率假館散處。遇釋奠、堂期、季考、月課，暫一齊集。監內舊有號房五百餘間，修圮不時，且資斧不給，無以宿諸生。嘉淦言：「各省拔貢雲集京師，需住監者三百餘人。六堂祗可誦讀，不能棲止。乞給監南官房，令助教等官及肄業生居住。歲給銀六千兩為講課、桌飯、衣服、賑助之費。」允之。是為南學。

Under the old system, libationer and vice director jointly administered the Directorate. In Yongzheng 3 (1725), a supervising minister for Directorate affairs was first appointed. In Qianlong 2 (1737), Sun Jiagan, Minister of Justice, supervised Directorate affairs. Earlier, as vice director under the Shizong Emperor, Sun Jiagan memorialized: "School instruction should prioritize classical learning. I request that education officials throughout the realm select licentiates for the Imperial University, and that the Nine Ministers recommend scholars distinguished in classics and conduct as instructors—to cultivate talent through classical studies alone. After three years, examine their achievement and recommend them for appointment." Before the proposal could be implemented, he was promoted to libationer and renewed his petition; the Shizong Emperor approved. Previously, Imperial University students were nominally in residence but mostly lodged elsewhere. They assembled only for libation ceremonies, hall sessions, quarterly examinations, and monthly lessons. The Directorate's five hundred numbered rooms had fallen into disrepair for lack of funds, leaving no lodging for students. Sun Jiagan reported: "Selected tribute students from all provinces gather in the capital; more than three hundred require Directorate lodging. The six halls serve only for study, not residence. I request official quarters south of the Directorate for instructors and resident students. Six thousand taels of silver were allocated annually for lectures, board, clothing, and student relief." The request was approved. This became known as the Southern Academy.

至是，請仿宋儒胡瑗經義、治事分齋遺法。明經者，或治一經，或兼他經，務取御纂折中、傳說諸書，探其原本，講明人倫日用之理。治事者，如歷代典禮、賦役、律令、邊防、水利、天官、河渠、算法之類。或專治一事，或兼治數事，務窮究其源流利弊。考試時，必以經術湛深、通達事理、驗稽古愛民之識。三年期滿，分別等第，以示勸懲。從之。令諸生有心得或疑義，逐條劄記，呈助教批判，按期呈堂。季考月課，改四書題一，五經講義題各一，治事策問一。時高宗加意太學，嘉淦嚴立課程，獎誘備至，六堂講師，極一時之選。舉人吳鼎、梁錫興，皆以薦舉經學授司業。進士庄亨陽，舉人潘永季、蔡德峻、秦蕙田、吳鼐，貢生官獻瑤、王文震，監生夏宗瀾，皆以潛心經學，先後被薦為本監屬官。分長六堂，各佔一經，時有「四賢五君子」之稱。師徒濟濟，皆奮自鏃礪，研求實學。而祭酒趙國麟又以經義、治事外，應講習時藝，請頒六堂欽定四書文資誦習。並報可。

He then petitioned to revive the Song Confucian Hu Yuan's method of separate halls for classical studies and practical administration. Students of the classics might specialize in one classic or study several, drawing on imperially authorized commentaries and transmitted exegeses to expound the moral principles governing daily life. Students of practical administration studied ritual institutions, taxation and corvée, law, frontier defense, hydraulic engineering, astronomy, river management, and mathematics. Some specialized in a single subject, others in several, all seeking thorough understanding of origins, practice, benefits, and abuses. Examinations required deep classical learning, practical understanding of governance, and demonstrated commitment to historical learning and care for the people. After three years, students were ranked to reward achievement and discipline failure. The proposal was approved. Students recorded insights and questions item by item for instructor critique, then submitted them to the hall on schedule. Quarterly and monthly examinations were revised to require one Four Books essay, one exegesis essay per classic, and one policy question on practical administration. The Gaozong Emperor lavished attention on the Imperial University. Sun Jiagan enforced a rigorous curriculum with generous rewards; the six halls' lecturers were the finest scholars of the age. Juren Wu Ding and Liang Xixing were appointed vice directors on recommendation for their classical scholarship. Jinshi Zhuang Hengyang; juren Pan Yongji, Cai Dejun, Qin Huitian, and Wu Nai; tribute students Guan Xianyao and Wang Wenzhen; and directorate student Xia Zonglan—all distinguished classical scholars—were successively appointed Directorate officials. They headed the six halls, each presiding over one classic, and were known as the "Four Worthies and Five Gentlemen." Teachers and students flourished together, all striving to pursue genuine learning. Libationer Zhao Guolin argued that beyond classical and practical studies, students should practice examination essays, and petitioned to distribute imperially approved Four Books model essays for study. This too was approved.

清代臨雍視學典禮綦重。順治九年，世祖首視學。先期行取衍聖公、五經博士率孔氏暨先賢各氏族裔赴京觀禮。帝釋奠畢，詣彝倫堂御講幄。祭酒講四書，司業講經。宣制勉太學諸生。越日，賜衍聖公冠服，國子監官賞賚有差。各氏後裔送監讀書。嗣是歷代舉行以為常。乾隆四十八年諭曰：「稽古國學之制，天子曰辟雍，所以行禮樂、宣德化、昭文明而流教澤，典至鉅也。國學為人文薈萃之地，規制宜隆。辟雍之立，元、明以來，典尚闕如，應增建以臻美備。」命尚書德保，尚書兼管國子監事劉墉，侍郎德成，仿禮經舊制，於彝倫堂南營建。明年，落成。又明年，高宗駕臨辟雍行講學禮。命大學士、伯伍彌泰，大學士管監事蔡新，進講四書。祭酒覺羅吉善、鄒奕孝，進講周易。頒御論二篇，宣示義蘊。王、公、衍聖公、大學士以下官，暨肄業觀禮諸生，三千八十八人，圜橋聽講。禮成，賜燕禮部，恩賚有加。是時天子右文，群臣躬遇休明，翊贊文化，彬彬稱極盛矣。嘉慶以後，視學典禮，率循不廢。咸豐初，猶一舉行焉。

The Qing placed enormous weight on the emperor's ceremony of inspecting learning at the Imperial Academy. In Shunzhi 9 (1652), the Shizu Emperor first performed the learning inspection. The Duke Who Extends Sageliness, Five Classics doctors, and descendants of Confucius and other sages were summoned to the capital in advance to witness the ceremony. After completing the libation sacrifice, the emperor proceeded to the imperial lecture pavilion in the Hall of Human Relations. The libationer lectured on the Four Books; the vice director on the classics. An edict was proclaimed exhorting the university students. The following day, the Duke Who Extends Sageliness received ceremonial robes; Directorate officials received graded rewards. Descendants of the sage lineages were sent to study at the Directorate. Subsequent emperors made this a regular practice. In Qianlong 48 (1783) an edict declared: "The ancient National University system—the Son of Heaven's piyong—exists to perform ritual and music, spread moral transformation, display civilization, and extend educational grace. Its significance is paramount. The National University gathers the realm's finest scholars; its institutions should be commensurately grand. The piyong hall had been absent since Yuan and Ming times; it should be rebuilt to complete the institution." Ministers Debao and Liu Yong, the latter also supervising Directorate affairs, and Vice Minister Decheng were ordered to build it south of the Hall of Human Relations according to classical ritual specifications. It was completed the following year. The year after, the Gaozong Emperor personally presided over the lecture ceremony at the piyong. Grand Secretary and Earl Wu Mitai and Grand Secretary Cai Xin, who supervised Directorate affairs, lectured on the Four Books. Libationers Janggiya Jishan and Zou Yixiao lectured on the Book of Changes. The emperor issued two imperial essays expounding their meaning. Three thousand eighty-eight princes, dukes, the Duke Who Extends Sageliness, grand secretaries, officials, and students gathered around the bridge to hear the lecture. After the ceremony, a banquet was held at the Ministry of Rites with generous rewards. The emperor honored learning; his ministers, living in an age of enlightenment, assisted in spreading culture—a refinement acclaimed as reaching its zenith. After Jiaqing, the learning-inspection ceremony was generally maintained. Early in Xianfeng it was still performed once.

道光末，詔整飭南學，住學者百餘人，監規頹廢已久，迄難振作。咸豐軍興，歲費折發，章程亦屢更。同治初元，以國學專課文藝，無裨實學，令兼課論、策。用經、史、性理諸書命題，獎勵留心時務者。明年，增發歲費三千兩。九年，乃復舊額。選文行優者四十人住南學，厚給廩餼，文風稍稍興起。光緒二年，增二十名。十一年，許各省舉人入監，曰舉監。其後無論舉人、貢監生，凡非正印官未投供，舉、貢未傳到教習，均得入監，以廣裁成。

Late in Daoguang, an edict ordered reform of the Southern Academy. Though more than a hundred students resided there, Directorate regulations had long fallen into disuse and proved difficult to restore. With the outbreak of war in Xianfeng, annual allocations were cut and regulations repeatedly revised. Early in Tongzhi, because the National University taught only literary arts without practical benefit, disquisitions and policy essays were added to the curriculum. Examination topics drew on classics, histories, and Neo-Confucian texts, rewarding students attentive to current affairs. The following year, annual funding was increased by three thousand taels. In Tongzhi 9, the original allocation was restored. Forty students of superior scholarship were selected for the Southern Academy with generous stipends, and literary culture gradually revived. In Guangxu 2 (1876), twenty additional places were created. In Guangxu 11 (1885), provincial juren were permitted to enter the Directorate as juren directorate students. Thereafter juren and tribute or directorate students alike—whether or not they held principal appointments or teaching assignments—were permitted to enter the Directorate to broaden educational reach.

