1
志一百十四
Treatise 114
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兵十
Military 10
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訓練
Training
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清代訓練軍士，綜京、外水陸各營，咸有成規。 而歷朝整軍經武之諭，則隨時訓練，因地制宜。 茲分述之。
Under the Qing, drill for troops in the capital and in the provinces, on land and at sea, was governed by fixed regulations for every camp. Imperial orders through the dynasties to keep the forces fit likewise called for training when needed and for measures suited to each region. Both kinds are described below.
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其定期訓練者，為領侍衛府三旗親軍訓練之制，鑲黃旗、正黃旗、正白旗每月分期習騎射二次，習步射四次。 八旗驍騎營訓練之制，每月分期習射六次，都統以下各官親督之。 春秋二季，擐甲習步射，由本旗定期。 擐甲習騎射，由部臣定期。 春月分操二次，合操一次，秋月合操二次，預奏操期。 仲春孟秋，登城操習，兵部稽察之。 歲以為常。 八旗漢兵訓練之制，於春秋月試砲於盧溝穚，各旗咸出砲十位演放，五日而畢。 越三年，鳥槍營兵與砲兵合演槍砲藤牌於盧溝橋。 其春秋季常操，四旗合操四次，八旗合操二次，初冬則分遣各旗演習步圍。 前鋒營訓練之制，月習步射六次，春秋擐甲習騎射二次，左右翼各分前鋒之半，兼習鳥槍，月習十次，均由統領督率。 每年秋季，前鋒統領會同護軍統領奏聞，率所屬兵演習步圍二、三次。 護軍營訓練之制，月習步射六次，春秋擐甲習騎射二次，與前鋒同。 圓明園八旗護軍營訓練之制，月習步射六次，春秋習騎射，兼習鳥槍。 步軍營及巡捕營訓練之制，八旗步軍習步射，城門驍騎習鳥槍，均以春秋操演。 內九門，外七門，咸設砲位。 每屆三年，隨同八旗兵運砲至盧溝橋演放。 巡捕營參將、游擊，月考其屬之弓矢，守備等各練其汛兵。 春秋兼習鳥槍，與城門驍騎同。 內府三旗訓練之制，月習步射六次，春秋擐甲習射二次，立冬後，內府護軍及尚虞處執事等演習步圍，別選三旗護軍習馬射各技。 火器營訓練之制，月習步射六次，騎射六次，馬上技藝六次。 統轄鳥槍砲兵護軍驍騎各官，按日於本旗考驗。 至合操之日，八旗分左右翼列陣，環施槍砲。 秋季至盧溝橋演砲五日。 健銳營訓練之制，月習雲梯鳥槍各藝六次，騎射步射鞭刀等藝六次，餘日於本期習槍箭。 值駐蹕圓明園，左右翼各以舟演習水戰。 旗營校閱之時，自七月開操至次年四月，設教場於九門外，將軍、都統、副都統掌校閱騎射槍砲之事，第其優劣，以為賞罰。 春秋合操，與京營同。
Scheduled drill included the personal guards of the Three Banners under the Imperial Bodyguard Office: the Bordered Yellow, Plain Yellow, and Plain White Banners each held mounted archery twice a month on a rotating schedule and foot archery four times. The Eight Banners' vanguard cavalry brigades drilled archery six times a month on rotation, with every officer from the banner general down supervising in person. Each spring and autumn they donned armor for foot archery on dates fixed by their banner. Mounted archery in armor was scheduled by the Board of War. Spring brought two separate drills and one joint drill; autumn brought two joint drills, with dates reported to the throne in advance. In mid-spring and early autumn they exercised on the city walls under inspection by the Board of War. This was the yearly routine. Han-banner troops of the Eight Banners tested artillery at Lugou Bridge each spring and autumn, with each banner firing ten guns over five days. Every three years musket and artillery units held a joint drill with firearms, cannon, and rattan shields at Lugou Bridge. Their routine spring and autumn drills included four four-banner joint exercises and two full eight-banner exercises; in early winter each banner practiced foot battue on its own. The vanguard brigade practiced foot archery six times a month and mounted archery in armor twice each spring and autumn; each wing took half the vanguard and also drilled muskets ten times monthly, all under the commandant's supervision. Each autumn the vanguard and guards commandants reported to the throne and led their men in two or three foot battues. The guards brigade matched the vanguard: foot archery six times a month and mounted archery in armor twice each spring and autumn. The Old Summer Palace guards of the Eight Banners practiced foot archery six times monthly, mounted archery each spring and autumn, and musketry besides. The foot soldiers and patrol brigades drilled in spring and autumn: banner foot soldiers with the bow, gate vanguard cavalry with muskets. Gun emplacements were set at all nine inner gates and seven outer gates. Every three years they moved artillery with the banner troops to Lugou Bridge for live fire. Patrol brigade brigadiers and colonels tested their men's archery monthly; garrison commanders drilled the troops at their posts. They also practiced muskets each spring and autumn, like the gate vanguard cavalry. The imperial household's three banners practiced foot archery six times monthly and archery in armor twice each spring and autumn; after winter began, household guards and hunting-office staff held foot battues, while selected guards trained in mounted archery and other skills. The firearms brigade drilled foot archery, mounted archery, and mounted skills six times each per month. Officers over musketeers, gunners, guards, and vanguard cavalry tested their men daily within each banner. On joint drill days the Eight Banners formed left and right wings and maneuvered muskets and cannon around the field. Each autumn they fired artillery at Lugou Bridge for five days. The elite sharp-shooters brigade drilled scaling ladders and musketry six times monthly and mounted archery, foot archery, and whip-sword six times, practicing firearms and arrows on the other days. When the court stayed at the Old Summer Palace, each wing practiced river combat in boats. Provincial banner inspections ran from the seventh month through the following April on drill grounds outside the city gates; generals and banner commanders reviewed archery, firearms, and artillery and ranked men for rewards or penalties. Spring and autumn joint drills followed the same rules as the capital garrisons.
