Volume 528 Biographies 315: Tributary State Biographies 3: Burma, Siam, Lan Xang, Sulu

緬甸，在雲南永昌府騰越廳邊外，而順寧、普洱諸邊皆與緬甸界。順治十八年，李定國挾明桂王硃由榔入緬，詔公愛星阿偕吳三桂以兵萬八千人臨之。李定國走孟艮，不食死。緬酋莽應時縛由榔以獻，遂班師。緬自是不通中國者六七十年。

Burma lay beyond the frontier of Tengyue sub-prefecture in Yunnan's Yongchang prefecture; the borders of Shunning, Pu'er, and neighboring districts all adjoined it. In the eighteenth year of Shunzhi (1661), Li Dingguo escorted the Ming Prince of Gui, Zhu Youlang, into Burma. The court ordered Prince Aidé Xing'a and Wu Sangui to march against them with eighteen thousand men. Li Dingguo fled to Menggen, where he starved himself to death. The Burmese ruler Mang Yingshi seized Youlang and handed him over; the Qing forces then withdrew. After that Burma remained cut off from China for some sixty or seventy years.

雍正九年，緬與景邁交閧，景邁使至普洱求貢，乞視南掌、暹羅，雲貴總督鄂爾泰疑而卻之。緬密遣人至車裏土司，探知景邁貢被卻，則大喜，揚言緬來歲亦入貢。旋興兵二萬攻景邁，而貢竟不至。

In the ninth year of Yongzheng (1731), Burma and Keng Tung fell into conflict. Keng Tung sent envoys to Pu'er seeking tributary status on the same terms as Lan Xang and Siam, but Governor-General Ortai, suspicious, turned them away. Burma secretly sent agents to the Cheli chieftaincy and, learning that Keng Tung's tribute bid had been rejected, was delighted and announced that Burma would also send tribute the next year. It soon mobilized twenty thousand men to attack Keng Tung, but the promised tribute mission never materialized.

緬地亙數千里，其酋居阿瓦城。城西瀕大金沙江。江發源野人番地，縱貫其國中，南注於海。沿海富魚鹽，緬人載之，溯江上行十餘日，抵老官屯、新街、蠻暮粥市，邊內外諸夷人皆賴之。而江以東為孟密，有寶井，產寶石。又有波龍者，產銀，江西、湖廣及雲南大理、永昌人出邊商販者甚眾，且屯聚波龍以開銀礦為生，常不下數萬人。自波龍迤東有茂隆廠，亦產銀。乾隆十年，葫蘆酋長以廠獻，遂為內地屬，然其地與緬犬牙相錯。十八年，廠長吳尚賢思挾緬自重，說緬入貢，緬酋麻哈祖乃以馴象、塗金塔遣使叩關，雲南布政司等議卻之，而巡撫圖爾炳阿遽以聞。帝下禮部議，如他屬國入貢例。

Burmese lands stretched for thousands of li; its ruler dwelt in Ava. The city stood on the west bank of the great Irrawaddy. The river rose in the hill country of wild tribes, ran the length of Burma, and emptied south into the sea. The coast was rich in fish and salt. Burmese boatmen carried these goods upriver for ten days or more to Laoguantun, Xinjie, and the market town of Manmu—staples on which frontier peoples on both sides of the border relied. East of the river lay Mengmi, site of a gem pit famed for its precious stones. Farther on was Bolong, a silver-producing district. Traders from Jiangxi, Huguang, and Yunnan's Dali and Yongchang flocked across the border in great numbers, and tens of thousands often settled at Bolong to work the silver mines for a living. East of Bolong lay the Maolong mining district, another silver-producing area. In the tenth year of Qianlong (1745), the Hulu chieftain offered up the mine, and the district was incorporated into Qing territory, though its lands still interlocked with Burma in a jagged checkerboard. In the eighteenth year (1753), mine director Wu Shangxian sought to strengthen his hand by persuading Burma to offer tribute. Burmese ruler Mahazu sent envoys with tame elephants and a gilded pagoda to the border pass. Yunnan's provincial administration commission favored turning them away, but Grand Coordinator Tu'erbing'a promptly reported the mission to Beijing. The emperor ordered the Ministry of Rites to deliberate, and it ruled that Burma should be received under the same procedures as other tributary states.

其冬，緬使還至順甯，聞白古部酋撒翁起兵攻緬，緬兵敗，麻哈祖逃至約提朗，為白古所得，沉之江。撒翁據阿瓦五年，而緬屬之木梳頭目甕藉牙復起兵攻走白古，自據其地，令頭目播定鮓等以兵脅諸部役屬之。既而甕藉牙死，子懵洛立。未幾，亦死，弟懵駁立。

That winter, on their return to Shunning, the Burmese envoys learned that Pegu's chief Sa-ong had risen in revolt. Burma's army was beaten; Mahazu fled to Yotilang, was seized by Pegu, and drowned in the river. Sa-ong held Ava for five years until Yunxieya, a Mokso headman under Burmese rule, rebelled, expelled Pegu, and took Ava for himself, sending officers such as Bodin Zha to coerce the surrounding tribes into vassalage. Yunxieya soon died, and his son Mengluo succeeded him. He too died not long after, and his younger brother Mengbo took the throne.

貴家者，隨永明入緬之官族也，其子孫自相署曰「貴家」，據波龍廠采銀。其酋宮裏雁不附於甕藉牙，約木邦酋攻之。兵敗，逃入孟連，而孟連土司刀派春奪其孥賄，為宮酋妻囊占所襲殺。雲貴總督吳達善誘宮裏雁至，則坐以擾邊罪，肆諸市。而木邦酋罕莽底亦兵敗走死，懵駁立其弟罕黑。由是緬人益無忌。

The Guijia were officials who had followed the Southern Ming into Burma; their descendants called themselves the "Noble House" and controlled silver mining at Bolong. Their chief Gongliyan refused to submit to Yunxieya and joined the Mohnyin chieftain in an attack on Burma. After his defeat he fled to Menglian, where chieftain Dao Paichun seized his family for ransom; Gongliyan's wife Nang Zhan ambushed and killed Dao Paichun. Governor-General Wu Dashan lured Gongliyan in, convicted him of frontier disturbances, and had him executed by dismemberment in the marketplace. Mohnyin chieftain Han Mangdi was likewise defeated and killed in flight; Mengbo installed Han Mangdi's younger brother Han Hei as ruler. From then on the Burmese grew ever bolder.

明萬曆時，巡撫陳用賓因永昌府近緬，設八關控之。八關者，萬仞、巨石、神護、銅壁、鐵壁、虎踞、天馬、漢龍也。其實八關皆無險阨可守，山箐間小徑往往通人行。自永昌迤邐而南為順甯，又南為普洱，其邊袤亙蓋二千餘里。永昌之盞達、隴川、猛卯、芒市、遮放，順甯之孟定、孟連、耿馬，普洱之車裏，數土司外，又有波龍、養子、野人、根都、佧佤、濮夷雜錯而居，非緬類，然多役於緬。土司亦稍致餽遺，謂之「花馬禮」，由來久矣。暨緬人內訌，禮遂廢。甕藉牙父子欲復其舊，諸土司弗應，乃遣兵擾其地，而普洱獨先有事。

During the Ming Wanli reign, Grand Coordinator Chen Yongbin, noting that Yongchang lay close to Burma, established eight frontier passes to control access. The eight passes were Wanyin, Jushi, Shenhu, Tongbi, Tiebi, Huju, Tianma, and Hanlong. In fact none of the eight passes was truly defensible; footpaths through the ravines often allowed travelers to slip through. South from Yongchang lay Shunning, and farther south Pu'er; the frontier belt ran for more than two thousand li. Beyond the major chieftaincies—Zheda, Longchuan, Mengmao, Mangshi, and Zhefang in Yongchang; Mengding, Menglian, and Gengma in Shunning; and Cheli in Pu'er—Bolong, Yangzi, wild tribes, Gendu, Kawa, and Pu peoples lived intermingled. Though not Burmese by origin, many were under Burmese control. The chieftains also sent modest gifts known as the "flower-and-horse tribute," a custom of long standing. When Burma fell into civil war, the custom lapsed. Yunxieya and his son sought to restore the old tribute, but the chieftains refused, so they sent troops to raid their territories—Pu'er was the first to come under attack.

二十八年，劉藻為雲南巡撫，額爾格圖為提督。是年冬，緬人先遣刀派先之兄刀派新自阿瓦還至孟連，徵索幣貨，又遣頭目卜布拉、木邦罕黑至耿馬責其禮。普洱之十三板納者，本車里土司地。雍正七年，鄂爾泰總督雲南，招降之，始割其地置府。至是，緬人亦來索米。永順鎮總兵田允中、普洱鎮總兵劉德成、知府達成阿檄土司各率兵禦之，殺其頭目卜布拉、召罕標等，餘眾潰走。

In the twenty-eighth year (1763), Liu Zao was appointed grand coordinator of Yunnan and E'ergitu provincial military commissioner. That winter the Burmese sent Dao Paixin, elder brother of Dao Paixian, back from Ava to Menglian to extort goods, and dispatched officer Bubula and Mohnyin's Han Hei to Gengma to demand the customary tribute. Pu'er's Thirteen Ban Na districts had originally belonged to the Cheli chieftaincy. In the seventh year of Yongzheng (1729), Governor-General Ortai induced them to submit and carved out their territory to establish a prefecture. Now the Burmese came demanding grain as well. Yongshun commander Tian Yunzhong, Pu'er commander Liu Decheng, and Prefect Dacheng'a ordered the chieftains to resist. They killed Burmese officers Bubula, Zhao Hanbiao, and others, and the rest fled in disarray.