貢監生諸色目多沿明制，歲貢，取府、州、縣學食廩年深者，挨次升貢。順治二年，命直省歲貢士京師。府學歲一人，州學三歲二人，縣學二歲一人，一正二陪。學政嚴加遴選，濫充發回原學。五名以上，學政罰俸。十五年，令到部時詳查，年力強壯者，乃許送監。康熙元年，減貢額，府三歲二人，州二歲一人，縣三歲一人。八年，復照順治二年例。二十六年，罷歲貢廷試。其後但由學政挨序考准咨部選授本省訓導。得缺後，巡撫一加考驗，原入監者益鮮矣。恩貢，因明制，國家有慶典或登極詔書，以當貢者充之。順治元年，詔直省府、州、縣學，以本年正貢作恩貢，次貢作歲貢。歷代恩詔皆如之。九年，五氏子孫觀禮生員十五人，送監讀書，准作恩貢。乾隆後，恩賜臨雍觀禮聖賢后裔廩、增、附生入監以為常。至康、乾間，天子東巡，親詣闕里，拔取五氏、十三氏子孫生員貢成均，則加恩聖裔，非恆制也。拔貢，因明選貢遺制，順治元年舉行。順天六人，直省府學二人，州、縣學各一人。康熙十年，令學臣於考取一、二等生員內，遴選文行兼優者貢太學，從祭酒查祿請也。明年，始選拔八旗生員，滿洲、蒙古二人，漢軍一人。時各省選貢多冒濫，三十七八年間，祭酒特默德、孫岳頒面試山西選拔張漢翀等六名，陝西呂爾恆等四名，廣東陳其瑋等三名，均文理不堪，字畫舛謬，原卷駁回，學臣參處，遂停選拔。雍正元年，禮部尚書陳元龍疏請嚴成均肄業之規。部議，太學監生，皆由捐納，能文之士稀少，應令學臣照舊例選拔送監。從之。五年，世宗以歲貢較食廩淺深，多年力衰憊之人，欲得英才，必須選拔。命嗣後六年選拔一次。明年，又諭學政選拔不拘一、二等生員，酌試時務策論，果有識見才幹，再訪平日品行，即未列優等，亦許選拔。故雍、乾間充貢國學，以選拔為最盛。

Tribute and directorate student categories largely followed Ming practice. Annual tribute selected the longest-serving stipendiary students from prefectural, departmental, and district schools in order of seniority. In Shunzhi 2 (1645), provinces were ordered to send annual tribute scholars to the capital. Prefectural schools sent one annually, departmental schools two every three years, district schools one every two years—one principal and two alternates each. Education intendants conducted strict selection; unqualified candidates were returned to their schools. Five or more such cases resulted in salary penalties for the education intendant. In Shunzhi 15 (1658), candidates were inspected upon arrival at the ministry; only those still vigorous were sent to the Directorate. In Kangxi 1 (1662), tribute quotas were reduced to two per three years for prefectural schools, one per two years for departmental schools, and one per three years for district schools. In Kangxi 8 (1669), the Shunzhi 2 quotas were restored. In Kangxi 26 (1687), the palace examination for annual tribute students was abolished. Thereafter education intendants examined them in order, referred them to the ministry, and appointed them as provincial instructors. After appointment, governors-general conducted an additional examination; fewer annual tribute students entered the Directorate. Grace tribute followed Ming practice: on state celebrations or imperial accessions, the student next in line for annual tribute was advanced as grace tribute. In Shunzhi 1 (1644), an edict ordered that the year's principal tribute candidate become grace tribute and the next annual tribute. Subsequent grace edicts followed the same practice. In Shunzhi 9 (1652), fifteen licentiates from the Five Sage lineages who witnessed the ceremony were sent to the Directorate and granted grace tribute status. After Qianlong, it became regular practice to grant sage descendants who witnessed the imperial learning inspection entrance to the Directorate as stipendiary, augmented, or attached students. During the Kangxi and Qianlong reigns, when emperors toured the east and visited Qufu in person, selecting descendants of the Five and Thirteen Sage lineages for the Imperial University, this was special favor to sage descendants, not regular practice. Selected tribute followed the Ming selected-tribute system, instituted in Shunzhi 1 (1644). Shuntian sent six, each provincial prefectural school two, and each departmental and district school one. In Kangxi 10 (1671), education officials were ordered to select first- and second-class licentiates of combined literary and moral excellence for the Imperial University, following Libationer Cha Lu's petition. The following year, Eight Banner licentiates were first included: two Manchu and Mongol, one Han Banner. Provincial selected tribute had become rife with unqualified candidates. In Kangxi 37–38, Libationers Temude and Sun Yueban personally examined Shanxi's six selected candidates including Zhang Hanchong, Shaanxi's four including Lü Erheng, and Guangdong's three including Chen Qiwei—all failed literary standards with erroneous characters. Their papers were rejected, education officials punished, and selection suspended. In Yongzheng 1 (1723), Minister of Rites Chen Yuanlong petitioned for stricter Imperial University study regulations. The ministry ruled that because directorate students entered through purchase and able scholars were scarce, education officials should resume selecting candidates for the Directorate. The proposal was approved. In Yongzheng 5 (1727), the Shizong Emperor observed that annual tribute based on stipend seniority often produced elderly candidates; to obtain outstanding talent, selection was essential. Selection was ordered every six years thereafter. The following year, education intendants were instructed not to confine selection to first- and second-class licentiates but to test policy essays on current affairs; candidates demonstrating insight and ability, whatever their rank, could be selected after inquiry into their conduct. Selected tribute to the National University reached its peak under Yongzheng and Qianlong.

乾隆初定朝考制，列一、二等者，揀選引見錄用。三等劄監肄業。尋停揀選例。三年期滿，祭酒等分別等第，覈實保薦，用知縣、教職。七年，帝以拔貢六年一舉，人多缺少，妨舉人銓選之路。且生員優者，應科舉時，自可脫穎而出，不專藉選拔為進身。改十二年一舉。遂為永制。十六年，以天下教官多昏耄，濫竽戀棧。雖定例六年甄別，長官每以閒曹，多方寬假。諭詳加澄汰。廷臣議，督、撫三年澄汰教職員缺，以朝考揀選拔貢充補。未入揀選者，劄監肄業如舊。四十一年，定朝考優等兼用七品小京官。五十五年，朝考始用覆試。學政選拔分二場，試四書文、經文、策論。乾隆十七年，經文改經解。二十三年，增五言八韻詩。會同督、撫覆試。朝考試書藝一、詩一。副榜入監，順治二年，令順天鄉試中式副榜增、附，准作貢監。廩生及恩、拔、歲貢，免坐監，與廷試。十五年，他貢停，惟副榜照舊解送。康熙元年，停副貢額。十一年，以查祿奏復，舊制優貢之選，與拔貢並重。古順治二年，令直省不拘廩、增、附生，選文行兼優者，大學二人、小學一人送監。康熙二十四年，以監生止輸納一途，貧窶之士無由觀光，令照順治二年例選送。雍正間，始析貢監名色，廩、增准作優貢，附生准作優監。乾隆四年，限大省無過五、六名，中省三、四名，小省一、二名，任缺無濫。學政三年會同督、撫保題，分試兩場，略同選拔。試四書文、經解、經文、策論，後增詩。二十三年，定優生到部，如拔貢朝考例。試書藝一、詩一，文理明通者升太學；荒疏者發回，學政議處。二十九年，學臣有以拔貢年分暫停舉優為請者，部議拔貢十二年一舉，而學臣三年任滿，宜舉優黜劣，通省不過數名，應仍舊例。嘉慶十九年，御史黃中傑條奏，請與拔貢一體廷試錄用。禮部議駁。請免來京朝考，示體恤。帝以優生經朝考准作貢生，斯合貢於王廷之義。停朝考，名實不符。弗許。然卒以無錄用之條，多不赴京報考。同治二年，議定甲子科始廷試優生，仿順天鄉試例，分南、北、中卷。八旗、奉天、直隸、山東、山西、河南、陝西、甘肅為北卷，江蘇、江西、浙江、安徽、福建、湖北、湖南為南卷，四川、廣東、廣西、雲南、貴州為中卷。考列一、二等用知縣、教職，三等用訓導。恩、拔、副、歲、優，時稱「五貢」。科目之外，由此者謂之正途。所以別於雜流也。