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陸路綠旗營訓練之制，總督所屬為督標兵，巡撫所屬為撫標兵，提督所屬為提標兵，總兵所屬為鎮標兵。 每歲秋季霜降日，先期各營將弁肅伍赴教場，設軍幕。 屆時軍士擐甲列陣，中軍建大纛於場中，統兵大臣於將台上傳令合操，中軍揚旗麾眾，台下舉砲三，軍中鳴角伐鼓，步騎甲士列隊行陣，施放火槍，連環無間，如京營之制。 若長矛、藤牌、扁刀、短刀之屬，各因其地之宜，以教士卒，咸有成法。 閱竟，試材官將士騎射技勇，申明賞罰，犒軍，釋甲歸伍。 漕運總督標、河道總督標訓練之制，咸與京營同，各營將弁率其所屬，按日督練。 八旗水師營訓練之制，每年春秋二季，將軍、都統、副都統督率官兵，分駕戰艦，奉天、福建、浙江、廣東水師，各赴海口，齊齊哈爾、墨爾根、江寧省水師，各赴江面，天津水師赴海口洋面。 每年自四月至八月，於潮平風順時，張帆起碇，列陣出洋，以次鳴砲操演，餘日各率所屬講習水務。 其綠旗水師營，有內河水師、江海水師，出洋會哨，信候各省不同。 每歲春秋之季，乘艦列陣，揚帆駛風，鳴角發砲，操演咸如軍律。
Green Standard land forces were organized by commander: governor-general's standard, governor's standard, provincial commander's standard, and regional commander's standard troops. Each year on Frost Descent in autumn, officers assembled their companies at the drill ground and pitched camp beforehand. On the day itself, armored troops formed ranks around a central banner; the commanding officer on the review platform ordered a joint drill; signal flags and three cannon shots opened the exercise; horns and drums marked the advance as infantry and cavalry fired muskets in rolling volleys, following the capital model. Long spears, rattan shields, and various blades were taught by established methods suited to each region. After the review they tested officers and men in archery and martial skill, announced rewards and punishments, feasted the troops, and sent them back to camp out of armor. The grain transport and river conservancy standards followed capital regulations, with camp officers supervising daily drill. Each spring and autumn banner naval commanders led their crews to sea or river: Fengtian, Fujian, Zhejiang, and Guangdong fleets to the estuaries; Qiqihar, Mergen, and Jiangning fleets to the rivers; Tianjin to the estuary and open water. From the fourth through the eighth month, when tides and winds allowed, they sailed out in formation and fired cannon in sequence; on other days commanders instructed their men in seamanship. Green Standard naval forces included river and coastal fleets; patrol seasons and signals varied by province. Each spring and autumn they put to sea in formation, set sail, sounded horns, fired guns, and drilled by full military rule.
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其隨時訓練者，天聰七年，太宗始舉大閱之典。 八旗護軍、漢軍馬步、滿洲步軍咸集。 分八旗為左右翼，漢軍、滿洲步兵為二營，四方環立，前設紅衣砲三十位。 上擐甲乘馬，諸貝勒率護軍如對嚴敵，親軍為後盾。 傳令聞砲而進，聞蒙古角聲而退。 次漢軍馬步，次滿洲步軍，進攻砲軍。 大閱禮成。 嚴申退後之令。 崇德八年，大閱於瀋陽北郊，前列漢軍砲手，次滿洲步兵、蒙古步兵，次騎兵，次守城應援兵，次守城砲兵，綿亙二十里，聞砲合戰。 上親臨簡閱，步伐止齊，軍容整肅。
Ad hoc training began when the Taizong held the first grand inspection in Tiancong 7. Banner guards, Han-banner horse and foot, and Manchu infantry all assembled. The Eight Banners formed left and right wings; Han and Manchu infantry formed two camps in a square ring, with thirty red-coated guns in front. The sovereign donned armor and rode; princes led the guards as if facing a real enemy, with the personal guard in reserve. Orders called for advance at the cannon signal and withdrawal at the Mongol horn. Han-banner horse and foot advanced next, then Manchu infantry, to assault the artillery line. The grand inspection concluded. Strict orders against straggling were issued. In Chongde 8 a grand inspection at Shenyang's northern suburbs arrayed Han gunners in front, then Manchu and Mongol infantry, cavalry, relief troops, and garrison artillery along twenty li; at the cannon signal all engaged. The sovereign inspected in person; the troops marched and halted in perfect order.
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順治七年，誡各將領勿以太平而忘武備，弓馬務造精良。 十一年，定每年閱操賞銀之制。 定騎射各兵分期演習之制。 定督、撫、提、鎮獎賞優等弁兵之制。
In Shunzhi 7 commanders were warned not to neglect arms in peacetime and to keep bows and horses in top condition. In year 11 annual silver rewards for drill inspection were fixed. Mounted-archery drill on a rotating schedule was regulated. Rules were set for provincial commanders to reward outstanding officers and men.