孟艮本緬屬，距普洱千餘里，土司召孟容與弟召孟必不相能。召孟必之子召散譖召孟容於緬，緬人執之，其子召丙走南掌。尋入居於十三板納之孟遮，召散因令素領散聽、素領散撰、素領党阿烏弄等犯打樂，分侵九龍江橄欖壩，車里土司遁去，賊入據其城。總督劉藻檄大理順甯營兵七千往剿，遊擊司邦直先進，為賊人所圍。會參將劉明智至，夾攻破之，乘勝復車裏土司城。進攻猛籠、猛歇、猛混、猛遮諸壘，連破之，然賊往往竄伏屯聚，未肯即退。藻議益以曲尋、楚姚兵二千，未至，而參將何瓊詔、遊擊明浩等聞猛阿為賊所攻，遽率兵過滾弄江，束器械以行，不設備，入山遇賊，兵敗，詔論斬。時乾隆三十年也。

Menggen, a Burmese dependency more than a thousand li from Pu'er, was ruled by chieftain Zhao Mengrong, who was at odds with his younger brother Zhao Mengbi. Zhao Mengbi's son Zhao San denounced Zhao Mengrong to the Burmese, who arrested him; Mengrong's son Zhao Bing fled to Lan Xang. He soon established himself at Mengzhe in the Thirteen Ban Na. Zhao San sent Sulingsanting, Sulingsanzuan, Suling Dang'a, and Wunong against Dale while other columns raided the Olive Dam on the Nine-Dragon River. The Cheli chieftain fled, and the rebels occupied his city. Governor-General Liu Zao dispatched seven thousand men from the Dali and Shunning garrisons. Guerrilla officer Si Bangzhi led the advance and was surrounded by the rebels. Brigadier Liu Mingzhi arrived, attacked from both flanks, and broke the siege; pressing their advantage, they recovered the Cheli chieftain's city. They stormed the stockades at Menglong, Mengxie, Menghun, and Mengzhe in succession, but the rebels kept slipping into ambush and regrouping, refusing to withdraw. Liu Zao planned to reinforce with two thousand men from Qujing and Chuyao, but before they arrived, Brigadier He Qiongshao and guerrilla officer Ming Hao, hearing Meng'a was under attack, rushed troops across the Gunong River with weapons bundled for easy carrying and no precautions. Ambushed in the hills, they were routed; He Qiongshao was sentenced to death. This took place in the thirtieth year of Qianlong (1765).

三十一年正月，詔大學士楊應琚自陝甘移督雲南，降劉藻湖北巡撫，藻自刎死。是月己亥，應琚至雲南，楚姚鎮總兵華封已平打樂，猛臘參將哈國興已平大猛養，合剿孟艮，召散遁，官軍得其城。而劉得成與提督達啟及參將孫爾桂攻整欠，亦克之。普洱邊外悉平。

In the first month of the thirty-first year (1766), Grand Secretary Yang Yingju was transferred from Shaan-Gan to govern Yunnan; Liu Zao was demoted to grand coordinator of Hubei and took his own life. On the jihai day of that month Yang Yingju reached Yunnan. Commander Hua Feng had already pacified Dale and Brigadier Ha Guoxing Damengyang; together they suppressed Menggen, Zhao San fled, and government forces seized his city. Meanwhile Liu Decheng, Military Commissioner Da Qi, and Brigadier Sun Ergui attacked Zhengqian and captured it as well. The entire Pu'er frontier was pacified.

叭先捧者，車里土司之所屬，蓋微者也。顧與其妻咸以從軍自效，斬素領散撰於小猛侖，素領散聽亦為其妻殺死。應琚乃請以召丙居孟艮，叭先捧居整欠，均授以指揮，使守其地。時提督李勳方至雲南，應琚令往孟艮、整欠正經界，定賦稅，附入版圖，為久遠計。然召丙為人懦，不能安輯其人；叭先捧不敢至整欠，退棲於猛搿。四月，召散之黨召猛烈、召猛養以次被獲，其弟僧召龍亦自投首，惟召散逋逃未得。

Ba Xianpeng was a minor subordinate of the Cheli chieftain. Yet he and his wife both took up arms in government service: he slew Sulingsanzuan at Xiaomenglun, and his wife killed Sulingsanting. Yang Yingju then petitioned to install Zhao Bing at Menggen and Ba Xianpeng at Zhengqian, each granted the rank of commander to hold the territory. Military Commissioner Li Xun had just arrived in Yunnan; Yang Yingju ordered him to Menggen and Zhengqian to fix boundaries, set taxes, and incorporate the territories into the empire for good. But Zhao Bing was timid and unable to pacify his people; Ba Xianpeng dared not occupy Zhengqian and withdrew to Mengge. In the fourth month Zhao San's followers Zhao Menglie and Zhao Mengyang were captured in turn; his brother the monk Zhao Long surrendered as well, but Zhao San himself remained at large.

應琚見夷人之易於摧殄也，遂上奏云：「臣兩月以來，訪問召散踪跡，逃往阿瓦，已飭土司繕寫緬文索取，不獻，當即興師問罪。臣查緬甸連年內亂，篡奪相尋，實有可乘之會。臣謹選人潛往阿瓦，將地方之廣狹，道路之險夷，詳悉繪圖，探明奏報。現已備可調之兵，佈置練習，密修戎器，以待進行。」疏入，帝諭曰：「應琚久任邊疆，必不至輕率喜事。如確有把握，自可乘時集事，剋日奏功。倘勞師耗餉，稍致張惶，轉非慎重籌邊之道。務須熟計兼權，期於妥善，以定行止。」

Concluding that the tribesmen were easily crushed, Yang Yingju memorialized: "For two months I have traced Zhao San's movements to Ava. I have ordered the chieftains to draft a demand in Burmese for his surrender. If he is not delivered, I shall immediately raise troops to punish Burma. Burma has suffered civil war year after year, with usurpations following one upon another—there is a real opening to exploit. I have sent agents secretly to Ava to map the territory's extent and the roads' difficulty in full detail and report back. Available troops are assembled, drilling, and arms are being repaired in secret, ready to march." When the memorial arrived, the emperor replied: "Yang Yingju has long served on the frontier and will surely not act rashly or court trouble. If he is truly confident, he may seize the moment and report victory on schedule. But if he exhausts troops and treasury and causes alarm, that would be the opposite of prudent frontier planning. He must weigh every factor carefully and decide soundly before acting."

是時諸將希應琚意，爭言內附。李勳以猛勇、猛散告，劉德成以猛龍、補哈告，華封以整賣、景線、景海告，率侈言夷地廣輪或二千里，或二千餘里，為邊外大都。應琚一一奏聞，以其頭目為千總、守備。緬甯通判富森言木邦人殺緬立土司罕黑，奉線甕團為主，原求內屬。永昌知府陳大呂亦言蠻暮土司被緬殘虐，久原歸誠，請發兵為助。應琚乃往駐永昌，而遣副將趙宏榜將永順、騰越兵三百餘人出鐵壁關屯新街，為蠻暮捍蔽。宏榜抵關，遇大呂所遣使，羈之，而自受蠻暮土司瑞團降。大呂恚，訴應琚，應琚曲解之。是時騰越知州陳廷獻招猛育、猛英、猛密，陳元震招戛鳩、允帽、結{此夕}，富森招佧佤，而宏榜又招孟養、乃壩竹、孟嶽十六寨諸夷，先後遣人來約降應琚又為文檄緬，侈言天朝有陸路兵三十萬，水路兵二十萬，陳於境以待速降，不然則進討。緬聞，乃大出兵。緬人素不養兵，有事則於所屬土司諸寨籍戶口多寡出夫，名曰「門戶兵」。自甕藉牙據阿瓦，蓄勝兵萬人，一人給以餉四十兩，其餘派夫如故。每戰則以所派土司濮夷居前，勝兵督其後，而以馬兵為左右兩翼。戰既合，兩翼分繞而進，往往以此取勝。若自度不可勝，則急樹柵自固，而發連環槍砲蔽之。比煙開則柵木已立，入而拒守。其兵法如此。