Early in Qianlong, the court examination system was established: first- and second-class candidates were selected for imperial audience and appointment. Third-class candidates were assigned to study at the Directorate. The selection procedure was soon discontinued. After three years, the libationer ranked students and recommended them for appointment as magistrates or instructors. In Qianlong 7 (1742), the emperor held that selection every six years produced too many candidates and obstructed juren advancement. Moreover, outstanding licentiates could distinguish themselves at the civil examinations without relying solely on selection. The interval was changed to twelve years. This became permanent practice. In Qianlong 16 (1751), because instructors throughout the realm were often senile and unqualified yet clung to their posts, although regulations required review every six years, superiors often treated instructor posts as sinecures and granted excessive leniency. An edict ordered thorough review and dismissal of unfit instructors. Court ministers proposed that governors-general and governors review instructor vacancies every three years and fill them with selected tribute graduates from the court examination. Those not selected continued to study at the Directorate as before. In Qianlong 41 (1776), superior court examination graduates were also appointed seventh-rank capital officials. In Qianlong 55 (1790), re-examination was introduced for the court examination. Education intendant selection comprised two sessions testing Four Books essays, classic texts, and policy essays. In Qianlong 17 (1752), classic text examinations were changed to exegesis. In Qianlong 23 (1758), regulated verse in five characters and eight rhymes was added. Governors-general and governors conducted joint re-examinations. The court examination required one essay on calligraphy and one poem. Those who entered the Directorate via the supplementary board: in 1645, Shuntian provincial examinees on the supplementary list who were additional or supplementary licentiates were allowed to qualify as tribute students at the Directorate. Grain-stipend licentiates and grace, selected, and annual tribute students were exempt from studying at the Directorate and proceeded directly to the palace examination. In 1658, all other tribute categories were suspended; only supplementary-board candidates continued to be forwarded as before. In 1662, the quota for supplementary tribute was abolished. In 1672, on a memorial from Zha Lu, it was restored; under the former system, selection as superior tribute carried weight equal to selected tribute. As early as 1645, the court had ordered that provinces need not limit candidates to a single licentiate class, but choose men outstanding in scholarship and conduct—two from major prefectural schools and one from minor ones—for the Directorate. In 1685, because admission to the Directorate had been reduced to purchase alone, impoverished scholars had no way to reach the capital; selection and forwarding were restored under the 1645 precedent. Under Yongzheng, tribute and directorate categories were first sorted out: grain-stipend and additional licentiates could qualify as superior tribute; supplementary licentiates as superior directorate students. In 1739, large provinces were capped at five or six nominees, medium provinces at three or four, and small provinces at one or two, preventing indiscriminate filling of posts. Every three years the education intendant, acting with the governor-general and governor, submitted nominees for examination in two sessions, much like the selected-tribute procedure. Candidates sat for Four Books essays, exegesis, classic texts, and policy essays; poetry was added later. In 1758, superior students reaching the ministry were placed under the same court-examination rules as selected tribute. They were examined in one composition and one poem; those whose writing showed clarity and mastery were advanced to the Imperial College; the crude or negligent were sent home for the education intendant to discipline. In 1764, a provincial commissioner asked to suspend superior selection in years when selected tribute was held; the ministry ruled that with selected tribute every twelve years and commissioners serving three-year terms, each province should still nominate only a handful of superior candidates and demote the inferior, as before. In 1814, Censor Huang Zhongjie submitted a detailed memorial asking that superior students receive palace examination and appointment on the same terms as selected tribute. The Ministry of Rites deliberated and rejected the proposal. He also asked that they be excused from traveling to the capital for the court examination, as a gesture of leniency. The Emperor replied that superior students who passed the court examination and were recognized as tribute students fulfilled the very meaning of presenting tribute at court. Abolishing the court examination would make the title and the practice diverge. He refused. In the end, however, with no path to office, many never traveled to the capital to take the examination. In 1863, the court decided that beginning with the jiazi cycle, superior students would sit a palace examination divided, like the Shuntian provincial examination, into southern, northern, and central rolls. The northern roll comprised the Eight Banners, Fengtian, Zhili, Shandong, Shanxi, Henan, Shaanxi, and Gansu; the southern roll, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Anhui, Fujian, Hubei, and Hunan; the central roll, Sichuan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan, and Guizhou. First- and second-class graduates were appointed magistrates or instructors; third-class graduates, assistant instructors. Grace, selected, supplementary, annual, and superior tribute were collectively known as the 'Five Tribute' categories. Apart from the examination curriculum, advancement through these channels was termed the regular path. Thus they were distinguished from irregular, purchased, or miscellaneous routes into office.

恩監，由八旗漢文官學生、算學滿、漢肄業生考取。又臨雍觀禮聖賢后裔，由武生、奉祀生、俊秀入監者，皆為恩監。例貢與例監相仿，由廩、增、附生或俊秀監生援例報捐貢生者，曰例貢；由俊秀報捐監生者，曰例監。凡捐納入官必由之。或在監肄業，或在籍，均為監生。恩廕，凡滿、漢子弟奉敕送監讀書，恩詔分別內外文武品級，廕子入監。順治二年，定文官京四品、外三品以上，武官二品以上，俱送一子入監。十一年，覺羅廕生照各官廕生例，一體送監。包衣佐領下官子弟，向例不得為廕監。康熙九年，例除。宗室給廕入監，自康熙五十二年始也。難廕始順治四年，以殉難陝西固原道副使呂鳴夏子入監讀書。九年，定內、外滿、漢三品以上官，三年任滿，勤事以死者，廕一子入監。後廣其例，凡三司首領，州、縣佐貳官死難者，亦得廕子矣。

Grace directorate students came from graduates of the Eight Banners Chinese official schools and from Manchu and Han students completing the mathematics course. So were descendants of sages who attended imperial lecture ceremonies, military licentiates, ritual-attendant students, and distinguished youths admitted to the Directorate—all counted as grace directorate students. Precedent tribute paralleled precedent directorate status: grain-stipend, additional, or supplementary licentiates, or distinguished directorate students who purchased tribute standing, were termed precedent tribute; distinguished youths who purchased directorate standing were termed precedent directorate students. Every route into office through purchase had to pass through these categories. Whether studying at the Directorate or remaining on local registers, all were counted as directorate students. Grace yin privilege: when Manchu and Han officials' sons were sent by imperial order to the Directorate, successive grace edicts set civil and military rank thresholds at court and in the provinces, and yin sons were admitted. In 1645, civil officials of fourth rank or higher at court and third rank or higher in the provinces, and military officials of second rank or higher, were each required to send one son to the Directorate. In 1654, Aisin Gioro yin students were placed on the same footing as other officials' yin sons and sent to the Directorate. Sons of bond-servant officials under company commanders had traditionally been barred from yin admission to the Directorate. In 1670, that restriction was lifted. Yin admission for imperial clansmen began in 1713. Martyrdom yin dated from 1647, when the son of Lü Mingxia—vice commissioner on the Shaanxi Guyuan circuit, who died in service—was admitted to the Directorate. In 1652, officials of third rank or higher—Manchu and Han, at court or in the provinces—who completed a three-year term and died in diligent service could yin one son into the Directorate. Later the rule was widened so that heads of provincial commissions and assistant prefectural and county officials who died in martyrdom could yin a son as well.

外國肄業生，康熙二十七年，琉球國王始遣陪臣子弟梁成楫等隨貢使至，入貢肄業。雍正六年，鄂羅斯遣官生魯喀等留學中國，以滿、漢助教等教之，月給銀米器物，學成遣歸，先後絡繹。至同治間，琉球官生猶有至者。

Foreign students at the Directorate: in 1688, the king of Ryukyu first sent the sons of attendant ministers, including Liang Chengji, with the tribute embassy to pursue study there. In 1728, Russia sent students such as Luka to remain in China; Manchu and Han assistant instructors taught them on a monthly stipend of silver, grain, and supplies, and when their studies ended they were sent home—missions of this kind followed one after another. As late as the Tongzhi era, Ryukyuan students were still arriving.

他如順治二年，於隨征入關奉天十五學，取三十人入監，為天下勸。十一年，定隨征廩生准作貢監。生員有軍功二等，准作生監。更有軍功二等，准作貢生，謂之功貢。未幾例停，則開國時權宜之制也。

Among other cases, in 1645 thirty students were chosen from the fifteen Fengtian schools that had followed the Qing armies through the pass and admitted to the Directorate as a model for the empire. In 1654, campaign-following grain-stipend licentiates were permitted to become tribute directorate students. Licentiates with second-class military merit could qualify as student directorate status. With a further second-class merit citation, they could qualify as tribute students—termed merit tribute. The practice was soon discontinued—a wartime expedient of the dynasty's founding years.

考送校錄，始於乾隆三年，令國子監選正途貢生，年力少壯、字畫端楷者十人，送武英殿備謄錄。年滿議敘。三十四年例停，歸吏部謄錄貢生內選取。嗣以吏部無合例者，仍由在監拔、副、優貢生考選。嘉慶間增十名，後不復行。

Selection of collation copyists began in 1738, when the Directorate was told to nominate ten young regular-path tribute students with neat script for copying duty at the Hall of Military Glory. At the end of their term, merits were reviewed for promotion. In 1769 the Directorate route was closed; selection returned to collation tribute students under the Ministry of Personnel. When the ministry later lacked qualified men, selection again fell to selected, supplementary, and superior tribute students in the Directorate. During Jiaqing ten additional posts were authorized, but the expansion was not continued.