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康熙十一年，令各省營伍，須武職大員巡察。 嗣後各鎮臣以巡察之期上聞，不得擾累各營。 十二年，以漢軍不能騎射者甚多，每旗宜增練火器。 尋議八旗漢軍驍騎，每佐領下，增鳥槍兵十八名。 十六年，令各營於安營駐宿之道，馳騁奔走之勞，皆須習練，不得僅拘操演成法，直省提、鎮，每歲督選標兵行圍，以習勞苦。 十九年，定每年演放紅衣大砲之期。 二十八年，定演砲之制。 每年九月朔，八旗各運大砲十位至盧溝橋西，設槍營、砲營各一，都統率參領、佐領、散秩官、驍騎砲手咸往。 工部修砲車，治火藥。 日演百出，及進步連環槍砲。 越十日開操。 太常寺奏簡都統承祭，兵部奏簡兵部大臣驗操。 各旗演砲十齣，記中的之數。 即於砲場合隊操演，嚴鼓而進，鳴金而止，槍砲均演九進十連環，鳴螺收陣還營。 三十年，定春操之制。 每旗出砲十位，火器營兵千五百名。 漢軍每旗出砲十位，鳥槍兵千五百名。 每佐領下之護軍鳥槍兵、護軍驍騎，每參領下之散秩官、驍騎校，及前鋒參領、護軍參領、侍衛等，更番以從。 既成列，演放鳥槍，鳴螺進兵，至所指處，分兵殿後而歸。 五十年，定火器營合操陣式。 八旗砲兵、鳥槍兵，護軍驍騎，分立十六營。 中列鑲黃、正黃二旗，次六旗，按左右翼列隊，將台在中，兩翼各建令纛為表。 每旗鳥槍護軍在前，次砲兵，次鳥槍兵，次驍騎。 台下鳴海螺者三，以次整械結隊出營。 施號槍三，台下及陣內海螺遞鳴，乃開陣演槍砲九次至十次，砲與鳥槍連環無間。
In Kangxi 11 every provincial camp was ordered inspected by senior military officers. Thereafter garrison commanders reported inspection dates to the throne and were forbidden to burden the camps. In year 12, with many Han-banner men unable to ride and shoot, each banner was told to add firearms training. Soon each Han-banner vanguard company captain was allotted eighteen additional musketeers. In year 16 camps were ordered to train for marching, camping, and hard riding, not only set drills; provincial commanders each year led standard troops on battue to build endurance. In year 19 the annual schedule for firing red-coated great guns was fixed. In year 28 artillery drill regulations were fixed. Each year on the first day of the ninth month every banner brought ten great guns west of Lugou Bridge and set up musket and artillery camps, with the banner general and all relevant officers attending. The Board of Works repaired gun carriages and supplied powder. Each day they fired a hundred rounds or more and practiced advancing continuous musket and cannon fire. After ten days the formal drill began. The Court of Imperial Sacrifices nominated a banner general for the rite; the Board of War nominated a minister to inspect the drill. Each banner fired ten artillery rounds and recorded hits. They then drilled by company on the gun ground—drums to advance, gongs to halt—firing nine advances and ten rolling volleys before the conch recalled them to camp. In year 30 spring drill regulations were fixed. Each banner fielded ten guns and fifteen hundred firearms brigade troops. Each Han-banner contingent brought ten guns and fifteen hundred musketeers. Guards musketeers and vanguard cavalry under company captains, assorted officers and lieutenants under battalion captains, and vanguard, guards, and bodyguard officers rotated in attendance. Once formed, they fired muskets, advanced at the conch to the mark, then detached a rear guard and withdrew. In year 50 the firearms brigade's joint drill formation was fixed. Banner artillery, musketeers, guards, and vanguard cavalry were arrayed in sixteen camps. The Bordered and Plain Yellow Banners stood in the center, then the other six banners in left and right wings around a central command platform, each wing flying a command banner. Each banner lined up musket guards, then gunners, musketeers, and vanguard cavalry. Three conch blasts from the platform sent them to arms; companies filed out in order. Three signal guns and answering conches opened the drill; muskets and cannon then fired nine to ten rolling volleys without a break.
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雍正四年，改定盧溝橋演槍砲為三年一次，均演一月。 兵校等火藥器用，由工部預儲。 五年，以滿洲夙重騎射，不可專習鳥槍而廢弓矢，有馬上槍箭熟習者，勉以優等。 七年，以直隸營汛多演空槍，通飭直省將帥，令各營以鉛子演准。 八年，劉汝麟建議，漢軍應習步圍。 尋諭各旗兵於初冬行步圍，每旗行二、三次，統以各旗大臣，步行較獵，侍衛、打牲人等，一律學習。 九年，以八旗官兵未能精整，統兵各官，擇不堪騎射者，立為一營，稍優者，別立一營。 每營千人，勤加操練，化弱為強。 又以兵丁重在步行，凡八旗兵給限一年習步，以日行百四十里為率，優者賞之。 十年，以邊陲用兵，操演加勤，免各旗輪班值日，專習騎射長槍。 十二年，定八旗漢軍驍騎演習鳥槍之制。 春季二月為始，秋季八月為始，各習槍四十五日，本旗四翼仍合操二次。
In Yongzheng 4 Lugou Bridge firearms and artillery drill was set to once every three years for one month. The Board of Works supplied powder and equipment in advance. In year 5, since Manchus had always prized mounted archery, they were forbidden to drop the bow for muskets alone; men skilled in mounted musket and bow work were graded superior. In year 7, with many Zhili posts firing blanks, all provincial commanders were ordered to drill with live shot for accuracy. In year 8 Liu Rulin proposed that Han-banner troops practice foot battue. Soon each banner was ordered to hold two or three foot battues in early winter under its ministers; bodyguards and hunters were to take part alike. In year 9, with banner troops still slack, commanders sorted poor riders into one camp and somewhat better men into another. Each camp held a thousand men and drilled hard to turn weakness into strength. Because marching mattered, every banner soldier was given a year to train on foot at one hundred forty li a day, with rewards for the best. In year 10 frontier campaigns brought harder drill; rotating daily duty was suspended so troops could focus on mounted archery and the long spear. In year 12 Han-banner vanguard musket drill was regulated. Drill began in the second month of spring and the eighth month of autumn, with forty-five days of musket practice and two joint drills per wing.