The generals, eager to please Yang Yingju, competed in reporting tribes willing to submit. Li Xun reported Mengyong and Mengsan; Liu Decheng Menglong and Buha; Hua Feng Zhengmai, Jingxian, and Jinghai—all exaggerating tribal domains as two thousand li or more across, great frontier territories. Yang Yingju reported each to the throne and appointed their headmen battalion commanders and garrison defenders. Dianning sub-prefect Fu Sen reported that Mohnyin men had killed Burma's appointee Han Hei and set up Xian Wengtuan as leader, seeking to submit to the Qing. Yongchang Prefect Chen Dalü reported that the Manmu chieftain had long suffered Burmese oppression and wished to submit, asking for troops to help. Yang Yingju moved his headquarters to Yongchang and sent Vice Commander Zhao Hongbang with over three hundred Yongshun and Tengyue troops through Tiebi Pass to garrison Xinjie and shield Manmu. At the pass Hongbang met an envoy sent by Dalü, detained him, and accepted Manmu chieftain Ruituan's surrender himself. Dalü protested to Yang Yingju, who twisted the facts to shield Hongbang. Tengyue Magistrate Chen Tingxian recruited Mengyu, Mengying, and Mengmi; Chen Yuanzhen Gajiu, Yunmao, and Jiexi; Fu Sen the Kawa; Hongbang Mengyang, Naibazhu, and sixteen Mengyue villages. Envoys arrived in succession to negotiate surrender. Yang Yingju also sent Burma a proclamation boasting of three hundred thousand land troops and two hundred thousand river troops on the border, demanding immediate surrender or invasion. Hearing this, Burma mobilized a large army. Burmese did not keep standing armies; in wartime they levied men from subordinate chieftaincies by household count—the "household troops." After Yunxieya seized Ava he maintained ten thousand elite troops, each paid forty taels; levies from the tribes continued as before. In battle levied chieftain and Pu levies formed the front line, elite troops supervised from behind, and cavalry the wings. Once engaged, the wings would wheel inward around the enemy—a tactic that often won the day. If they judged defeat likely, they hastily threw up palisades and covered the work with volleys of musketry and cannon. By the time the smoke cleared the palisades stood complete, and they withdrew inside to defend. Such was their way of war.

九月，賊先以兵出落卓攻木邦，線甕團不能守，入居遮放，又以兵溯江而上，抵新街。宏榜相持兩日，勢不支，燒其器械輜重及傷病之兵，退回鐵壁關駐守，而蠻暮土司亦偕其母走入內地。

In the ninth month rebels advanced from Luozhuo against Mohnyin; Xian Wengtuan could not hold and withdrew to Zhefang, while another column moved upriver to Xinjie. Hongbang held out two days, then burned weapons, baggage, and the wounded, retreated to Tiebi Pass, and the Manmu chieftain fled inland with his mother.

應琚憂甚，痰疾遽作，詔兩廣總督楊廷璋赴滇，代治應琚軍，並廉宏榜兵敗狀。又遣侍衛傅靈安挾御醫診應琚病，又命其子江蘇按察使重英、湖南寶慶知府重穀赴滇省視之。

Deeply worried, Yang Yingju fell suddenly ill. The court ordered Liang-Guang Governor-General Yang Tingzhang to Yunnan to take command and investigate Hongbang's defeat. The court also sent bodyguard Fu Ling'an with an imperial physician and ordered Yang's sons—Jiangsu surveillance commissioner Chongying and Hunan Baoding prefect Chonggu—to visit him in Yunnan.

應琚所調兵一萬四千名將集，令永順鎮總兵烏爾登額駐宛頂進剿木邦，永北鎮總兵硃侖由鐵壁關進駐新街，而令提督李時升在杉木籠山居中調度。侖至楞木，突遇賊，戰四晝夜，賊退走，追擊之。懵駁之弟卜坑及其舅莽聶渺節速詭求和，言原頂經吃咒水。頂經者，以經加於首，呪水者，取水呪之，分與其眾飲，蓋夷人盟誓之禮也。議未定，賊已擁眾越神護、萬仞關，入掠盞達，圍遊擊馬拱垣於盞達江上，分兵入戶撒，遊擊邵應泌亦被圍。劉德成在幹崖有兵二千人，坐視不救。時升因檄侖還守鐵壁。又聞賊欲從庫弄河出關後，侖復引兵卻，駐守隴川。賊勢張甚，應琚數以檄促德成，始擊賊於銅壁關下，破之。賊自西而東趨隴川，德成亦由戶撒擊其後；時升又檄烏爾登額帥宛頂兵至邦中山，以助聲勢；於是軍威稍振。賊人見大兵之集也，復來乞降，侖以報應琚，命許之。

Yang Yingju's fourteen thousand troops were assembling; he ordered Yongshun commander Wu'erdenge from Wanding against Mohnyin, Yongbei commander Zhu Lun through Tiebi Pass to Xinjie, and Military Commissioner Li Shisheng to coordinate from Shanmulong Mountain. Zhu Lun reached Lengmu, was ambushed, fought four days and nights, drove the rebels back, and pursued. Mengbo's brother Bukeng and uncle Mang Nie Miao Jiesu feigned a peace offer, proposing the tribal oath of sutra crowns and enchanted water. The "sutra crown" placed scriptures on the head; "enchanted water" was water over which spells were chanted and shared among the company—the tribal oath ritual. Before terms were agreed, rebels had crossed Shenhu and Wanyin passes, raided Zheda, besieged guerrilla officer Ma Gongyuan on the Zheda River, sent columns into Husa, and surrounded guerrilla officer Shao Yingbi as well. Liu Decheng had two thousand men at Ganya but did nothing to help. Li Shisheng ordered Zhu Lun back to defend Tiebi Pass. Hearing the rebels might slip behind the passes via the Kunong River, Zhu Lun withdrew again to garrison Longchuan. Rebel strength was formidable; only after repeated orders from Yang Yingju did Liu Decheng attack below Tongbi Pass and defeat them. The rebels marched east from the west toward Longchuan, while Liu Decheng struck their rear from Husa. Li Shisheng also ordered Wu'erdenge to lead Wanding troops to Bangzhong Mountain to strengthen the army's presence. The army's morale improved somewhat. Seeing imperial forces massing, the rebels again sued for surrender; Zhu Lun reported to Yang Yingju, who ordered acceptance.

賊伺我軍懈，遂走犯猛卯。猛卯與木邦親，木邦之降，猛卯實左右焉。賊怨，故蹂躪之。時三十二年正月丙寅朔也。副將哈國興帥兵二千五百人趨猛卯，比至，見賊勢盛，乃入城與土司堅守。賊攻城，緣梯而上，城上矢砲交發，賊不敢近。圍八日，癸酉，副將陳廷蛟、遊擊雅爾姜阿各以兵至，城中出合擊之，賊大潰；而烏爾登額久不至，故賊得浮猛卯江而逸。硃侖乃造浮橋過宿養渡，由景陽、暮董偕烏爾登額進剿木邦。是月丁丑，楊廷璋至軍，見賊未易遽平，遂奏言應琚病已痊，臣當歸粵。帝召廷璋還京師。

The rebels waited until our troops relaxed their guard, then broke away to attack Mengmao. Mengmao was allied with Mohnyin, and had in fact been decisive in Mohnyin's submission. The rebels resented this and ravaged the district. It was New Year's Day of the thirty-second year. Deputy General Ha Guoxing marched twenty-five hundred men toward Mengmao; finding the rebels too strong, he entered the city and held it with the local chieftain. The rebels assaulted the walls on ladders, but volleys of arrows and cannon from the ramparts kept them at bay. On the eighth day of the siege, Deputy Generals Chen Tingjiao and Guerrilla Officer Ya'erjiang'a arrived with reinforcements; the garrison sallied out to join the attack and the rebels broke in rout. Wu'erdenge never arrived, however, and the rebels crossed the Mengmao River by raft and escaped. Zhu Lun built a pontoon bridge at Suyang Ford and, marching through Jingyang and Muda, joined Wu'erdenge in an advance on Mohnyin. That month Yang Tingzhang reached the army; seeing the rebels would not be quickly crushed, he reported that Yang Yingju had recovered and asked to return to Guangdong. The emperor recalled Yang Tingzhang to the capital.

時賊入關侵擾，應琚皆不以聞，僅言硃侖殺賊幾萬人，賊震懼，乞降，欲以新街、蠻暮與之；而時升亦言猛卯之捷，誅其大頭目播定鮓、皮魯布。奏入，帝視應琚所進地圖，用藍筆分中外界，而猛卯、隴川均在藍線內，疑之，以為如果殲賊萬餘及大頭目，賊當遁走不暇，何以朱崙輾轉退卻，賊敢蔓延內地土司之境？降旨駁詰。而傅靈安先奉詔廉訪軍事，具言趙宏榜棄新街，硃侖退守隴川，及李時升未經臨敵情事，與帝所駁詰者悉合。應琚復劾劉德成、烏爾登額逗留貽誤。於是逮李時升、硃侖、劉德成、烏爾登額、趙宏榜，而晉楊甯為提督。且以應琚欺罔乖謬不能任事，乃召明瑞於伊犁，以將軍督軍雲南，遣額爾景額為參贊大臣，徙巡撫湯聘於貴州，以鄂寧代之。

Meanwhile rebels were raiding inside the passes, but Yang Yingju reported none of it—only that Zhu Lun had killed tens of thousands of rebels, that they were terrified and suing for peace, and that he wished to cede Xinjie and Manmu. Li Shisheng also reported victory at Mengmao and the execution of rebel chiefs Bodianzha and Pilubu. When the memorial arrived, the emperor examined Yang Yingju's map, traced the inner-outer border in blue, and noticed that Mengmao and Longchuan both lay inside the line. He grew suspicious: if tens of thousands of rebels and their chiefs had truly been destroyed, they should have fled in panic—how could Zhu Lun keep retreating while rebels spread into inland chieftaincy territory? The emperor issued an edict rebuking and questioning him. Fu Ling'an, already on an imperial inspection of military affairs, reported that Zhao Hongbang had abandoned Xinjie, Zhu Lun had fallen back to Longchuan, and Li Shisheng had never personally faced the enemy—precisely matching the emperor's rebukes. Yang Yingju further impeached Liu Decheng and Wu'erdenge for dawdling and causing delay. Li Shisheng, Zhu Lun, Liu Decheng, Wu'erdenge, and Zhao Hongbang were arrested, and Yang Ning was promoted to military commissioner. Judging Yang Yingju deceitful, perverse, and unfit for office, the court summoned Ming Rui from Ili to command the Yunnan campaign as general, sent Erjing'e as consultative minister, transferred Governor Tang Pin to Guizhou, and replaced him with E'ning.