五貢就職，學政會同巡撫驗看，咨部依科分名次、年分先後，恩、拔、副貢以教諭選用，歲貢以訓導選用。康熙中，捐納歲貢，並用訓導。雍正初，捐納貢生，教諭改縣丞，訓導改主簿。既仍許廩生捐歲貢者，用訓導；恩、拔、副貢年力富強者，得就職直隸州州判。嘉慶以後，凡朝考未錄之拔貢及恩、副、歲、優貢生，遇鄉試年，得具呈就職、就教。優貢就教，附歲貢末用訓導。道光初，許滿、蒙正途貢生就職，與滿員通較年分先後選用。貢監考職，定例必監期已滿，乃許送考。惟特恩考職，不論監期滿否。凡正途、捐納各項貢、監生，及候補訁謄錄、教習、校錄，一體送考。其已就教、就職及捐職、襲世職者不許。初制，考職歲一舉，貢、監一例以州同、州判、縣丞、主簿、吏目錄用。乾隆元年，定考職以鄉試年，恩科不考。恩、拔、副貢考列一等以州同、二等以州判、三等以縣丞選用。歲貢一等以主簿、二等以吏目選用。原就教者聽。捐納貢監考取如歲貢例。五十六年停考職。嘉慶五年，僅一行之。光緒三十一年，直隸總督袁世凱等奏停科舉摺寬籌舉貢生員出路一條，「請十年三科內優貢加額錄取。己酉選拔如舊，朝考用京官知縣。督、撫、學政三科內考選學貢通算學、地理、財政、兵事、交涉、鐵路、礦務、警察、外國政法之一者，三年一次，保送若干名，略視會試中額兩三倍。赴京試取者，用主事、中書、知縣」。詔議行。明年，政務處詳議，己酉拔貢，照向額倍取，本年丙午考優。以後三年一考，視例額加四倍。廩生出貢許倍額。部院考用謄錄，分舉人、五貢、生員三等。二年期滿獎敘。舉人、優、拔，擇尤改用七品小京官。又為廣就職之例，五貢一體以直隸州州判，按察、鹽運經歷，散州州判、經歷，縣丞，分別註選，或分發試用。蓋五貢終清之世，未嘗廢棄也。

When Five Tribute graduates took up posts, the education intendant and governor inspected them and reported to the ministry; by examination cycle and seniority, grace, selected, and supplementary tribute were appointed instructors, annual tribute assistant instructors. Under Kangxi, purchased annual tribute was likewise appointed to assistant instructorships. Early in Yongzheng, purchased tribute students who would have become instructors were made assistant magistrates instead, and assistant instructors chief clerks. Thereafter grain-stipend licentiates who purchased annual tribute still took assistant instructorships; while robust grace, selected, and supplementary tribute graduates could take posts as assistant judges in Zhili prefectures. After Jiaqing, selected tribute not placed at the court examination and all grace, supplementary, annual, and superior tribute students could, in provincial examination years, petition to take civil posts or teaching appointments. Superior tribute seeking instructorships were ranked after annual tribute and assigned assistant instructorships. Early in Daoguang, Manchu and Mongol regular-path tribute students were allowed to take office, their seniority weighed together with Manchu appointees. For the tribute-directorate examination for office, regulations required completion of the Directorate term before a candidate could be forwarded. Only in special-grace examination years was the Directorate term requirement waived. All regular-path and purchased tribute and directorate students, together with candidates awaiting collation, instructorship, or proofreader posts, sat the examination alike. Those already in teaching posts or office, who had purchased rank, or who held inherited posts were ineligible. Originally the examination for office was annual; tribute and directorate students alike were registered for assistant prefect, assistant judge, assistant magistrate, chief clerk, and clerical posts. In 1736, the examination for office was tied to provincial examination years and was not held in grace-cycle years. Grace, selected, and supplementary tribute who ranked first class were appointed assistant prefects, second class assistant judges, third class assistant magistrates. Annual tribute of first class became chief clerks; second class, clerical posts. Candidates who had originally sought instructorships were left free to keep them. Purchased tribute and directorate students who passed were appointed under the annual tribute rules. In 1791 the examination for office was suspended. In 1800 it was held only once more. In 1905, Yuan Shikai, governor-general of Zhili, and others memorialized on creating outlets for tribute students and licentiates after the abolition of the civil examinations, proposing 'expanded quotas for superior tribute within three examination cycles over ten years. Selected tribute in the jiyou cycle to continue as before; court examination graduates to receive capital posts or magistracies. Over three cycles, governors and education intendants would examine and forward academic tribute skilled in mathematics, geography, finance, military affairs, diplomacy, railways, mining, police work, or foreign law; every three years a cohort roughly two or three times the metropolitan quota would be sent to the capital. Those who passed in the capital would be appointed secretaries, Hanlin compilers, or magistrates.' The throne ordered the proposals deliberated and carried out. The following year the Office of Government Affairs worked out the details: jiyou selected tribute would double its quota; superior tribute would be examined in the current bingwu year. Thereafter examinations would be held every three years at four times the standing quota. Grain-stipend licentiates nominated for tribute might be doubled in number. Ministries and courts examined collation copyists in three grades: juren, Five Tribute graduates, and licentiates. After two years, meritorious service was rewarded with promotion. The best juren and superior or selected tribute graduates could be promoted to seventh-rank minor capital posts. Rules for taking office were widened as well: all Five Tribute graduates could be registered for Zhili assistant judges, provincial surveillance and salt-transport secretaries, prefectural assistant judges and secretaries, and assistant magistracies, either for formal selection or probationary assignment. In this way the Five Tribute categories endured through the entire Qing dynasty.

算學隸國子監，稱國子監算學。乾隆四年，額設學生滿、漢各十二，蒙古、漢軍各六。續設漢肄業生二十四。遵御制數理精蘊，分線、面、體三部。部限一年通曉。七政限二年。有季考、歲考。五年期滿考取者，滿、蒙、漢軍學生咨部，以本旗天文生序補。漢學生舉人用博士，貢監生童用天文生。

Mathematics was administered under the Directorate of Education as the Directorate Mathematics School. In 1739 quotas were set at twelve Manchu and twelve Han students, plus six Mongol and six Han Banner students. Twenty-four additional Han students pursuing study were later enrolled. Following the emperor's Principles of Mathematical Astronomy, instruction was divided into three parts: lines, surfaces, and solids. Each part had to be mastered within one year. The seven luminaries required two years. Quarterly and annual examinations were held. After five years, Manchu, Mongol, and Han Banner students who passed were reported to the ministry and appointed astronomical officers in their banners by seniority. Han students who were juren became erudites; tribute students, directorate students, and licentiates became astronomical officers.

此外隸國學者，為八旗官學。順治元年，若琳奏：「臣監僻在城東北隅，滿員子弟就學不便，議於滿洲八固山地方各立書院，以國學二廳、六堂教官分教之，以時赴監考課。」下部議行。於是八旗各建學舍。每佐領下取官學生一名，以十名習漢書，餘習滿書。二年，從所蘊言，合兩旗為一學。每學教習十人，教習酌取京省生員。其後學額屢有增減，教習於國學肄業生考選，止用恩、拔、副、歲貢生。如無其人，準例監生亦得考取。舉人原就，一例考選。雍正元年，於八旗蒙古護軍、領催、驍騎內，選熟練國語、蒙古語者十六人，充蒙古教習。向例官學生分佐領選送。五年，定每旗額設百名。滿洲六十，習清、漢書各半。蒙古、漢軍各二十，通一旗選擇，不拘佐領。年幼者習清書，稍長者習漢文。撥八旗教養兵額滿洲三十，蒙古、漢軍各十名錢糧分給學生。定漢教習每旗五人。乾隆初，定官學生肄業以十年為率，三年內講誦經書，監臣考驗，擇材資聰穎有志力學者，歸漢文班；年長原學繙譯者，歸滿文班。三年，欽派大臣考取漢文明通者，拔為監生，升太學。與漢貢監究心明經治事，期滿，擇尤保薦，考選錄用。八年，定漢教習三年期滿，分等引見。一等用知縣，二等用知縣或教職銓選。一等再教習三年，果實心訓課者，知縣即用。蒙古教習五年期滿實心訓課者，用護軍校、驍騎校。滿助教每旗二人，以八旗文進士、舉人，繙譯進士、舉人，恩、拔、副、歲貢生，文生員，繙譯生員，廢員，筆帖式考取。三十三年，下五旗包衣每旗增設學生十名。滿洲六，蒙古、漢軍各二，不給錢糧。五十四年，於每旗百名內裁十名，選取經書熟、文理優者二十人，加給膏火資鼓勵。嘉、道以後，官學積漸廢弛，八旗子弟僅恃此進身。教習停年期滿予錄用例，月課虛應故事。雖明諭屢督責，迄難振刷。光緒初，力籌整頓。每學以滿、漢科甲官一人為管學官，專司考覈學生課程，教習勤惰。簡派滿、漢進士出身大員二人為管理八旗官學大臣。每學添設翰林編、檢一員。月課季考，分司考校。春秋赴監會考如舊。