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乾隆四年，定旗兵合操之制。 每年春季，本旗各營官兵，於本旗教場分操二次，八旗各營官兵，於鑲黃、正黃二旗教場合操一次。 至秋季合各營大操，其隊伍號令，旗纛器械，均遵大閱之制。 六年，議准八旗驍騎營步射由本旗定期，騎射由兵部定期。 八年，令八旗漢軍至盧溝橋演放槍砲，於九月朔為始，演放一月，簡都統大臣監視，日演十齣，兵部閱操之日，每旗各演百出，演畢，合操槍砲。 其金鼓號令，悉如大閱之制。 十年，以沿海水師，經大臣察閱，其操演多屬具文，未諳水務，通飭將軍、督、撫、提、鎮，實心訓練甄別。 十四年，以旗兵習練雲梯，隨征金川有功，凱旋後，別立健銳營，雲梯兵千名為一營，統以大臣，專練雲梯、鳥槍、馬步射及鞭刀等藝，並隨侍行圍。 又於昆明湖設趕繒船，以前鋒軍習水戰駕船駛風之技。 是年，莽阿納上言，整頓邊省營伍章程：一、步弓均改五力以上，一、馬射與步射一式，一、馬兵騎射宜槍箭二技，一、鳥槍專練準頭，一、槍兵兼習弓矢，一、定優劣賞罰，一、預儲軍械，以固邊陲。 十七年，定八旗漢軍藤牌兵之制，春季與旗兵一律操演，遇大閱及諸營合操，則守護砲位，入隊演習。 三十六年，令鳥槍兵宜遵定例，於演槍時，檢回鉛子，以勵勤能。 三十八年，定各營增演馬上四箭四槍之制。 三十九年，以金川用兵，京城之健銳、火器二營，功績最多，令各省綠營習鳥槍兵弁，悉仿火器營進步連環之法操練，不得虛演陣式。 尋定各營槍兵升補之序，以資鼓勵。 四十年，令健銳營兵月習槍十二日，定三等為賞罰。 四十三年，令各省習槍兵弁，仿京營火器操練之法，各總兵於巡閱時，有進步連環精熟者紀功。 四十四年，令各省綠營兵習射，以五矢中三為一等。 五十年，以綠營陣法，向習兩儀四象方圓等舊式，無裨實用，改仿京營陣式，由提督頒發各標鎮，如式教演。 各營每月定期合操，並演九進十連環之陣。 其堆撥應差兵丁，暇日一律練習。 又以各省巡撫標兵，向供給使，訓練甚稀，飭各撫臣實力整理。 其舊式之藤牌兵，均兼習鳥槍。 五十五年，令軍機大臣會同兵部，審定演放砲位步數及懲勸之例。
In Qianlong 4 banner joint drill was regulated. Each spring every banner camp drilled separately twice on its own ground, then all eight banners met once on the Bordered and Plain Yellow drill ground. In autumn all camps held a grand joint drill following grand inspection rules for formations, signals, banners, and arms. In year 6 vanguard foot archery was scheduled by each banner and mounted archery by the Board of War. In year 8 Han-banner troops were sent to Lugou Bridge each year from the first day of the ninth month for a month of gunnery under banner generals—ten rounds daily, a hundred per banner on inspection day, then a joint musket and artillery drill. Gongs, drums, signals, and commands all followed grand inspection practice. In year 10 inspection showed coastal fleets drilled mostly on paper and knew little seamanship; generals and provincial commanders were ordered to train and sort them in earnest. In year 14 banner troops who had trained on scaling ladders and fought well in Jinchuan won a new Elite Sharp-shooters Brigade of a thousand ladder men under a grand minister, drilling ladders, muskets, archery, and whip-sword and attending the hunt. Kunming Lake was fitted with practice boats so the vanguard could train in river fighting, handling craft, and sailing. That year Mang'ana proposed frontier camp reforms: raise foot bows to five draw-weights or more; unify mounted and foot archery; train cavalry in bow and musket; stress musket accuracy; have gunners keep up the bow; set clear rewards and penalties; and stock arms to hold the border. In year 17 Han-banner rattan-shield troops drilled with other banners each spring and, at grand inspections and joint exercises, guarded artillery emplacements while joining the line. In year 36 musketeers were ordered to recover lead when firing, per regulations, to reward diligence. In year 38 every camp added mounted drill of four arrows and four musket shots. In year 39, after Jinchuan, the capital's elite and firearms brigades were judged best; every province's Green Standard musket officers were told to copy their advancing volley drill, not hollow parade formations. Soon promotion rules for musketeers were fixed to encourage skill. In year 40 elite sharp-shooters drilled muskets twelve days a month, with three grades for rewards and penalties. In year 43 provincial musket officers copied capital firearms drill; regional commanders noted merit for men skilled in advancing volleys. In year 44 Green Standard archery was graded: three hits in five arrows ranked first class. In year 50 obsolete Green Standard formations were dropped for capital models, issued by provincial commanders to every standard and garrison. Every camp held monthly joint drill and practiced the nine-advance, ten-volley formation. Men on transport and duty details drilled on their free days. Governors' standard troops, long used as couriers, were rarely drilled; governors were ordered to reform them in earnest. Old-style rattan-shield men all added musket drill. In year 55 the Grand Council and Board of War set artillery range paces and reward and penalty rules.
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嘉慶二年，罷水師冬令鳧水習藝，以恤兵艱。 四年，令水營兵丁一律兼習陸戰。 又令新疆屯田之兵，每營分半屯種，餘悉回營操練。 令各省督撫，修理營汛墩台。 督操將、備，加力振奮。 九年，令各統兵官習射以六力弓為度，習槍以迅速命中為度，申明教誡，力挽積習，不得養尊處優。 十一年，令德楞泰等兵丁，以十成之一兼習長矛，其制不得逾丈。
In Jiaqing 2 winter swimming drill for the navy was ended to ease the men's hardship. In year 4 every naval camp soldier was ordered to train in land combat as well. Xinjiang garrison-farm troops were ordered to farm half time and drill the rest. Provincial governors were ordered to repair posts and beacon towers. Drill supervisors were told to redouble their efforts. In year 9 commanders were told to shoot six-draw bows and fire muskets for speed and accuracy, break bad habits, and not live in comfort. In year 11 one tenth of Delinqtai's men were to train with long spears no longer than one zhang.