上年冬，緬人已據整賣、景線，召散遂率以攻孟艮，召丙懼，出奔，賊延入打樂，思茅同知黑光以聞。時湯聘未聞上命，楊重英方至自江蘇，乃偕赴普洱，奏言總兵華封、甯珠安坐普洱，失剿禦，請革職治罪。奏入，華封、寧珠與遊擊權恕、司邦直，都司甘其卓皆被逮，調開化鎮總兵書敏總統進剿。頃之，鄂寧亦至普洱，奏言：「上年九龍江外兵馬以瘴死者不可勝數，官弁夫役死亦大半。此時正盛瘴發生，湯聘乃稱嚴飭將卒，克日進剿，懷詐塞責，實無誠款。」奏入，湯聘以革職逮治。應琚見前所招撫土司復陰附緬，其土司頭目夷人千百為群，皆蕩析離居，而緬賊時出沒為患，邊事日棘。鄂甯復奏應琚貪功啟釁，為硃侖等諱飾，又不令湯聘、傅靈安與聞邊務，及隱沒遊擊班第、守備江紀陣亡各狀。應琚懼，乃奏請是秋大舉征緬，調兵五萬，五路並進，兼約暹羅夾攻。帝下其議，廷臣皆斥之。詔逮應琚至京，賜死。

The previous winter the Burmese had seized Zhengmai and Jingxian; Zhaosan led them against Menggen; Zhaobing fled in fear; the rebels pushed into Dale; Simao Magistrate Hei Guang reported the incursion. Tang Pin had not yet received imperial orders when Yang Chongying arrived from Jiangsu; together they went to Pu'er and reported that Generals Hua Feng and Ning Zhu had sat idle there, failing to suppress the enemy, and should be dismissed and punished. On receipt of the memorial, Hua Feng, Ning Zhu, Guerrilla Officer Quan Shu, Sima Bangzhi, and Battalion Commander Gan Qizhuo were arrested; Kaifeng Commander Shu Min was assigned overall command of the advance. Soon afterward E'ning reached Pu'er and reported: "Last year beyond the Jiulong River, troops who died of miasma were beyond counting, and more than half the officers, soldiers, and laborers also perished. Miasma was then at its worst, yet Tang Pin claimed he was tightening discipline and would advance on a set date—deceitful evasion of duty, with no sincere intent." When the report arrived, Tang Pin was dismissed and arrested. Yang Yingju saw the chieftaincies he had pacified secretly reattach themselves to Burma; chieftains and tribesmen clustered in hundreds and thousands, scattered and displaced, while Burmese raiders constantly appeared and vanished—the border crisis worsened by the day. E'ning again reported that Yang Yingju had provoked war for glory, covered up for Zhu Lun and others, kept Tang Pin and Fu Ling'an out of border affairs, and concealed the battlefield deaths of Guerrilla Officer Bandi and Garrison Commander Jiang Ji. Fearing for himself, Yang Yingju proposed a major autumn campaign against Burma: fifty thousand troops in five columns, with Siam attacking from the flank. The emperor circulated the proposal; court ministers unanimously rejected it. An edict ordered Yang Yingju brought to the capital and executed.

四月，明瑞至永昌。時楊寧壁軍木邦，餉道為賊所斷，潰退滿河。永北鎮總兵索柱及烏爾登額亡其印信。明瑞以聞，楊寧亦被逮，調譚五格為提督，詔派八旗兵三千、四川兵八千、貴州兵一萬、雲南兵四千，赴邊進討。綠營馬匹皆本營預備，惟八旗兵三千人，每兵例需馬三匹，合官員所用，計馬幾萬匹。明瑞議撥廣西馬一千、廣東馬八百、四川馬五千八百、貴州馬六千、湖南馬二千，每兵裹兩月糧，計六斗，馱以一馬。馬、驢少，購牛代之。糧不足，可殺牛以抵。共用驢、馬、牛八百餘。其糧於大理、鶴慶、蒙化三府撥六萬石，又於永昌、順甯買三萬石。兵行之道，自宛頂、木邦進者為正兵，明瑞身統之。烏爾登額、譚五格則由猛密分進。至新街，水路，時方暑雨，難造舟，宜削木柹沿江流下，疑賊以牽其勢。奏入，帝嘉之，悉從其議。

In the fourth month Ming Rui reached Yongchang. Yang Ning was then encamped at Mohnyin; rebels cut his supply line and his troops broke, retreating in such numbers that they filled the river. Yongbei Commander Suozhu and Wu'erdenge lost their official seals. Ming Rui reported the disaster; Yang Ning was arrested; Tan Wuge was appointed military commissioner; and an edict dispatched three thousand Banner troops, eight thousand from Sichuan, ten thousand from Guizhou, and four thousand from Yunnan to the frontier. Green Standard units supplied their own horses; the three thousand Banner troops alone required three horses per man by regulation, plus mounts for officers—tens of thousands in all. Ming Rui proposed drawing one thousand horses from Guangxi, eight hundred from Guangdong, five thousand eight hundred from Sichuan, six thousand from Guizhou, and two thousand from Hunan; each soldier would carry two months' rations—six dou total—on one pack animal. With horses and donkeys scarce, cattle were purchased instead. When rations ran short, the cattle could be slaughtered to make up the shortfall. More than eight hundred donkeys, horses, and cattle were employed in all. Sixty thousand shi of grain were levied from Dali, Heqing, and Menghua, and thirty thousand shi purchased at Yongchang and Shunning. Of the routes of march, the main column advancing from Wanding and Mohnyin was under Ming Rui's personal command. Wu'erdenge and Tan Wuge were to advance separately through Mengmi. At Xinjie, the water route: summer rains made boat-building impractical; Ming Rui proposed carving log rafts to float downstream, feigning a river advance to draw off rebel strength. The emperor praised the plan and approved it in full.

九月，諸路兵皆至永昌，馬、牛亦集。甲寅，明瑞率軍啟行。值大雨，潞江舟少，以次待渡，而溝路陰仄，輜重壅塞於道，軍士立雨中竟夕。十月甲申，抵帕兒，帝復遣參贊大臣珠魯訥至軍，而參贊大臣額爾景額、楚姚鎮總兵國柱相繼病歿。賊偵知，毀津渡橋樑，且伐大樹撲之。又雨多道壞，軍行遲滯，明瑞乃選銳兵一半，帥以先驅。領隊大臣觀音保由孟穀出木邦之右。十一月丙戌，抵木邦城。賊先挾夷民以去，獲其糧貯，留珠魯訥以兵四千守之。進至錫箔江，江寬，架橋以渡。行四日，至天生橋，橋南有賊砦相偪。會商人馬子團言橋之東三十里水淺可涉，且岸頗平，乃以兵繞出其後。賊復棄砦去，遂進至蠻結。賊依山立十六柵以待。明瑞抵柵下，親冒槍砲督兵進攻。觀音保麾眾先據山左。哈國興等三路登山，俯薄之，呼而逼其壘。貴州步兵王連睨柵左有積木，躤之以登，躍入柵內，八十餘人繼之。賊恇亂，莫知所措，多被殺，遂破其一柵。旋復攻破三柵，而十二柵之賊悉乘夜潛遁。捷聞，晉封明瑞誠嘉毅勇公，以恩澤侯與其弟奎林，特擢王連為遊擊，餘俱交部敘功。

In the ninth month all columns reached Yongchang, with horses and cattle assembled. On cyclical day Jiayin, Ming Rui led the army out. Heavy rain fell; boats on the Lu River were scarce and troops waited in turn to cross; the narrow track jammed with baggage, and soldiers stood in the rain all night. In the tenth month, on cyclical day Jiashen, they reached Pa'er; the emperor sent Consultative Minister Zhulun'e to join the army, while Consultative Minister Erjing'e and Chuyao Commander Guozhu died of illness in succession. Learning of the advance, the rebels destroyed ferries, bridges, and trestles and felled great trees to block the way. Rain ruined the roads and the march slowed; Ming Rui selected half his best troops and pushed ahead as vanguard. Column Commander Guanyinbao marched out of Menggu to Mohnyin's right flank. In the eleventh month, on cyclical day Bingxu, they reached Mohnyin. The rebels had already driven the tribespeople away; the Qing forces seized their grain stores and left Zhulun'e with four thousand men to hold the city. Advancing to the wide Xibo River, they bridged it and crossed. Four days' march brought them to Tiansheng Bridge, where a rebel fort pressed close on the south. A merchant named Ma Zituan reported that thirty li east of the bridge the water was shallow and the bank level; Ming Rui sent troops to outflank the fort. The rebels abandoned the fort and withdrew; the army pressed on to Manjie. The rebels built sixteen mountain palisades to receive them. Ming Rui reached the palisades and personally braved musket and cannon fire to direct the assault. Guanyinbao led his men to seize the mountain's left flank first. Ha Guoxing and others climbed in three columns, pressed down from above, shouting as they closed on the ramparts. Guizhou infantryman Wang Lian spotted a pile of logs to the palisade's left, climbed them, leaped inside, and more than eighty men followed. The rebels panicked; many were killed and one palisade fell. Three more palisades were stormed; the defenders of the remaining twelve slipped away under cover of night. On news of victory, Ming Rui was enfeoffed as Duke of Sincere, Commendable, Resolute, and Valiant; his brother Kuilin received the title Marquis of Grace and Favor; Wang Lian was specially promoted to guerrilla officer; the rest were referred to the ministry for merit awards.