Beyond these, schools under the Imperial College included the Eight Banners official schools. In 1644, Director Ruolin memorialized: "The Imperial College stands in an out-of-the-way corner northeast of the city, making attendance difficult for Banner youths. We propose establishing academies in each Manchu Banner garrison, with instructors from the College's two halls and six lecture halls teaching locally and reporting to the Directorate for periodic examinations." The ministries deliberated and approved. Each Banner thereupon built school quarters. Each company commander nominated one official school student; one in ten studied Chinese texts, the remainder Manchu script. In 1645, on Suoyun's recommendation, two Banners were merged into a single school. Each school employed ten instructors, chosen as appropriate from licentiates in the capital and provinces. Enrollment quotas were later adjusted repeatedly; instructors were chosen from students at the Imperial College, limited to grace, selected, supplementary, and annual tribute graduates. When no such candidates existed, precedent directorate students could also qualify by examination. Serving presented licentiates were likewise eligible for selection by examination on the same terms. In 1723, sixteen Banner Mongols from the guards, squad leaders, and vanguard cavalry who were proficient in Manchu and Mongol were appointed Mongol-language instructors. Under former rules, official school students were nominated and sent by company commander. In 1727, each Banner's enrollment was fixed at one hundred. Sixty places were for Manchus, half studying Manchu texts and half Chinese. Mongol and Han Banners had twenty each; selection was banner-wide and not confined to individual companies. Younger students studied Manchu script; older ones Chinese literature. Thirty Manchu, ten Mongol, and ten Han Banner educational stipend soldier quotas were assigned, and their grain pay distributed to students. Five Chinese instructors were fixed per Banner. Early in the Qianlong reign, the standard course for official school students was set at ten years; in the first three years they studied the classics under examination by the Directorate minister, and those of keen talent and scholarly ambition were placed in the Chinese class; older students who had originally pursued translation were placed in the Manchu class. In the third year, an imperially appointed minister examined those proficient in Chinese and advanced them as directorate students to the Imperial University. Together with Han tribute and directorate students they pursued the classics and practical governance; at term's end the outstanding were recommended for examination and appointment. In 1743, the three-year term for Chinese instructors was fixed; upon completion they were presented to the throne by grade. First-class graduates were appointed magistrates; second-class, magistrates or educational posts by selection. First-class instructors who served another three years and truly taught with dedication could be appointed magistrate outright. Mongol instructors who completed five years and taught diligently were appointed guard or vanguard sergeants. Two Manchu assistant instructors per Banner were chosen from Eight Banners civil jinshi and licentiates, translation jinshi and licentiates, grace, selected, supplementary, and annual tribute students, civil and translation licentiates, dismissed officials, and clerks. In 1768, for bondservants of the five lower Banners, ten additional students per Banner were authorized. Six Manchu, two Mongol, and two Han Banner places—without grain stipends. In 1789, ten places were cut from each Banner's quota of one hundred; twenty students with thorough command of the classics and superior literary skill received additional stipends as encouragement. After the Jiaqing and Daoguang reigns, official schools gradually decayed, and Banner youths depended on them alone for advancement. Instructors received routine appointment when their terms ended; monthly examinations became hollow formalities. Though repeated imperial edicts urged reform, revitalization proved impossible. In the early Guangxu period, serious efforts were made to reorganize the schools. Each school was assigned one Manchu or Han jinshi official as superintendent to oversee students' coursework and instructors' diligence. Two senior officials of jinshi rank, one Manchu and one Han, were appointed commissioners for the Eight Banners official schools. Each school added one Hanlin compiler or reviewer. Monthly and seasonal examinations were assigned to different officers for supervision. In spring and autumn they still reported to the Directorate for joint examinations as before.

同、光間，國學及官學造就科舉之才，亦頗稱盛。然囿於帖括，舊制鮮變通。三十一年，監臣奏於南學添設科學，未幾，裁國子監，並設學部。文廟祀典，設國子丞一人掌之。八旗官學改並學堂，算學亦改稱欽天監天文算學，隸欽天監。而太學遂與科舉並廢雲。

During the Tongzhi and Guangxu reigns, the Imperial College and official schools still produced a considerable number of examination graduates. Yet instruction remained confined to the eight-legged essay, and the old institutions scarcely changed. In 1905 the Directorate minister memorialized adding modern sciences at the Southern Academy; soon the Imperial Directorate was abolished and the Ministry of Education established. Sacrificial rites at the Confucian temple were placed under one assistant director of the former Directorate. Eight Banners official schools were merged into modern schools; the mathematics course was renamed the Astronomical and Mathematical Study and placed under the Astronomical Directorate. Thus the Imperial University and the examination system were abolished together.

宗學肇自虞廷，命夔典樂，教胄子。三代無宗學名，而義已備。唐、宋後，有其名而制弗詳。清順治十年，八旗各設宗學，選滿洲生員為師。凡未封宗室子弟，十歲以上，俱入學習清書。雍正二年定制，左、右兩翼設滿、漢學各一，王、公、將軍及閒散宗室子弟十八歲以下，入學分習清、漢書，兼騎射。以王、公一人總其事。設總、副管，以宗室分尊齒長者充之。清書教習二人，選罷閒旗員及進士、舉人、貢生、生員善繙譯者充之。騎射教習二人，選罷閒旗員及護軍校善射者充之。每學生十人，設漢書教習一人，禮部考取舉、貢充之。三年期滿，分別等第錄用。十一年，兩學各以翰林官二人董率課程，分日講授經義、文法。乾隆初，以滿、漢京堂各一人總稽學課，月試經義、繙譯及射藝。九年，定每屆五年，簡大臣合試兩翼學生，欽定名次，以會試中式註冊。俟會試年，習繙譯者，與八旗繙譯貢生同引見，賜進士，用府屬額外主事。習漢文者，與天下貢士同殿試，賜進士甲第，用翰林部屬等官。十年，考試漢文、繙譯無佳作。諭曰：「我朝崇尚本務，宗室子弟俱講究清文，精通騎射。誠恐學習漢文，流於漢人浮靡之習。世祖諭停習漢書，所以敦本實、黜浮華也。嗣後宗室子弟不能習漢文者，其各嫺習武藝，儲為國家有用之器。」明年，定學額，左翼七十，右翼六十。二十一年，裁漢教習九人，改繙譯教習。增騎射教習，翼各一人。嘉慶初，畫一兩翼學額，增右翼十名。定每學教習滿三人，漢四人。十三年，兩翼各增學額三十，足百名，為永制。

Imperial clan schools originated in the court of Yu, when Kui was ordered to preside over music and instruct the heir's sons. The Three Dynasties had no term "imperial clan school," yet the institution was fully in place. After Tang and Song the name existed, but the regulations were not set out in detail. In Shunzhi 10 of the Qing, each Banner established an imperial clan school and chose Manchu licentiates as teachers. All sons of unenfeoffed clansmen aged ten or above entered to study Manchu script. In Yongzheng 2 regulations were fixed: the left and right wings each had Manchu and Chinese schools; princes, dukes, generals, and idle clansmen under eighteen entered to study Manchu or Chinese and archery. One prince or duke supervised the whole. Chief and deputy superintendents were filled by clansmen of senior rank and age. Two Manchu-script instructors were chosen from idle Banner members and from jinshi, licentiates, tribute students, and licentiates skilled in translation. Two archery instructors were chosen from idle Banner members and guard sergeants skilled in archery. For every ten students one Chinese instructor was appointed, examined and assigned by the Ministry of Rites from licentiates or tribute students. Upon completing a three-year term, instructors were ranked by grade and appointed. In year 11, each school had two Hanlin officials to direct the curriculum, lecturing on the classics and grammar on alternate days. Early in Qianlong, one Manchu and one Han capital official each supervised instruction; monthly examinations covered classics, translation, and archery. In year 9, every five years a minister was dispatched to examine students of both wings jointly; ranks were fixed by imperial order and they were registered as having passed the metropolitan examination. In metropolitan examination years, students of translation, together with Eight Banners translation tribute students, were presented, granted jinshi, and appointed extra secretaries in prefectural administrations. Students of Chinese took the palace examination with all tribute scholars, were granted jinshi ranks, and appointed to Hanlin and ministry posts. In year 10, examinations in Chinese and translation produced no fine compositions. An edict stated: "Our dynasty esteems fundamental duties; imperial clansmen should all study Manchu and master archery. We truly fear that studying Chinese will lead them into the frivolous habits of the Han. Emperor Shizu ordered the cessation of Chinese study in order to strengthen substance and reject ornament. Hereafter, clansmen unable to study Chinese should each be skilled in martial arts and prepared as useful servants of the state." The next year quotas were fixed: seventy for the left wing, sixty for the right. In year 21, nine Chinese instructors were cut and replaced with translation instructors. Archery instructors were increased to one per wing. Early in Jiaqing, the quotas of both wings were unified and ten places added to the right wing. Each school was fixed at three Manchu instructors and four Chinese. In year 13, each wing added thirty places, bringing the total to one hundred—a permanent quota.