13
道光元年，令各軍均習長矛步槍，不得專精馬槍。 是年，楊芳上言：「兵丁於練騎射槍矛之外，加以車騎合步連環三項，融結參合，日操一隊，以五隊更番演習，六日合操為一陣。 直隸額兵，抽練四成，得一萬五千三百餘人，成二百四十隊，按圖操演，以齊勇怯而節進退。」 允之。 二年，以廣東營伍廢弛，嚴飭撫臣，實力練習，不得多立章程。 四年，罷撤梅花車砲陣式，專習部頒九進連環陣式。 五年，允英和之請，以八旗圈馬四百匹，改撥巡捕營，令滿洲、蒙古馬兵演習騎射，春秋二季，步軍統領會同左右翼總兵簡閱，三年後親臨大閱，八年，令那彥成等回疆增設防兵，籌給餉糈，議定操兵章程，並於喀什噶爾防兵內，抽練二千名，伊犁滿兵亦勤習騎射，由參贊大臣及總兵督操。 十五年，以山西滿、漢營伍廢弛，嚴飭閱兵大臣嚴明甄別。 是年，常大淳上言，新疆、湖南、廣東、四川各營伍，日久生玩，滿營則奢靡自逸，漢營則糧額多虛。 由於拔補之循私，操演之不實，以國家養兵之資，為眾人雇役之用。 請飭將軍、督、撫，力除積習。 遇剿匪保案，不得冒濫，以勵戎行。 允之。 並令各州縣額設民壯，一律充補訓練。 十七年，令各省民壯，每月隨營操演，授以紀律，以輔兵力所不及。 十八年，令盛京滿洲兵各勤操務，遇行圍之時，不得有雇役情弊。 十九年，以四川各營，技疏膽怯，致夷匪日張，特簡大臣，督率鎮、道，親往校閱。 二十二年，令天津增兵六千餘人，飭各將、備率新舊兵丁，悉加練習，首火砲，次鳥槍刀矛，輔以馬隊。 遇警則各營聯合南北砲台。 命精能武員，專司稽察，講求方略。 二十六年，令各州縣民壯，隨營調考刀矛雜技。 三十年，令各督、撫、提、鎮，汰老弱冗濫之兵，抽練精壯，俾各營皆有選鋒勁旅。 不得以工匠僕役，虛占兵糧。
In Daoguang 1 every army was ordered to train with long spears and foot muskets, not only mounted firearms. That year Yang Fang proposed that beyond archery, guns, and spears, troops add chariot, combined cavalry, and foot volley drill in rotation—one company daily, five companies in turn, forming up every sixth day. Forty percent of Zhili's quota—over fifteen thousand men in two hundred forty companies—would drill by chart to level skill and control movement. The proposal was approved. In year 2 Guangdong's slack camps brought strict orders to the governor to drill in earnest and not pile on rules. In year 4 the plum-blossom gun-carriage formation was dropped for the Board's nine-advance volley drill. In year 5 four hundred banner horses went to the patrol brigade for Manchu and Mongol cavalry archery, inspected each spring and autumn; a grand review was set for three years on. In year 8 Nayancheng expanded frontier garrisons, funded them, set drill rules, picked two thousand Kashgar men to train, and ordered diligent archery drill for Ili Manchu under the resident and regional commander. In year 15 slack Shanxi Manchu and Han camps brought strict orders for inspection ministers to sort men clearly. That year Chang Dachun reported that Xinjiang, Hunan, Guangdong, and Sichuan camps had grown negligent—Manchu camps luxurious, Han rolls padded with ghost soldiers. Favoritism in appointments and fake drill turned state pay into wages for hired hands. He asked that generals and governors root out these abuses. Bandit-fighting rewards must not be padded, to keep the army honest. The memorial was approved. Every county's quota militia were to be filled and trained. In year 17 provincial militia drilled monthly with the camps under discipline to back regular troops. In year 18 Mukden Manchu troops were ordered to drill hard and not hire substitutes at the hunt. In year 19 slack, timid Sichuan camps let frontier unrest grow; a special minister was sent to lead commanders and inspect in person. In year 22 Tianjin added six thousand men; commanders were to train all ranks—artillery first, then muskets and blades, with cavalry in support. In an alarm all camps would man the north and south batteries together. Skilled officers were assigned to inspect and work out tactics. In year 26 county militia were tested with the camps in blades, spears, and other skills. In year 30 provincial commanders were told to cut the old and weak, train the strong, and give every camp a picked strike force. Artisans and servants must not draw pay on the rolls.
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咸豐元年，奕山等以伊犁及烏魯木齊二處滿洲營增練鳥槍，擬定考驗章程，並綠營一律辦理。 三年，綜各省綠營額兵共六十餘萬人，除徵調之兵，所餘存營者，汰弱留強，定期分練。 各省駐防旗兵亦如之。 五年，令健銳、火器、圓明園八旗營，及前鋒、護軍、八旗漢軍營，飭閱兵大臣核實校令，分別勸懲。 又令僧格林沁等增滿洲火器營操演陣式。 十一年，以盛京、吉林、黑龍江馬隊官兵，日就疲弱，飭將軍、副都統，無論在城在屯，一體挑練，可造者多方鼓勵，貧苦者酌量周恤，遇行圍兵數不足，以餘丁隨同操演。
In Xianfeng 1 Yishan added musket drill for Ili and Urumqi Manchu garrisons, set examination rules, and extended them to the Green Standard. In year 3, of over six hundred thousand Green Standard troops province-wide, those not on campaign would shed the weak, keep the strong, and drill on rotation. Provincial garrison banner troops followed the same rule. In year 5 elite, firearms, Old Summer Palace, vanguard, guards, and Han-banner camps were inspected and rewarded or punished by merit. Senggelinqin was also told to expand Manchu firearms brigade formations. In year 11 weakening cavalry in Mukden, Jilin, and Heilongjiang brought orders to train city and colony men alike, encourage the promising, aid the poor, and use surplus males when hunt quotas fell short.