然夷境益峭險，其草率綠竹、王芻之屬，馬乏食，多致斃，而牛行遲滯，箠之以登，死者尤眾。賊燒其村寨，斂積貯而窖埋之，掠食無所得，軍糧垂竭。進至象孔，迷失道。明瑞度不能至阿瓦，約烏爾登額等軍由猛密入。其地近孟籠，有緬屯糧，且可與猛密軍相合，乃議向孟籠，果大獲糧；而烏爾登額等趨猛密，出虎踞關，聞老官屯有賊，意輕之，先率眾往攻。賊固守，弗能下，軍士多傷亡，陝西興漢鎮總兵王玉廷亦中槍卒。

But the tribal country grew ever steeper; coarse grasses and bamboo left horses without fodder and many died; cattle moved slowly and were whipped up the slopes—casualties among them were especially heavy. The rebels burned their villages, gathered stores, and buried them in pits; foraging yielded nothing and army rations nearly ran out. At Xiangkong they lost their way. Ming Rui judged he could not reach Ava and arranged for Wu'erdenge's column to enter through Mengmi. The region near Menglong held Burmese grain stores and offered a junction with the Mengmi column; they turned toward Menglong and obtained grain in abundance. Wu'erdenge's column pressed toward Mengmi, passed Huju Pass, heard of rebels at Laoguantun, underestimated them, and attacked first. The rebels held firm; many soldiers fell; Shaanxi Xinghan Commander Wang Yuting was shot and killed.

珠魯訥守木邦，有夷數十人來降，疑其偽，悉誅之，而遣索柱等往錫箔江設台站，以通明瑞軍信息。索柱等至蒲卡，聞賊至，以兵少，退守錫箔，賊躡之，戰歿。賊遂附木邦城下，絕營南水道，糧運之從宛頂來者，賊又截之，軍士皆饑渴，火藥亦盡，賊審其困，佯為好語求和，珠魯訥不得已，遣楊重英及守備王呈瑞往報，賊人留之，且誘軍士出汲，斷其後，皆不得還。三十三年正月，益兵攻城。丁未夜，兵亂，珠魯訥自剄死，普洱鎮總兵胡大猷亦歿。賊之圍木邦也，珠魯訥屢促鄂寧救援，而永昌兵盡行，無可調發。已而促之急，始令遊擊袁夢麟等率駐宛頂兵三百人以往，遇賊，皆不知所之。知府陳元震、郭鵬翀持參贊印先三日逸出，鄂寧捕得之，磔死。

Zhulun'e held Mohnyin; several dozen tribesmen surrendered, but suspecting treachery he executed them all; he sent Suozhu and others to the Xibo River to establish relay stations linking him to Ming Rui. Suozhu reached Puka; hearing rebels approach and finding his force too small, he fell back to Xibo; the rebels pursued and killed him in battle. The rebels closed on Mohnyin, cut the waterways south of the camp, and intercepted grain convoys from Wanding; the garrison starved and thirsted, gunpowder ran out; the rebels, seeing their distress, feigned a peace offer; Zhulun'e sent Yang Chongying and Garrison Commander Wang Chengrui to respond; the rebels detained them and lured soldiers out for water, cutting off their retreat—none returned. In the first month of the thirty-third year the rebels reinforced and assaulted the city. On the night of cyclical day Dingwei the garrison mutinied; Zhulun'e cut his throat and died; Pu'er Commander Hu Dayou also perished. During the siege of Mohnyin, Zhulun'e repeatedly begged E'ning for relief, but every Yongchang soldier was already in the field and none could be spared. Only under urgent pressure did E'ning finally send Guerrilla Officer Yuan Menglin with three hundred men from Wanding; they met rebels and vanished without trace. Prefects Chen Yuanzhen and Guo Pengchong had fled three days earlier with the consultative minister's seal; E'ning captured them and had them dismembered.

明瑞既就糧孟籠，諜知烏爾登額未至猛密，而諜者報大山土司瓦喇遣弟羅旺育來迎，且率其子阿隴從軍；而緬自去冬象孔改道後，獲官軍病卒，知糧盡，不向阿瓦，即悉眾躡官軍後。官軍且戰且行，每日先以一軍拒敵，即以軍退至數里外成列，待軍至，則成列者復迎戰。明瑞及觀音保、哈國興更番殿后，步步為營，每日行不三十里。正月丙午，至蠻化，營於山巔，賊即營山半。明瑞曰：「賊輕我甚矣，不一痛創之不可！」時賊識官軍軍號，每晨吹波倫者三而起行，賊亦起。次日五鼓復吹波倫三，乃盡出營伏箐中以待。賊聞波倫聲爭上山來追，萬槍突出，四面兜擊，賊潰墜者趾頂相藉，坑谷皆滿，殺四千餘人。

After Ming Rui obtained provisions at Menglong, scouts learned Wu'erdenge had not reached Mengmi; others reported that Dashan Chieftain Wala sent his brother Luowangyu to welcome the army and led his son Along to join it. Since the previous winter, when the army changed route at Xiangkong, the Burmese had captured sick Qing soldiers, learned rations were exhausted and Ava was no longer the objective, and sent their full force in pursuit. The Qing army fought as it marched: each day one unit held the rear, withdrew several li and formed line; when the main body arrived, the line turned to fight again. Ming Rui, Guanyinbao, and Ha Guoxing rotated as rear guard, advancing camp by camp, covering no more than thirty li a day. On cyclical day Bingwu in the first month they reached Manhua and encamped on the summit; the rebels camped halfway up the slope. Ming Rui said: "The rebels despise us utterly; unless we strike them hard, this cannot go on!" By then the rebels knew the army's signals; each morning when the trumpet sounded three times to rouse the march, they rose as well. The next morning at the fifth watch the trumpet sounded three times again; the Qing troops left camp and lay in ambush in the ravines. Hearing the trumpet, the rebels scrambled up in pursuit; ten thousand muskets erupted from ambush on every side; routed rebels fell piled foot to crown, filling ravines and valleys—more than four thousand were killed.

明瑞休軍蠻化數日，取所得牛馬犒士。又自蠻化至邦邁、虎布、蠻移、小天生橋、僮子壩，大小數十戰，永順鎮總兵李全歿於陣。又稍稍聞木邦失守。明瑞恥是役之無功也，二月己未，至猛育，距宛頂糧台二百里，賊蝟集數萬。明瑞乃令軍士乘夜出，而自與領隊大臣及巴圖魯侍衛數十人率親兵數百斷其後。及晨，血戰萬賊中，無不一當百。俄，明瑞槍傷於肋，呼從者取水至，飲水少許而絕。觀音保、紮拉豐阿皆戰死，死者凡千餘人。是夕也，星隕如雨，餘軍先後潰歸宛頂。

Ming Rui rested the army at Manhua for several days and rewarded the troops with captured cattle and horses. From Manhua through Bangmai, Hubu, Manyi, Xiao Tiansheng Bridge, and Tongzi Dam they fought dozens of engagements; Yongshun Commander Li Quan fell in battle. Word gradually reached them that Mohnyin had fallen. Ashamed that the campaign had achieved nothing, Ming Rui reached Mengyu in the second month on cyclical day Jiwei—two hundred li from the Wanding grain depot—with tens of thousands of rebels swarming around him. Ming Rui ordered the main body to break out by night while he himself, with column commanders and several dozen Banner guards, led several hundred personal troops to hold the rear. By dawn they were fighting in a sea of rebels; each man fought as if worth a hundred. Soon a musket ball struck Ming Rui in the ribs; he called for water, drank a little, and died. Guanyinbao and Zhala Feng'a both fell in battle; the dead numbered more than a thousand. That night stars fell like rain, and the surviving troops broke in succession and fled back to Wanding.