覺羅學，雍正七年，詔八旗於衙署旁設滿、漢學各一，覺羅子弟八歲至十八歲，入學讀書習射，規制略同宗學。總管王、公，春秋考驗。三年欽派大臣會同宗人府考試，分別獎懲。學成，與旗人同應歲、科試及鄉、會試，並考用中書、筆帖式。學額鑲黃旗六十一，正黃旗三十六，正白旗、正紅旗各四十，鑲白旗十五，鑲紅旗六十四，正藍旗三十九，鑲藍旗四十五。滿、漢教習，旗各二人。惟鑲白旗各一。

Aisin Gioro schools: in Yongzheng 7, the Eight Banners were ordered to establish Manchu and Chinese schools beside their yamen; Aisin Gioro sons aged eight to eighteen entered to read and practice archery, on regulations roughly like imperial clan schools. A prince or duke served as superintendent; examinations were held in spring and autumn. Every three years an imperially appointed minister examined jointly with the Imperial Clan Court, with rewards and punishments by rank. Upon completing their studies, they took the same annual, triennial, provincial, and metropolitan examinations as other Banner people and were examined for secretary and clerk posts. Enrollment quotas were: Bordered Yellow 61, Plain Yellow 36, Plain White and Plain Red 40 each, Bordered White 15, Bordered Red 64, Plain Blue 39, Bordered Blue 45. Manchu and Han instructors, two each per Banner. Only the Bordered White Banner had one each.

景山官學，康熙二十四年，令於北上門兩旁官房設官學，選內府三旗佐領、管領下幼童三百六十名。清書三房，各設教習三人。漢書三房，各設教習四人。初，滿教習用內府官老成者，漢教習禮部考取生員文理優通者。尋改選內閣善書、射之中書充滿教習，新進士老成者充漢教習。雍正後，漢教習以舉人、貢生考取，三年期滿，咨部敘用。學生肄業三年，考列一等用筆帖式，二等用庫使、庫守。乾隆四十四年，許回子佐領下選補學生四名。嘉慶間，定額鑲黃旗、正白旗均百二十四，正黃旗百四十，回童四。

Jingshan official school: in Kangxi 24, official quarters north of the Meridian Gate were set up as a school, and 360 young boys were chosen from company commanders and stewards of the inner three banners. For Manchu script, three rooms were set up, each with three instructors. For Chinese books, three rooms were set up, each with four instructors. At first Manchu instructors were seasoned inner-palace officials; Chinese instructors were licentiates of superior literary skill examined by the Ministry of Rites. Soon the selection changed to Grand Secretariat secretaries skilled in calligraphy and archery for Manchu instructors, and seasoned new jinshi for Chinese instructors. After Yongzheng, Chinese instructors were chosen from licentiates and tribute students; upon completing three years, the Ministry of Personnel was consulted for appointment. After three years of study, first-class students were appointed clerks; second-class, warehouse attendants or keepers. In Qianlong 44, four students from Muslim company commanders were permitted to enroll. During Jiaqing, quotas were fixed at Bordered Yellow and Plain White 124 each, Plain Yellow 140, and four Muslim youths.

咸安宮官學，雍正六年，詔選內府三旗佐領、管領下幼童及八旗俊秀者九十名，以翰林官居住咸安宮教之。漢書十二房，清書三房，各設教習一人，教射、教國語，各三人，如景山官學考取例。五年欽派大臣考試，一、二等用七、八品筆帖式。漢教習三年、清語騎射教習五年，分別議敘。乾隆初，定漢教習選取新進士，不足，於明通榜舉人考充。期滿，進士用主事、知縣，舉人用知縣、教職。二十三年以後，不論年分，許學生考繙譯中書、筆帖式、庫使。定教習漢九人，滿六人。

Xian'an Palace official school: in Yongzheng 6, ninety young boys from the inner three banners and outstanding Banner youths were chosen, and Hanlin officials residing at Xian'an Palace were appointed to teach them. Twelve Chinese rooms and three Manchu rooms each had one instructor; archery and Manchu language had three each, on the same selection rules as Jingshan official school. Every five years an imperial minister examined them; first- and second-class graduates were appointed seventh- and eighth-rank clerks. Chinese instructors served three years, Manchu-language and archery instructors five years—merits were deliberated separately for appointment. Early in Qianlong, Chinese instructors were chosen from new jinshi; if insufficient, presented licentiates from the Mingtong list were examined and appointed. Upon completion, jinshi were appointed secretaries or magistrates; licentiates, magistrates or educational posts. After year 23, regardless of years enrolled, students might be examined for translation secretary, clerk, or warehouse attendant. Quotas were fixed at nine Chinese instructors and six Manchu.

宗學、覺羅學隸宗人府，景山學、咸安宮學隸內務府。諸學總管、教習等，類乏通才，經費徒糜。甚者黌舍空虛，期滿時，例報成就學生若干名而已。光緒二十八年，翰林院侍讀寶熙奏請援同文館歸併大學堂例，將宗室、覺羅、八旗等官學改並中、小學堂，均歸管學大臣辦理。從之。

Imperial clan and Aisin Gioro schools were under the Imperial Clan Court; Jingshan and Xian'an Palace schools under the Imperial Household Department. Superintendents and instructors alike generally lacked able talent, and funds were wasted to no purpose. In the worst cases schoolhouses stood empty; at term's end they merely reported by precedent that a certain number of students had completed their studies. In 1902, Hanlin reader-in-waiting Bao Xi memorialized that, following the precedent of merging the Tongwen Guan into the university, imperial clan, Aisin Gioro, and Eight Banners official schools should be merged into primary and secondary schools, all under the commissioner of education. The court approved.

他如世職官學，八旗及禮部義學，健銳營、外火器營、圓明園、護軍營等學，皆清代特設，習滿、蒙語言文字。

Other institutions included hereditary-office official schools, Eight Banners and Ministry of Rites charity schools, and schools of the Vanguard Camp, Outer Firearms Camp, Yuanmingyuan, and Guard Corps—all Qing foundations for Manchu and Mongol language and script.

府、州、縣、衛儒學，明制具備，清因之。世祖勘定天下，命賑助貧生，優免在學生員，官給廩餼。順治七年，改南京國子監為江寧府學。尋頒臥碑文，刊石立直省學宮。諭禮部曰：「帝王敷治，文教為先。臣子致君，經術為本。自明末擾亂，日尋干戈，學問之道，闕焉未講。今天下漸定，朕將興文教，崇經術，以開太平。爾部傳諭直省學臣，訓督士子，凡理學、道德、經濟、典故諸書，務研求淹貫。明體則為真儒，達用則為良吏。果有實學，朕必不次簡拔，重加任用。」初，各省設督學道，以各部郎中進士出身者充之。惟順天、江南、浙江為提督學政，用翰林官。宣大、蘇松、江安、淮揚、肇高先皆分設，既乃裁併。上下江、湖南北則裁併後仍分設。雍正中，一體改稱學院，省設一人。奉天以府丞、台灣以台灣道兼之。甘肅自分闈後，始設學政。

Confucian schools at the prefectural, departmental, county, and guard levels followed the fully developed Ming system. When the Shunzhi Emperor pacified the realm, he ordered relief for impoverished students, privileges for enrolled licentiates, and official grain stipends. In 1650, the Nanjing Imperial Directorate was converted into the Jiangning prefectural school. Soon the reclining-stele inscription was issued, carved in stone, and set up at provincial Confucian schools. An edict to the Ministry of Rites read: "When emperors govern, cultural instruction comes first. When ministers serve their sovereign, classical learning is the foundation. Since the turmoil of late Ming, warfare consumed each day, and scholarly instruction was neglected. Now that the realm is gradually settled, I shall promote literary instruction, honor the classics, and open the age of great peace. Your ministry shall instruct provincial education commissioners to train scholars in Neo-Confucian principle, moral conduct, statecraft, and historical precedent until they are thoroughly mastered. Those who grasp principle become true scholars; those who apply it become capable officials. Those who show genuine learning I shall promote without regard to seniority and employ with distinction." At first each province had an education circuit, staffed by ministry directors who were jinshi graduates. Only Shuntian, Jiangnan, and Zhejiang had superintending education commissioners drawn from the Hanlin. Circuits for Xuanda, Sujiang, Jiangan, Huaiyang, and Zhaoqing were first set up separately and later merged. The Upper and Lower Yangzi and Hunan-Hubei circuits were re-divided after an earlier merger. In the Yongzheng period all were uniformly renamed education commissioners, with one per province. Fengtian was assigned to the prefectural vice commissioner; Taiwan to the Taiwan circuit intendant. Gansu received an education commissioner only after its own examination hall was established.