15
同治元年，以上海、寧波等海口官兵，延歐洲人訓練，令曾國籓、李鴻章、左宗棠等，酌選武員數十人，在上海、寧波習外國兵法，以副、參大員統之，學成之後，自行教練中國兵丁。 又以廣東、福建營伍久弛，飭耆齡、劉長佑等於旗、綠營營內，擇驍勇員弁，習外國兵法。 天津練軍亦如之。 其內地營兵，仍遵舊章，隨時訓練。 是年，令文煜等定京營綠旗兵槍隊砲車合陣之制。 四年，醇郡王等訓練神機營兵及練兵三萬餘人，操演漸著成效，綠營亦就整肅。 令仍隸醇郡王節制，督操閱兵大臣，一併閱看。 是年，令崇厚率洋槍隊千五百人赴畿南，飭天津鎮、蘆台鎮選擇標兵，增練新式洋槍。 六年，以丁寶楨所擬訓練馬隊章程十四條，飭特普欽於黑龍江所屬、富明阿于吉林所屬打牲人內，招募壯丁三千人，遵章速練馬隊，以剿捻匪。 曾經出師回旗之員，分起訓練，入關候調。 十年，曾國籓建議，用兵十餘年，綠營幾同虛設。 查閱江南營伍，約有四宗：曰經制綠營，曰新設水師，曰挑練新兵，曰留防勇營。 凡陸兵四十一營，水師十一營，新兵十一營，防勇十二營，兵數實存二萬四千餘人。 舊習宜改者，約有四端：一、兵丁應差與操演分為二事，應差以分塘分汛為額，操演以分營分哨為額。 一、綠營餉薄兵疲，宜仿新軍練軍之制，裁兵加餉。 一、舊用鳥槍土藥，不利戰陣，各營宜以次悉改洋槍。 一、水師不得仍沿馬兵、戰兵、守兵之名，各省水師，皆應籌造船之費，以船為家，但兼陸操，不得居陸，外海、內洋、里河水師，器械船隻，力求精整。 凡此皆事關全局，請特旨通行內外臣工，合議遵行。 是年，令長江水師，及外海、內洋、里河水師，均應專習槍砲，不得藉口演習弓矢，致開陸居之漸。 沿海兵輪水師，亦免習弓矢。 十二年，沈葆楨以各兵輪雖分駐各省，而操演徵調必應聲勢聯絡，請飭兵輪統領，躬歷各海口，隨時調操。 十三年，李鴻章以八旗、綠營兵，用弓矢刀矛抬槍鳥槍舊法訓練，固難制勝，即新練各軍，用洋槍者已少，用後膛槍及炸砲者更少，可靖內匪，而不可御外侮。 曾國籓曾擬以新械練兵，沿海七省，共練陸兵九萬人，沿江三省，共練三萬人，計年餉八百萬兩，總理衙門議以制勝之洋槍隊練習水戰，丁日昌議合各省練精兵十萬人，皆以費重未能遽行。 陸軍與水師規制各殊，訓練亦異，水師猶可陸戰，陸軍不能操舟。 請以現有陸營，一律選練洋槍，裁綠營疲弱之額，加新軍之餉，沿海防營，悉改後膛槍，于海岸要口，屯大支勁旅，專講操練及築壘諸事。 各海口修洋式沙土砲台，置十餘寸口大砲，擇良將勁兵練習，以命中及遠為度，以固海疆。
In Tongzhi 1 port troops trained by Europeans led Zeng, Li, and Zuo to send dozens of officers to Shanghai and Ningbo to learn Western tactics under senior commanders, then train Chinese troops themselves. Long-slack Guangdong and Fujian camps were told to pick brave banner and Green Standard officers to learn Western tactics. Tianjin's drilled army followed suit. Interior garrisons still drilled under the old rules as needed. That year Wenyu set rules for capital Green Standard musket and gun-carriage combined drill. In year 4 Prince Chun trained the Shenji Camp and over thirty thousand drilled men with growing success; the Green Standard grew orderly too. They stayed under Prince Chun, with drill and inspection ministers reviewing them together. That year Chonghou led fifteen hundred foreign-rifle men south of the capital while Tianjin and Lutai picked standard troops to train on new foreign muskets. In year 6, under Ding Baozhen's fourteen cavalry articles, Tepuqin and Fuming'a recruited three thousand men from Heilongjiang and Jilin hunters to train mounted troops against the Nian. Banner officers back from campaign were set to train again and held inside the passes for orders. In year 10 Zeng Guofan reported that after a decade of war the Green Standard was nearly useless. Jiangnan forces fell into four groups: regular Green Standard, new navy, drilled new troops, and garrison braves. In all: forty-one land, eleven naval, eleven new, and twelve brave camps—about twenty-four thousand men actually present. Four reforms were needed: separate duty posts from drill quotas; assign duty by post and drill by camp. Second, cut Green Standard rolls and raise pay like the new drilled armies. Third, replace old muskets and native powder with foreign rifles camp by camp. Fourth, end obsolete naval ranks, fund ships, keep sailors aboard with only auxiliary land drill, and sharpen gear for sea, coastal, and river fleets. These were empire-wide matters; he asked an edict for all officials to discuss and implement. That year Yangzi and all naval forces were ordered to train only with guns and not use archery as an excuse to live ashore. Coastal steam warships were also excused from archery drill. In year 12 Shen Baozhen asked the gunboat commander to visit every port in person so dispersed ships could drill and deploy as one force. In year 13 Li Hongzhang said banner and Green Standard old arms could not win; even new armies had few foreign rifles and fewer breech-loaders or shells—enough for bandits, not foreign powers. Zeng had proposed ninety thousand coastal and thirty thousand Yangzi troops with new arms at eight million taels a year; the Zongli Yamen wanted winning rifle squadrons for the navy; Ding Richang wanted a hundred thousand elites—cost blocked them all. Army and navy differed in organization and drill; sailors could fight ashore, soldiers could not sail. He asked to arm land camps with foreign rifles, cut weak Green Standard rolls, raise pay, give coastal posts breech-loaders, garrison crack troops at key ports, and focus on drill and fortification. He wanted foreign-style batteries at every port with ten-inch guns, good commanders, and trained crews judged on accuracy and range.