明瑞自蠻結破賊後，懸軍深入。帝久不得報，命戶部尚書果毅公阿裏袞以參贊大臣赴邊援應。又聞木邦被困，命明瑞旋軍，而敕烏爾登額撤老官屯之圍，往援木邦。賊覺，扼馬膊子嶺，烏爾登額幾不得出；而自旱塔抵猛密，木邦有袤徑頗近，烏爾登額以馬盡糧乏，紆道入虎踞關，經猛卯，至宛頂，復駐軍。明日而明瑞陣亡之信已至，鄂甯劾其有心玩誤，詔逮至京磔之，並誅譚五格於市，而厚恤明瑞。其後阿裏袞募人至猛育，求其屍，歸於京師以葬。是為征緬前一役。

After Ming Rui routed the rebels at Manjie, he pushed deep into enemy country with his army cut off from relief. Long without word from the front, the emperor ordered Household Minister and Duke Guoyi Arigun to the border as consultative minister to reinforce the army. Hearing that Mohnyin was besieged, he ordered Ming Rui to withdraw and instructed Wu'erdenge to abandon the siege of Laoguantun and march to Mohnyin's relief. The rebels discovered the move and blocked Mapozi Pass; Wu'erdenge was nearly trapped; From Hanta to Mengmi a more direct route ran through Mohnyin, but with horses spent and grain gone Wu'erdenge took a detour through Huju Pass, passed Mengmao, returned to Wanding, and encamped again. The next day came word that Ming Rui had fallen in battle; E'ning impeached Wu'erdenge for deliberate delay and negligence; an edict ordered him brought to the capital and dismembered, Tan Wuge was executed in the marketplace, and Ming Rui's family was generously compensated. Later Arigun hired men to go to Mengyu, recover Ming Rui's body, and bring it to the capital for burial. This concluded the first Burma expedition.

明瑞之死也，緬人不知，震其餘威，懼再討。五月，縱所獲兵許爾功等八人自木邦持緬書來，且使楊重英、王呈瑞等言：「懵駁之母得罪天朝，欲使懵駁內附。」重英恐緬書繙譯誤，乃譯清、漢字各一通，益以木邦臘戌頭目苗溫之書。苗溫者，緬人守土官之稱。臘戌在木邦南。木邦殘破，而臘戍城在嶺下，險可守，故苗溫徙居於此。緬書云：「暹羅國、得楞國、得懷國、白古國、一勘國、罕紀國、結㱔國、大耳國及金銀寶石廠，飛刀、飛馬、飛人、有福好善之王殿下掌事官拜書領兵元帥。昔吳尚賢至阿瓦，敬述大皇帝仁慈樂善，我緬王用是具禮致貢，蒙賜緞帛、玉器諸物，自是商旅相通，初無仇隙。近因木邦、蠻暮土司播弄是非，興兵兆釁，致彼此人馬互有傷亡。茲特投文敘明顛末，請循古禮，貢賜往來，永息干戈，照舊和好。」阿裏袞以聞。帝念明瑞軍入關者尚逾萬，所喪亡不過十之一二，然將帥親臣皆捐軀異域，而緬夷求款未親遣頭目，非大舉無以雪忠憤，命絕之勿報。自後緬人數以書與隴正野人及遮放土司訪問許爾功狀，皆置不答；而以楊重英偷生阿瓦，籍其家，並置其子於理。

The Burmese did not yet know of Ming Rui's death; they still feared his reputation and dreaded another Qing invasion. In the fifth month Burma released eight captured soldiers, including Xu Ergong, from Mohnyin with a Burmese letter, and sent Yang Chongying, Wang Chengrui, and others to say: "Mengbo's mother has offended the Celestial Court and wishes Mengbo to submit to the Qing. Fearing mistranslation of the Burmese letter, Yang Chongying prepared separate Manchu and Chinese versions and added a letter from Miao Wen, the lapsha chieftain of Mohnyin. Miao Wen held the Burmese title for a local territorial official. Lapsha stood south of Mohnyin. Mohnyin lay in ruins, but Lapsha city below the ridge was easily defended, so Miao Wen had moved there. The Burmese letter opened: "To the kingdoms of Siam, Tenasserim, Thaton, Pegu, Kyaukse, Hanthawaddy, Kengtung, and the Big-Ear country, and the gold, silver, and gem mines—the Flying Knife, Flying Horse, Flying Man, fortunate and benevolent king's minister writes in salutation, commander-in-chief. Formerly Wu Shangxian came to Ava and praised the Great Emperor's benevolence; our king thereupon sent tribute with full ceremony and received silk, jade, and other gifts; since then merchants traveled freely and there was no enmity between us. Recently the Mohnyin and Mangmu chieftains stirred up trouble, provoking war and causing casualties on both sides. We now send this document explaining the whole affair, asking to restore the old tribute exchange, lay down arms forever, and renew friendship as before." Arigun reported the letter to the throne. The emperor noted that more than ten thousand of Ming Rui's men had crossed the pass and losses were only one or two in ten—yet his generals and close ministers had died in a foreign land, while the Burmese sued for peace without sending a chief in person; only a major campaign could satisfy loyal grief and anger, and he ordered the overture rejected without reply. Thereafter the Burmese repeatedly sent letters through Longzheng tribesmen and the Zhefang chieftain asking after Xu Ergong—all went unanswered; Because Yang Chongying had chosen to live on in Ava, his family property was confiscated and his son was brought to trial.

時大學士公傅恆自請督師，乃命為經略；阿桂、阿裏袞皆為副將軍，明德為總督，哈國興為提督。八月，阿桂詣熱河行在，奏言：「緬賊湣不畏死。臣至滇，當相度時勢，以正天誅，不敢鹵莽滅裂，誤軍國大事。」帝頷之。既陛辭，至襄陽，會守備程轍前從楊寧軍陷於賊，至是密以書來告，言緬人方與暹羅仇殺，可約以夾攻。帝遣人馳問阿桂，奏言：「官軍會合暹羅，必赴緬地。若由廣東往，則遠隔重洋，相去萬餘里，期會在數月之後，恐不能如期。」帝以為然。蓋自明陳用賓有要暹羅攻緬之說，楊應琚、楊廷璋先後奏上，延議雖斥之，不能釋然也。因詔兩廣總督李侍堯詢察之。侍堯奏言：「聞暹羅為花肚番殘破，國主詔氏竄跡他所，餘地為屬下甘恩敕、莫士麟分據。」花肚番者，緬人以膝股為花，故云。由是約暹羅之議始寢。

Grand Secretary Duke Fu Heng then volunteered to take command and was appointed campaign commander-in-chief; Agui and Arigun were appointed deputy generals, Mingde governor-general, and Ha Guoxing military commissioner. In the eighth month Agui went to the emperor at Rehe and memorialized: "The Burmese rebels plainly do not fear death. When I reach Yunnan I shall weigh the situation and carry out Heaven's punishment; I dare not act rashly and ruin the campaign." The emperor nodded approval. After taking leave at court, Agui reached Xiangyang and received a secret letter from Garrison Commander Cheng Zhe, who had been captured with Yang Ning's army and reported that the Burmese were then fighting Siam and could be attacked from both sides. The emperor sent an urgent inquiry to Agui, who replied: "If imperial troops were to join Siam, they would have to march into Burma. If they went from Guangdong they would cross vast seas, more than ten thousand li apart; the rendezvous would fall months later and might not be kept." The emperor agreed. Since the Ming official Chen Yongbin had proposed urging Siam to attack Burma, and Yang Yingju and Yang Tingzhang had revived the idea, court debate had rejected it—but the notion would not die. An edict therefore ordered Guangdong-Guangxi Governor-General Li Shiyao to investigate. Li Shiyao reported: "I hear Siam has been ravaged by the Huadufen; the Zhao royal house has fled, and the remaining territory is divided between subordinates Gan Endu and Mo Shilin." The Huadufen were so called because the Burmese tattooed their thighs and hips with floral designs. With that the plan to ally with Siam was dropped.

是年冬，帝念明瑞所統旗兵勞苦，命回京，復選旗兵五千人赴滇，合荊州、貴州、四川兵一萬三千人。阿裏袞乃令副都統綿康、曲尋鎮總兵常青帥二千人駐隴川，侍衛海蘭察、烏爾圖納遜帥二千人駐盞達，領隊大臣豐安、鶴麗鎮總兵德福帥二千人駐遮放，侍衛興兆、巴朗帥一千人駐芒市，侍衛玉林、普爾普帥五百人亦駐盞達，侍衛恆山保、永順鎮總兵常保柱帥三千人駐永昌，廣東右翼鎮總兵樊經文帥一千人駐緬甯，荊州將軍永瑞、四川副都統雅朗阿、提督五福帥六千人駐普洱，而騰越兵一千令綿康兼轄之。防守嚴密，邊以無事。帝以緬人狡惡，思出偏師疑之，使其疲於奔命。欲出九龍江及舊小，皆不果。阿裏袞乃議剿戛鳩。十一月，阿桂至永昌，聞信馳往會師討之。十二月，出關，焚數寨，殲其眾數百人，止丹山。濮夷團五卒者，率四十餘戶來降，遷之盞達。

That winter, mindful of the hardship borne by the Banner troops under Ming Rui, the emperor ordered them home and sent five thousand fresh Banner soldiers to Yunnan, together with thirteen thousand men from Jingzhou, Guizhou, and Sichuan. Arigun deployed his forces: Miankang and Qujing Commander Changqing with two thousand men at Longchuan; Bodyguards Hailancha and Wu'ertunaxun with two thousand at Zanda; Expedition Minister Feng'an and Heqing Commander Defu with two thousand at Zhefang; Bodyguards Xingzhao and Balang with one thousand at Mangshi; Bodyguards Yulin and Pu'erpu with five hundred also at Zanda; Bodyguards Hengshanbao and Yongshun Commander Chang Baozhu with three thousand at Yongchang; Guangdong Right Wing Commander Fan Jingwen with one thousand at Dianning; Jingzhou General Yongrui, Sichuan Deputy Lieutenant-General Yalang'a, and Military Commissioner Wufu with six thousand at Pu'er; and one thousand Tengyue troops under Miankang's additional command. With defenses tight, the border remained quiet. Deeming the Burmese cunning and vicious, the emperor considered sending a flanking force to harass them and wear them out. Plans to advance via the Jiulong River and Jiuxiao both came to nothing. Arigun then proposed a punitive strike against Gajiu. In the eleventh month Agui reached Yongchang and, hearing the plan, hurried to join the expedition. In the twelfth month they crossed the frontier, burned several stockades, killed several hundred rebels, and halted at Danshan. Tuan Wuzu of the Pu tribes, leading more than forty households, surrendered and was resettled at Zanda.