各學教官，府設教授，州設學正，縣設教諭，各一，皆設訓導佐之。員額時有裁併。生員色目，曰廩膳生、增廣生、附生。初入學曰附學生員。廩、增有定額，以歲、科兩試等第高者補充。生員額初視人文多寡，分大、中、小學。大學四十名，中學三十名，小學二十名。嗣改府視大學，大州、縣視中學減半，小學四名或五名。康熙九年，大府、州、縣仍舊額，更定中學十二名，小學七名或八名。後屢有增廣。滿洲、蒙古、漢軍子弟，初歸順天考試取進，滿洲、漢軍各百二十名，蒙古六十名。康熙中減定滿、蒙四十名，漢軍二十名。旋復增為滿、蒙六十，漢軍三十。學政三年任滿。歲、科兩試。順治十五年停直省科試，康熙十二年復之。

Each school had instructors: prefectures a professor, departments a director of studies, counties an instructor—each assisted by an assistant instructor. Staff quotas were periodically reduced or merged. Licentiates were classified as grain-stipend, additional, and supplementary students. New entrants were called supplementary licentiates. Grain-stipend and additional quotas were fixed and filled by top ranks in the annual and triennial school examinations. Licentiate quotas at first varied with local scholarly culture, divided among large, medium, and small schools. Large schools had forty places, medium thirty, and small twenty. Later prefectures were treated as large schools; large departments and counties as medium schools at half quota; small schools four or five places. In 1670 large prefectures, departments, and counties kept their old quotas; medium schools were fixed at twelve places and small at seven or eight. Quotas were later increased repeatedly. Manchu, Mongol, and Han Banner youths at first entered through Shuntian examinations: 120 each for Manchu and Han Banner, 60 for Mongol. Under Kangxi this was reduced to 40 for Manchu and Mongol and 20 for Han Banner. It was soon raised again to 60 for Manchu and Mongol and 30 for Han Banner. Education commissioners served three-year terms. They held annual and triennial examinations. Triennial provincial licentiate examinations were suspended in 1658 and restored in 1673.

儒童入學考試，初用四書文、孝經論各一，孝經題少，又以性理、太極圖說、通書、西銘、正蒙命題。嗣定正試四書文二，覆試四書文、小學論各一。雍正初，科試加經文。冬月晷短，書一、經一。尋定科試四書、經文外，增策論題，仍用孝經。乾隆初，覆試兼用小學論。中葉以後，試書藝、經藝各一。增五言六韻詩。聖祖先後頒聖諭廣訓及訓飭士子文於直省儒學。雍正間，學士張照奏令儒童縣、府覆試，背錄聖諭廣訓一條，著為令。凡新進生員，如國子監坐監例，令在學肄業，以次期新生入學為滿。

School entrance examinations at first required one Four Books essay and one discourse on the Classic of Filial Piety; when Filial Piety topics ran short, questions were also drawn from Neo-Confucian texts such as the Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate, Tongshu, Western Inscription, and Correcting Ignorance. Later the main test was fixed at two Four Books essays and the re-examination at one Four Books essay and one Elementary Learning discourse. Early in Yongzheng, triennial examinations added a classics essay. In winter, when daylight was short, one essay and one classic. Soon triennial tests beyond Four Books and classics added policy essays, still drawing on the Classic of Filial Piety. Early in Qianlong, re-examinations also included Elementary Learning discourses. In the mid-reign, one literary essay and one classic essay. Five-character regulated verse in six lines was added. The early emperors successively issued the Sacred Edicts for Wide Instruction and admonitions to scholars for provincial schools. In the Yongzheng period Academician Zhang Zhao required schoolboys at county and prefectural re-examinations to recite one passage from the Sacred Edicts, which became permanent rule. All newly admitted licentiates, like directorate students in residence, were required to study at school until the next intake filled the quota.

教官考校之法，有月課、季考，四書文外，兼試策論。翌日講大清律刑名、錢穀要者若干條。月集諸生明倫堂，誦訓飭士子文及臥碑諸條，諸生環聽。除丁憂、患病、遊學、有事故外，不應月課三次者戒飭，無故終年不應者黜革。試卷申送學政查覆。訖於嘉慶，月課漸不舉行。御史辛從益以為言，詔令整頓。嗣是教官多闒茸不稱職，有師生之名，無訓誨之實矣。

Instructors examined students through monthly lessons and seasonal tests; beyond Four Books essays, policy discourses were also required. The following day several key articles on penal law and fiscal administration in the Great Qing Code were lectured. Monthly, students assembled at the Hall of Bright Ethics to hear admonitions to scholars and the reclining-stele regulations read aloud. Except for mourning, illness, study travel, or other approved cause, three missed monthly lessons brought admonition; a full year of unjustified absence brought dismissal. Examination papers were forwarded to the education commissioner for review. By the Jiaqing period monthly lessons had largely ceased. Censor Xin Congyi raised the issue, and an edict ordered rectification. Thereafter most instructors were mediocre and unfit; the names of teacher and student remained, but instruction was hollow.

學政考覈教官，按其文行及訓士勤惰，隨時薦黜。康熙中，令撫臣考試。嗣教職部選後，赴撫院試。四等以上，給憑赴任；五等學習三年再試，六等褫職。雍正初，定四、五等俱解任學習。六年考成俸滿，盡心訓導，士無過犯者，督、撫、學政保題，擢用知縣。

Education commissioners evaluated instructors on literary conduct and diligence in training students, recommending or dismissing them as warranted. In the Kangxi period governors-general and governors were ordered to examine them. Later, after the Ministry selected educational appointees, they were examined at the governor's yamen before taking office. Those of fourth rank and above received credentials and took office; fifth rank studied three years and were re-examined; sixth rank were removed from office. Early in Yongzheng, both fourth- and fifth-rank failures were released to study further. After six years, instructors who had diligently taught without student misconduct were recommended by governor, governor-general, and education commissioner for promotion to magistrate.

學臣按臨，謁先師，升明倫堂，官生以次揖見。生員掣籤講書，各講大清律三條，西鄉立；講畢，東鄉立：俟行賞罰。

On tour, the education commissioner worshipped Confucius, ascended the Hall of Bright Ethics, and received successive bows from official students. Licentiates drew lots to lecture on the classics and each explained three articles of the Great Qing Code, standing on the west. When finished, they stood on the east to await rewards and punishments.

考試生員，舊例歲、科試俱四書文二、經文一。自有給燭之禁，例不出經題。雍正元年，科試增經文，冬月一書、一經。六年，更定歲試兩書、一經，冬月一書、一經。科試書一、經一、策一，冬月減經文。乾隆二十三年，改歲試書一、經一，科試書一、策一、詩一，冬月亦如之。欠考，勒限補行。三次，黜革。後寬其例，五次以上乃黜。

Licentiate examinations: under the old rule both annual and triennial tests required two Four Books essays and one classic. After candles were forbidden in the examination hall, classics topics were by rule omitted. In 1723 triennial tests added a classic essay; in winter, one essay and one classic. In 1728 the annual test was set at two essays and one classic; winter at one essay and one classic. The triennial test required one essay, one classic, and one policy; in winter the classic was dropped. In 1758 the annual test was one essay and one classic; the triennial, one essay, one policy, and one poem—with the same winter format. Absentees were given a deadline to make up the examination. After three absences, dismissal. Later the rule was relaxed: dismissal came only after five or more absences.

駐防考試，清初定制，各省駐防弁兵子弟能讀書者，詣京應試。乾隆時，參領金珩請許歲、科試將軍先試騎射，就近送府院取進。嚴旨切責。嘉慶四年，湖南布政使通恩奏如金珩言，詔議行。應試童生，五六名取進一名，佐領約束之。訓習清語、騎射，府學課文藝。明年諭曰：「我滿洲根本，騎射為先。若八旗子弟專以讀書應試為能，輕視弓馬，怠荒武備，殊失國家設立駐防之意。嗣後各省駐防官弁子弟，不得因有就近考試之例，遂荒本業。」

Garrison examinations: under early Qing rules, literate sons of provincial garrison officers and soldiers traveled to the capital to test. In the Qianlong period Deputy Commander Jin Hang asked that annual and triennial candidates first be tested in archery by the garrison general and then sent to nearby prefectural or provincial schools. A stern imperial edict sharply rebuked the proposal. In 1799 Hunan provincial treasurer Tong En memorialized along the same lines, and an edict approved it. One candidate was admitted for every five or six tested; company commanders supervised them. They trained in Manchu and archery at the garrison; the prefectural school taught literary arts. The next year an edict declared: "The Manchu foundation of our dynasty puts archery first. If Banner sons treat reading and examinations as their sole skill, slight archery, and neglect military training, they betray the very purpose of the garrisons. Hereafter sons of garrison officers and soldiers in the provinces must not, because examinations were made convenient, abandon their proper occupation." The edict closed.