16
光緒五年，李鴻章以德國陸軍步隊尤精，得力在每日林操，熟演料敵應變之法，夏秋大操，熟演露宿野戰攻守之法。 其法備於一哨，擴而充之，可營可軍。 前于海防營內，選游擊等七員，赴德國學習林操及迎敵、設伏、布陣、繪圖各法三年餘，學成回國。 乃於親軍營內，挑選哨隊，仿德國一哨之制，依法教練，漸次擴充。 九年，李鴻章始創設水師學堂於天津，習駕駛等藝。 十一年，張之洞酌定海防各營操練章程，舊式刀叉弓矢已無實用，改用新操，一練臥槍，一練過山砲隊，一練掘造地營，一練安放水雷，一練修築砲台，一練臨敵散隊，一練洋式火箭，一練安設行軍電線，一練疾步逾濠越嶺，一練夜戰，一練堅守地營及濬濠築牆一切工程。 是年，李鴻章以外洋留學生回華，於操法、陣法、電學、水雷、旱雷，均有心得，飭分赴各營教練弁兵，並設武備學堂。 十二年，張之洞以廣東省駐防營，於光緒六年，選甲兵千五百人，改練洋槍洋砲及陣法，乃裁汰旗營水師，附入步軍，編為兩翼，合陣操演。 飭製造局移解新式槍砲，增練砲隊。 十三年，李鴻章以北洋武備學堂學生，於砲台、營壘、馬隊、步隊、砲隊諸新法，咸有成就，飭令回營，轉相傳授。 是年，張之洞始於廣東設水師、陸師學堂，水師分管輪及駕駛攻戰二種，陸師分馬步、槍砲、營造三種，兼采各國之長。 二十年，張之洞之南洋水師學堂著有成效，加以獎勵。 又於江寧省設陸軍學堂，講求地理、測量、營壘諸術，馬、步、砲隊諸法。
In Guangxu 5 Li Hongzhang credited German infantry skill to daily woodland drill and summer-autumn field exercises in bivouac and attack-defense. The method fit one platoon and could scale to a battalion or an army. Seven coastal-defense colonels had studied woodland drill, ambush, deployment, and mapping in Germany for three years and returned. They then picked platoons in the personal army, trained them on the German platoon model, and expanded gradually. In year 9 Li Hongzhang founded a naval academy at Tianjin for navigation and related skills. In year 11 Zhang Zhidong replaced obsolete arms with new drill: prone rifle, mountain guns, entrenchments, mines, batteries, skirmish lines, rockets, field telegraph, obstacle crossing, night fighting, and siege engineering. That year Li Hongzhang sent returned students who knew drill, formations, electricity, and mines to train camps and opened a military academy. In year 12 Zhang Zhidong, building on Guangxu 6 when Guangdong picked fifteen hundred men for foreign arms, cut the banner navy, attached it to infantry in two wings, and drilled jointly. The arsenal was told to supply new guns and expand artillery training. In year 13 Li Hongzhang sent Beiyang academy graduates skilled in batteries, entrenchments, and mounted and foot arms back to camps to teach others. That year Zhang Zhidong opened naval and army schools in Guangdong—engines and combat at sea; cavalry, infantry, guns, and engineering on land—taking the best from abroad. In year 20 Zhang Zhidong's Southern Seas naval academy was judged successful and rewarded. Jiangning also got an army school for geography, surveying, field works, and mounted, foot, and artillery drill.
17
二十一年，張之洞建議，舊營積弊太深。 人皆烏合，來去無恆，一弊也。 兵皆缺額，且充雜差，二弊也。 里居不確，良莠不分，三弊也。 攤派刻扣，四弊也。 新式槍砲，拋棄損壞，五弊也。 營壘工程，不知講求，六弊也。 營弁習尚奢華，七弊也。 若以洋將統之，期其額必足，人必壯，餉必裕，軍火必精，技藝必嫺，勇丁不供雜差，將領不得濫充，此七者練兵之必要。 所聘德國武將三十五人已來華，即仿德國營制，設步隊八營，二百五十人分為五哨，馬隊二營，一百八十騎分為三哨，砲隊二營，二百人分為四哨，工程隊一營百人，醫官、槍匠等咸備。 凡勇丁二千八百六十人，餉四十四萬兩。 俟操練有效，推廣加練，增至萬人。 以此軍洋將移練第二軍，俾次第以成勁旅。 是年，胡燏芬建議，新練各軍，宜用一律槍砲。 北洋先練五萬人為大軍，南洋練三萬人，廣東、湖北練二萬人，餘省萬人，操法軍械，務歸一律，以便徵調。 各省應一律設立武備學堂。
In year 21 Zhang Zhidong reported that old camps were riddled with deep abuses. First, men were a shifting mob with no steady roster. Second, rolls were short and men did odd jobs. Third, residence was uncertain and good and bad men were not sorted. Fourth, extortion and harsh deductions. Fifth, new guns and cannon were wasted and ruined. Sixth, field works and engineering were neglected. Seventh, camp officers lived in luxury. Foreign officers should command so rolls were full, men fit, pay ample, arms good, skills sharp, soldiers free of odd jobs, and commanders qualified—the seven essentials of training. Thirty-five German officers had arrived; on the German model they formed eight infantry companies of two hundred fifty in five platoons, two cavalry companies of one hundred eighty in three platoons, two artillery companies of two hundred in four platoons, one hundred engineers, plus medics and armorers. The force totaled two thousand eight hundred sixty men at four hundred forty thousand taels of pay. Once drill succeeded, training would expand to ten thousand men. Their foreign instructors would then train a second army until crack forces were built in turn. That year Hu Yifen urged uniform guns for all new armies. Beiyang would train fifty thousand, Nanyang thirty thousand, Guangdong and Hubei twenty thousand each, and other provinces ten thousand—with uniform drill and arms for mobilization. Every province should open a military academy.