三十四年二月，經略傅恆發京師，帝御太和殿授以敕印。或告傅恆曰：「元伐緬，由阿禾、阿昔二江以進。今其跡不可考，意其為大金沙江無疑。前鄂寧言騰越之銀江，下通新街，南甸之檳榔江，流注蠻暮，兩江皆從萬山中行，石磡層布，舟楫不可施。若於近江地為舟具，使兵扛運至江滸，合成之以入於江，下阿瓦，既速且可免運糧，而師期亦較早一二月，緬人必不暇設備。又以一隊渡江而西，覆其木梳舊巢。如此，緬不足平也。」傅恆然其言。四月丙辰，至永昌，條奏進兵事宜，皆如所議。遂遣護軍統領伍三泰、左副都御史傅顯及哈國興，率夷人賀丙往銅壁關外相視造舟地。還報野牛壩山勢爽塏，樹木茂密，且距蠻暮河一百餘里，於入江為宜。乃令常青等率兵三千人，督湖廣工匠四百六十餘，馳往造辦。又使賀丙潛行招撫。賀丙者，戛鳩頭目賀洛子也。

In the thirty-fourth year, second month, Commander-in-Chief Fu Heng left the capital; the emperor received him at the Hall of Supreme Harmony and conferred the edict and seal. Someone advised Fu Heng: "When the Yuan invaded Burma they advanced by the Ahe and Axi rivers. Those routes can no longer be traced; they were almost certainly the Great Irrawaddy. E'ning had reported that Tengyue's Yin River ran down to Xinjie and Nandian's Betel-nut River flowed into Mangmu; both ran through rugged mountains with layered shoals where boats could not pass. If boats were prefabricated near the rivers, carried in pieces to the banks, assembled, and launched downstream to Ava, the advance would be faster, grain transport unnecessary, and the campaign could begin one or two months sooner—before the Burmese could prepare. A second column could cross west of the river and overrun their old stronghold at Mushu. In this way Burma could be subdued. Fu Heng accepted the plan. On bingchen in the fourth month he reached Yongchang and memorialized on the advance along the lines discussed. He dispatched Guard Commander Wu Santai, Left Vice Censor-in-Chief Fu Xian, and Ha Guoxing, with the tribesman He Bing, to survey boat-building sites beyond Tongbi Pass. They reported that Wild Ox Dam offered open ground and dense timber, and lay more than a hundred li from the Mangmu River—an ideal place to launch boats. Changqing was ordered to take three thousand troops and more than four hundred sixty Huguang craftsmen to build the boats there at once. He Bing was also sent secretly to win over local tribes. He Bing was Heluozi, chieftain of Gajiu.

是役也，續遣滿洲、索倫、鄂倫春、吉林、西僰、厄魯特、察哈爾，及自普洱調赴騰越之滿洲兵，共萬餘人；又福建、貴州、本省昭通鎮兵，共五萬餘人。河南、陝西、湖廣與在省曲靖各府飼養之馬，凡六萬餘匹。益以四川工呪術之喇嘛，京城之梅針箭、沖天砲、贊叭喇、鳥槍，河南之火箭，四川之九節銅砲，湖南之鐵鹿子，廣東之阿魏，雲南省城製造之鞍屜、帳幙、旗纛、火繩、鉛藥，及鉛鐵、灰油、麻枲諸船料物，悉運往以資軍實。

For this campaign more than ten thousand Manchu, Solon, Oroqen, Jilin, Xibo, Olot, and Chahar troops were sent, together with Manchu soldiers transferred from Pu'er to Tengyue; Fujian, Guizhou, and local Zhaotong garrison troops added more than fifty thousand men. More than sixty thousand horses were raised in Henan, Shaanxi, Huguang, and the Qujing prefectures of Yunnan. Also sent were Sichuan lamas skilled in battle rites; from the capital plum-blossom arrows, sky-reaching cannon, zambala guns, and muskets; Henan rockets; Sichuan nine-section bronze cannon; Hunan iron deer-cannon; Guangdong asafetida; saddles, tents, banners, slow match, and lead shot from the Yunnan capital; and boat materials of lead, iron, lime oil, and hemp—all to supply the army.

乃議分路進：傅恆由江西戛鳩路，阿桂由江東猛密路，阿裏袞以肩瘡未愈，由水路，都計新舊調兵二萬九千人。其由戛鳩路者，滿州兵一千五百人，護軍統領伍三泰，侍衛玉麟、納木劄、五福、鄂甯、烏爾袞保，參領滿都虎、德保領之；吉林兵五百人，護軍統領索諾木策淩、侍衛占坡圖領之；索倫兵二千人，副都統呼爾起、奎林、莽克察，侍衛塔尼、布克車德、受菩薩，參領占皮納領之；鄂倫春兵三百人，侍衛成果領之；厄魯特兵三百人，侍衛鄂尼、積爾噶爾領之；綠營兵四千人，提督哈國興，開化鎮總兵永平及德福領之。其由猛密路者，滿洲兵二千人，副都統綿康、豐安、常保柱，侍衛海蘭察、瑪格、喬蘇爾、興兆、普爾普領之；索倫兵一千人，散秩大臣葛布舒，侍衛額森退領之；厄魯特兵三百人，侍衛巴朗領之；綠營兵四千人，曲尋鎮總兵常青，永北鎮總兵馬彪，楚姚鎮總兵于文煥領之。其由水路者，健銳營兵五百人，侍衛烏爾圖納遜、奈庫納領之；吉林水師五百人，副都統明亮，侍衛豐盛額領之；福建水師兵二千人，福建提督葉相德，福建建甯鎮總兵依昌阿領之。又令副都統鐵保，侍衛永瑞領成都滿洲兵一千二百人，侍衛富興、蒙古爾岱、鄂蘭、必拉爾海領西僰兵一千人，提督本進忠、臨元鎮總兵吳士勝領綠營兵二千二百人，分守驛站。又令侍衛諾爾奔領滿洲兵五百人，永順鎮總兵孫爾桂領綠營兵一千人，屯宛頂，以牽制木邦之賊。又令雅朗阿領荊州滿洲兵二千人，普洱鎮總兵喀木齊布領綠營兵一千五百人，駐守普洱。

They planned a three-pronged advance: Fu Heng by the Gajiu route west of the river, Agui by the Mengmi route east of the river, and Arigun by water because his shoulder ailment had not healed—in all twenty-nine thousand newly and previously mobilized troops. The Gajiu column comprised one thousand five hundred Manchu troops under Guard Commander Wu Santai, Bodyguards Yulin, Namuzha, Wufu, E'ning, and Wu'ergunbao, and company commanders Manduhu and Debao; five hundred Jilin troops under Guard Commander Suonomuceling and Bodyguard Zhanpotu; two thousand Solon troops under Deputy Lieutenant-Generals Hu'erqi, Kuilin, and Mangkecha, Bodyguards Tani, Bukechede, and Shoupusa, and company commander Zhanpina; three hundred Oroqen troops under Bodyguard Chengguo; three hundred Olot troops under Bodyguards E'ni and Ji'erga'er; and four thousand Green Standard troops under Military Commissioner Ha Guoxing, Kaihua Commander Yongping, and Defu. The Mengmi column comprised two thousand Manchu troops under Deputy Lieutenant-Generals Miankang, Feng'an, and Chang Baozhu, and Bodyguards Hailancha, Mage, Qiaosu'er, Xingzhao, and Pu'erpu; one thousand Solon troops under Minister without Portfolio Gebashu and Bodyguard Esentui; three hundred Olot troops under Bodyguard Balang; and four thousand Green Standard troops under Qujing Commander Changqing, Yongbei Commander Ma Biao, and Chuyao Commander Yu Wenhuan. The river column comprised five hundred Elite Vanguard troops under Bodyguards Wu'ertunaxun and Naikuna; five hundred Jilin naval troops under Deputy Lieutenant-General Mingliang and Bodyguard Fengsheng'e; and two thousand Fujian naval troops under Fujian Military Commissioner Ye Xiangde and Jianning Commander Yichang'a. Deputy Lieutenant-General Tiebao and Bodyguard Yongrui were assigned one thousand two hundred Chengdu Manchu troops; Bodyguards Fuxing, Menggu'erdai, E'lan, and Bilahai one thousand Xibo troops; and Military Commissioner Ben Jinzhong and Linyuan Commander Wu Shisheng two thousand two hundred Green Standard troops to garrison relay stations along the route. Bodyguard Nuo'erben with five hundred Manchu troops and Yongshun Commander Sun Ergui with one thousand Green Standard troops were posted at Wanding to pin down the Mohnyin rebels. Yalang'a with two thousand Jingzhou Manchu troops and Pu'er Commander Kamuqibu with one thousand five hundred Green Standard troops were posted at Pu'er.