漢軍設廩、增，自順治九年始。康熙十年，滿、蒙亦設廩、增。初制各二十名，嗣減漢軍十名。雍正間定額，滿、蒙六十，漢軍三十。直省廩、增額，府四十，州三十，縣二十，衛十。其新設者，府學視州學，州學視縣學。其一學分兩學，則均分其額，或差分之。

Grain-stipend and additional places for Han Banner licentiates began in 1652. In 1671 Manchu and Mongol licentiates also received grain-stipend and additional places. At first each had twenty places; later Han Banner was reduced by ten. In the Yongzheng period quotas were fixed at 60 for Manchu and Mongol and 30 for Han Banner. Provincial grain-stipend and additional quotas were: prefectures 40, departments 30, counties 20, guards 10. For newly established schools, prefectural quotas followed departmental, and departmental followed county. Where one school was divided into two, quotas were split equally or apportioned between them.

六等黜陟法，視明為繁密。考列一等，增、附、青、社俱補廩。無廩缺，附、青、社補增。無增缺，青、社復附，各候廩。原廩、增停降者收復。二等，增補廩，附、青、社補增。無增缺，青、社復附。停廩降增者復廩。增降附者復增，不許補廩。三等，停廩者收復候廩。丁憂起復，病痊考復，緣事辨復，增降附者許收復，青衣發社者復附，廩降增者不許復。四等，廩免責停餼，不作缺，限讀書六月送考。停降者不許限考。增、附、青、社俱撲責。五等，廩停作缺。原停廩者降增，增降附，附降青衣，青衣發社，原發社者黜為民。六等，廩膳十年以上發社，六年以上與增十年以上者，發本處充吏，餘黜為民。入學未及六年者發社。科試一、二等送鄉試，幫補廩、增，如歲試大率祗列三等，八旗生員給錢糧，考列四等以下停給，次屆列一、二、三等給還。優等補廩、增，劣等降青、社，如漢生員。八旗故重騎射，往往不苛求文藝，但置後等。

The six-rank promotion and demotion system was more detailed than under the Ming. First rank: additional, supplementary, green-gown, and community students all advanced to grain-stipend status. Without a grain-stipend vacancy, supplementary, green-gown, and community students advanced to additional status. Without an additional vacancy, green-gown and community students reverted to supplementary status and awaited grain-stipend. Those whose grain-stipend or additional standing had been suspended or reduced were restored. Second rank: additional students advanced to grain-stipend; supplementary, green-gown, and community students to additional. Without an additional vacancy, green-gown and community students reverted to supplementary. Those suspended from grain-stipend and reduced to additional were restored to grain-stipend. Those reduced from additional to supplementary were restored to additional but could not advance to grain-stipend. Third rank: those suspended from grain-stipend were restored and placed on the waiting list for grain-stipend. Restoration after mourning, after recovery from illness and re-examination, or after review of special cases was permitted; green-gown students sent to community schools reverted to supplementary status; those reduced from grain-stipend to additional could not be restored. Fourth rank: grain-stipend students were spared punishment but lost stipends without vacating their places; they had six months to study before re-examination. Those under suspension or reduction were not permitted the limited re-examination. Additional, supplementary, green-gown, and community students all received corporal punishment and reproof. Fifth rank: grain-stipend suspension created a vacancy. Those suspended from grain-stipend were reduced to additional; additional to supplementary; supplementary to green-gown; green-gown to community school; those already in community schools were dismissed as commoners. Sixth rank: grain-stipend students of ten years or more were sent to community schools; those of six years or more, together with additional students of ten years or more, were made local clerks; the rest were dismissed as commoners. Students enrolled less than six years were sent to community schools. Triennial first- and second-rank students went to the provincial examination; grain-stipend and additional places were filled as in the annual test, which usually listed only third rank. Eight Banners licentiates received grain pay; fourth rank or below lost it, restored if they ranked first through third the next session. Superior ranks advanced to grain-stipend or additional; inferior ranks were reduced to green-gown or community status, as with Han licentiates. The Eight Banners valued archery highly and often did not strictly demand literary accomplishment, placing weaker students in lower ranks.

凡優恤諸生，例免差徭。廩生貧生給學租養贍。違犯禁令，小者府、州、縣行教官責懲，大者申學政，黜革後治罪，地方官不得擅責。學政校文外，賞黜優劣，以為勸懲。如教官徇庇劣生不揭報，或經揭報，學政不嚴加懲處，分別罰俸、鐫級、褫職。其大較也。

Licentiates enjoyed preferential treatment and were by precedent exempt from corvée and levies. Impoverished grain-stipend students received school rents for their support. Minor violations were punished by prefectural, departmental, or county instructors; major ones were reported to the education commissioner for dismissal and subsequent punishment—local officials could not punish licentiates on their own authority. Beyond grading examinations, the education commissioner rewarded excellence and punished failure as encouragement and deterrent. If instructors shielded poor students or the education commissioner failed to punish reported cases, penalties ranged from salary fines and demotion to dismissal. Such were the general outlines of the system.

光緒末，科舉廢，丙午並停歲、科試。天下生員無所託業，乃議廣用途，許考各部院謄錄。並於考優年，令州縣官、教官會保申送督、撫、學政，考取文理暢達、事理明晰者，大省百名，中省七十名，小省五十名，咨部以巡檢、典史分別註選，或分發試用。各省學政改司，考校學堂。未幾學政裁，教官停選。在職者，凡生員考職、孝廉方正各事屬之，俸滿用知縣，或以直州同、鹽庫大使用。儒學雖不廢，名存實亡，非一日矣。

In late Guangxu the examination system was abolished; in 1906 both annual and triennial school examinations ceased. With examinations ended, licentiates nationwide lacked occupation; the court proposed broader employment and examinations for transcription posts in ministries and courts. In years of superior examination, officials and instructors were to recommend candidates of fluent style and clear reasoning—100 for large provinces, 70 medium, 50 small—for registration as patrol inspectors or clerks, or probationary appointment. Provincial education commissioners were reorganized into bureaus supervising modern schools. Soon education commissioners were abolished and selection of instructors ceased. Those remaining in office handled licentiate qualification examinations, filial integrity nominations, and related matters; at term they might become magistrates, subprefects, or salt treasury superintendents. Confucian schools were not formally abolished, but they had long been hollow in substance.

武生附儒學，通稱武生。順治初，京衛武生童考試隸兵部。康熙三年，改隸學院，直省府、州、縣、衛武生，儒學教官兼轄之。騎射外，教以武經七書、百將傳及孝經、四書。學政三年一考。順天舊設武學，自八旗設儒學教官，兼轄滿洲、蒙古、漢軍武生，裁武學官。大、宛兩縣武生，順天教官轄之，學額如文生童例，分大、中、小學。自二十名遞減至七八名。考試分內、外場，先外場騎射，次內場策論。歲試列一、二等，准作科舉。故武生有歲試無科試。

Military students were attached to Confucian schools and were commonly called military licentiates. Early in Shunzhi, child examinations for capital guard military students were under the Ministry of War. In 1664 they were placed under the education bureau; provincial military students were jointly supervised by Confucian school instructors. Beyond archery, they studied the Seven Military Classics, Hundred Generals' Biographies, the Classic of Filial Piety, and the Four Books. The education commissioner examined them every three years. Shuntian once had a military school; after Eight Banners Confucian instructors took charge of Manchu, Mongol, and Han Banner military students, the military school office was abolished. Military students of Daxing and Wanping were under Shuntian instructors, with quotas like civil schoolboys divided among large, medium, and small schools. Quotas were progressively reduced from twenty to seven or eight. Examinations had outer and inner sessions: archery first, then policy essays indoors. First- and second-rank annual examination results qualified students as military licentiates. Military students thus had annual but not triennial examinations.

各省書院之設，輔學校所不及，初於省會設之。世祖頒給帑金，風勵天下。厥後府、州、縣次第建立，延聘經明行修之士為之長，秀異多出其中。高宗明詔獎勸，比於古者侯國之學。儒學浸衰，教官不舉其職，所賴以造士者，獨在書院。其裨益育才，非淺鮮也。

Provincial academies supplemented what official schools could not provide; they were first established in provincial capitals. The Shunzhi Emperor distributed treasury funds to encourage academies throughout the realm. Prefectures, departments, and counties then followed, engaging scholars of classical learning and moral conduct as directors; many outstanding men emerged from them. The Qianlong Emperor issued clear edicts of encouragement, comparing academies to the schools of ancient feudal states. As Confucian schools declined and instructors neglected their duties, talent cultivation depended almost solely on academies. Their contribution to nurturing talent was considerable.

又有義學，社學。社學，鄉置一區，擇文行優者充社師，免其差徭，量給廩餼。凡近鄉子弟十二歲以上令入學。義學，初由京師五城各立一所，後各省府、州、縣多設立，教孤寒生童，或苗、蠻、黎、瑤子弟秀異者。規制簡略，可無述也。

There were also charity schools and community schools. Community schools were set up one per rural district; men of superior conduct served as teachers, exempt from corvée and given grain stipends as appropriate. All local boys aged twelve or above were required to attend. Charity schools began with one in each of the capital's five wards; later many provinces established them to teach impoverished boys or gifted sons of Miao, Man, Li, and Yao peoples. Their regulations were simple and need not be described here.

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