18
二十二年，始以新法訓練海陸各軍。 各省設立學堂，同時舉辦。 是年，張之洞始裁撤湖北武防等三旗，改練洋操二營，工程隊一營，仿直隸武毅軍新練洋操章程，參用德國軍制，聘德國武員為教習，以開風氣。 是年，盛宣懷建議，全國綠營兵歲餉千餘萬，練勇歲餉亦千餘萬，凡八十餘萬人，徒耗財力，無裨實用，宜悉行裁撤。 共練新軍三十萬人，就各省情形輕重，定兵數多寡，徵募訓練，悉仿西法。 旋總理衙門以各省營伍，驟難盡裁，先就北洋新練兩軍，及江南自強軍、湖北洋操隊，切實教練。 俟裁兵節餉，次第推廣。 飭兩江、兩湖督臣，較准製造局槍砲畫一辦理。 又於武昌城設武備學堂，聘洋員教習。
In year 22 land and sea forces began training by the new methods. Provinces opened academies at the same time. That year Zhang Zhidong cut three Hubei defense banners for two foreign-drill battalions and one engineer battalion on the Zhili model with German instructors. That year Sheng Xuanhuai urged abolishing over eight hundred thousand Green Standard and drilled-brave troops costing more than twenty million taels a year with little return. Instead, three hundred thousand new troops would be raised province by province, all trained on Western lines. The Zongli Yamen replied that full cuts were impossible at once and ordered earnest training for Beiyang's two new armies, Jiangnan's Self-Strengthening Army, and Hubei's foreign-drill corps. Expansion would follow as cuts freed funds. Two Jiangs and Two Hu governors were told to standardize arsenal guns. Wuchang also got a military academy with foreign instructors.
19
二十四年，令各省稽察缺額攤派之弊，嚴行革除。 至操練之法，宜不拘成格，儘力變通，飭督辦軍務王大臣議之。 尋以神機營、火器營、健銳營、武勝新隊，操演嫺熟，賞統兵大臣有差。 令滿、蒙、漢各軍驍騎營、兩翼前鋒、護軍營，五成改習洋操，五成改用洋槍，八旗漢軍砲隊營、藤牌營，一併改練，神機營汰弱留強，共練馬步兵萬人。 其陣法器械營制餉章，酌仿泰西兵制。 是年秋，上親詣團河及天津大閱新操。 又令各省增水師學堂學額，增造練船，習駕駛諸術。 二十五年，以北洋各軍訓練三年，飭統兵大臣取各種操法，繪圖貼說以聞。 步隊以起伏分合為主。 砲隊以攻堅挫銳為期。 馬隊以出奇馳驟為能。 工程隊以擴地利、備軍資為事。 以平時操練之法，備異日戰陣之需。 二十六年，鄧華熙於安徽省城設立武備學堂，習槍砲戰陣諸學。
In year 24 provinces were ordered to root out padded rolls and illegal levies. Drill methods should break old patterns; the prince-minister in charge of military affairs was told to decide. Soon the Shenji, firearms, elite, and Martial Victory units drilled well and their commanders were rewarded. Half of Manchu, Mongol, and Han vanguard and guards units took foreign drill and half foreign rifles; Han artillery and shield units retrained; the Shenji Camp cut the weak and trained ten thousand horse and foot. Formations, arms, organization, and pay followed Western models in part. That autumn the emperor reviewed the new drill at Tuanhe and Tianjin in person. Provinces were also told to expand naval schools, build training ships, and teach navigation. In year 25, after three years of Beiyang training, commanders were told to report every drill method with illustrated explanations. Infantry stressed advancing, halting, and splitting and reforming. Artillery aimed at breaching works and breaking enemy strength. Cavalry specialized in surprise and rapid charges. Engineers worked terrain and supplies. Peacetime drill was meant to ready men for war. In year 26 Deng Huaxi opened a military academy in Anhui's capital for guns, artillery, and tactics.
20
二十七年，以各省制兵防勇，積弊甚深，飭將軍、督、撫，就原有各營，嚴行裁汰，精選若干營，分為常備、續備、巡警等軍，更定餉章，一律操習新式槍砲。 又令南北洋、湖北之武備學堂，山東之隨營學堂，酌量擴充，認真訓練。 是年，劉坤一、張之洞等，以二十年來，各省練習洋操，屢經整頓，而舊日將領，於新操多未諳習。 東西各國教將練兵要旨，約有十二：一曰教士以禮，使知有恥自重，一曰調護士卒起處飲食，一曰講明槍砲彈藥質性源流之法，一曰槍砲線路取准之法，一曰掘濠築壘避槍砲之法，一曰馬步砲各隊擇地借勢之法，一曰測量繪圖之法，一曰隊伍分合轉變之法，一曰守衛偵探之法，一曰行軍工程製造之法，一曰籌備行軍衣糧輜重之法，一曰行軍醫藥之法。 各疆臣均應選擇統領、營、哨各官，均切實研究。 練兵固亟，練將尤要。 數年以後，非武備學堂出身者，不得充將弁。 更請仿英、法之總營務處，日本之參謀部，於都城專設衙門，掌全國水陸兵制、餉章、地理繪圖、操練法式、儲備糧餉、轉運舟車、外交偵探等事。 平日之預籌，臨時之調度，悉以此官掌之。 兼采眾長，務求實用。 令內外臣工合議。 二十八年，設北洋行營將弁學堂，實演戰擊諸法。 此歷朝訓練之規也。
In year 27 deep abuses in regular and brave troops led orders to cut rolls, pick elite camps for standing, reserve, and patrol forces, revise pay, and train all on modern arms. Beiyang, Nanyang, Hubei, and Shandong military schools were also told to expand and train seriously. That year Liu Kunyi and Zhang Zhidong noted that after twenty years of foreign drill reforms, many old officers still did not know the new methods. East and West taught twelve essentials for officers: instill discipline and self-respect; care for men's food and quarters; teach ballistics and powder; teach aiming and lines of fire; teach entrenching against fire; teach terrain use for horse, foot, and guns; teach surveying and mapping; teach unit maneuvers; teach guard and reconnaissance; teach field engineering; teach logistics; and teach field medicine. Every governor should pick commanders and company and platoon officers to master these subjects. Training troops was urgent, but training officers mattered more. Within a few years only military academy graduates could hold command. They also asked for a capital office modeled on British and French war ministries and Japan's general staff to run national land and sea forces, pay, maps, drill, logistics, transport, and intelligence. That office would handle peacetime planning and wartime deployment. It would take the best from abroad for practical use. Court and provincial officials were told to deliberate together. In year 28 Beiyang opened a field headquarters officers' school for live combat drill. Such were the training regulations of successive reigns.