分置略定，而賀丙往戛鳩招撫孟拱，挾其頭目脫烏猛以來。其言曰：「上年懵駁遣頭目盞拉機以千人守猛戛，需索煩重，土司畏其偪，避往戶工。孟拱人苦緬人魚肉久矣，聞大軍來，皆呀呷忻喜。請由戛鳩濟江出孟拱。孟拱米穀多，可以佐軍食。頭目歸，當集舟於江以待。」傅恆上言：「孟拱遣大頭目來，稱歸備舟以候官兵過渡。臣思野牛壩造舟之役，賊早有見聞，若於西岸設伏沿江拒我，未易渡也。今忽由戛鳩過江，先從陸路據蠻暮西岸，已出賊意計之外。且自戛鳩渡後，可將舟楫順流放至蠻暮，添備東岸官軍過渡。如造舟處有緩急，我兵在西岸，乘舟往來策應亦最便利。臣傅恆謹先統兵進發，阿裏袞、阿桂偕往野牛壩督辦船工。」

With deployments settled, He Bing went to Gajiu to win over Menggong and returned with its chieftain Tuowumeng. Tuowumeng reported: "Last year Mengbo sent the chieftain Zhanlaji with a thousand men to hold Mengga; their exactions were oppressive, and the local chieftain, fearing them, fled to Hugong. The people of Menggong have long suffered under Burmese oppression; when they heard the imperial army was coming, they rejoiced aloud. They ask that the army cross from Gajiu and advance on Menggong. Menggong has abundant grain and can supply the army. When I return, boats will be gathered on the river to await the army. Fu Heng reported: "Menggong has sent a senior chieftain pledging to prepare boats for the army's crossing on his return. The boat-building at Wild Ox Dam is already known to the enemy; if they ambush the west bank it will be hard to cross. Crossing suddenly from Gajiu and seizing the west bank of Mangmu by land would take the enemy by surprise. After crossing at Gajiu, boats can be floated downstream to Mangmu to ferry the east-bank column as well. If the boat-builders meet trouble, troops on the west bank can ferry back and forth most easily to support them. I, Fu Heng, will lead the advance; Arigun and Agui will supervise boat-building at Wild Ox Dam."

癸卯，次盞達，分道行，阿里袞固請從傅恆。庚申，出萬仞關。八月癸丑，次允帽。允帽，江滸也。賀丙、脫烏猛以舟三十餘來迎。丙子，次孟拱。土司渾覺竄往節東，蹤跡之，獲其小妻並頭目興堂劄，原往尋渾覺，縱之，即日偕以來，獻象四。傅恆令其人持大纛騎以先，夷人望見皆驚駭。而予渾覺銀萬兩，市牛數千頭，米數千石，以給軍。

On guimao the army halted at Zanda and divided; Arigun insisted on accompanying Fu Heng. On gengshen they crossed Wanren Pass. On guichou in the eighth month they halted at Yunmao. Yunmao stood on the riverbank. He Bing and Tuowumeng came to meet them with more than thirty boats. On bingzi the army halted at Menggong. The native chieftain Hunjue had fled toward Jiedong. Troops tracked him down and seized his concubine and the chieftain Xingtangzha. Xingtangzha had been sent to find Hunjue; they released him, and that same day he returned with Hunjue and presented four elephants. Fu Heng had his men ride ahead bearing a great standard; the local tribesmen were struck with terror at the sight. They paid Hunjue ten thousand taels of silver and bought several thousand cattle and several thousand shi of rice to feed the army.

時阿桂以七月戊申次野牛壩。舟工畢，八月乙酉，進次蠻暮。初，官兵之裹糧兩月也，議以進剿為始；而督工時仍令內地饋運，總督明德面諾之，不為具。及是，移檄往促，始令騰越州發運。泥深道遠，經月不能至。乃奏糧運遲誤狀，降明德江蘇巡撫，以阿思哈代之。九月壬辰，阿桂由蠻暮進至新街。舟成，將出江口，賊人從猛戛來逆戰，阿桂伏兵甘立寨。賊至，水陸奮擊，發巨砲，沉其舟，譟而從之，笳鼓競作，賊大沮，退走。

Agui halted at Wild Ox Dam on wushen in the seventh month. Boat-building finished; on yiyou in the eighth month they advanced to Mangmu. Initially the troops carried two months' rations, with inland supply to begin once the punitive campaign started; yet the boat-builders were still told inland supply would come; Governor-General Mingde agreed to his face but never arranged it. Only after an urgent dispatch was sent did he order Tengyue to begin transport. The roads were muddy and long; a month passed without delivery. A memorial on the supply delay was sent; Mingde was demoted to governor of Jiangsu and replaced by Asiha. On renchen in the ninth month Agui marched from Mangmu to Xinjie. With the boats ready and the fleet debouching from the river mouth, rebels from Mengga attacked; Agui ambushed them and encamped at Ganli. When the rebels arrived, the army attacked by land and water, firing great guns, sinking their boats, and pursuing with a clamor of horns and drums. The enemy broke and fled.

先是傅恆在江西，文報越兩三日輒一至，自孟拱而南，信益稀。阿桂聞蒼浦、蠻岡間有伏戎，乃募夷間道以書往訊。及伊犁將軍伊勒圖、總督阿思哈奉命皆至軍中，乃以兵二千屬伊勒圖渡江迎傅恆，並令玉麟、哈青阿率兵據西岸以待。伊勒圖渡江遇賊，擊走之，柵賊一夕皆遁去。

While Fu Heng was on the west bank, reports had arrived every two or three days; south of Menggong they grew increasingly scarce. Hearing of ambushes between Cangpu and Mangang, Agui hired tribal guides to carry a letter by back trails and inquire. Once Ili General Iletu and Governor-General Asiha reached headquarters, Agui gave Iletu two thousand men to cross the river and meet Fu Heng, and ordered Yulin and Haqing'a to hold the west bank. Iletu crossed, routed the enemy, and overnight the stockade garrisons all fled.

傅恆率十八騎，以是月戊申抵哈坎。是時緬人列船江岸，且於沙洲及林莽間樹柵以守。十月戊午，傅恆及阿桂督水師擊之，侍衛阿爾蘇納首先乘小舟沖入，眾繼進，奪其柵，獲旗纛器械無算，殲頭目賓啞得諾；而阿裏袞、伊勒圖攻西岸諸柵，賊皆棄而走。丙寅，傅恆、阿桂循江東岸，伍三泰、常青循江西岸，阿裏袞、伊勒圖率水師並進。丁卯，阿裏袞以瘡甚卒於舟。

Fu Heng with eighteen riders reached Hakan on wushen that month. The Burmese lined the bank with boats and built stockades on sandbars and in the brush. On wuwu in the tenth month Fu Heng and Agui led the fleet in attack. Bodyguard Aersuna was first into the enemy lines in a light boat; the rest followed, took the stockades, captured countless banners and arms, and killed the chieftain Binyadenuo; Arigun and Iletu meanwhile stormed the west-bank stockades, which the enemy abandoned and fled. On bingyin Fu Heng and Agui marched along the east bank, Wu Santai and Changqing along the west, while Arigun and Iletu advanced with the fleet. On dingmao Arigun died aboard ship of festering wounds.

伊勒圖領其眾已抵老官屯。賊柵徑圍三里許，柵尾迤邐屬於江中，瀦水可泊船。柵以巨木深入土中，外週三壕，壕外橫臥大樹，銳其枝末外向，蓋其大頭目布拉莽儻所居也。西岸頭目得楞孝楞率船一百三十、兵三千，起兩柵。及夕，柵木杪皆懸火。有頃，鼓登登，雜以管籥侏離之歌，傳呼以達於江西，遠近相和，竟曉乃輟，而老官屯南巴窪、章薄賊，皆築柵以為應援。庚午，進攻其柵，經略將軍親摩壘。總兵德福中槍，逾日卒。乃令舟師絕兩柵中，下泊於柵南，斷賊江中援救。發威遠大砲，砲重三千斤，子三十餘斤，聲如奔雷，遇木輒洞以過，柵不為塌。又改用火攻之法，先以杆牌禦槍砲，眾挾膏薪隨之，百牌齊進，逾壕抵柵；而江自四更大霧起，迄平旦始息，柵木沾潤不能爇，兼值反風，遂卻。又取生革為長鐶鉤之，力急鐶輒斷；乃伐箐中數百丈老藤，夜往鉤其柵，役數千指曳之，輒為賊斧斷。總兵馬彪乃闕隧窌藥其中，深數十丈，藥發，柵突高起丈餘，賊號駭；俄柵忽落平地，又起又落者三，遂不復動。蓋柵坡迤下，而地道平進，故土厚不能迸裂也。賊自巴窪、章薄來鉛丸、火藥、糧米，卒不得斷絕，是以無逃志。

Iletu, now commanding his force, had already reached Laoguanshun. The rebel stockade was nearly three li around; its rear curved into the river, where backwater could hold boats. Massive logs were sunk deep into the ground, ringed by three moats; beyond the moats lay felled trees with sharpened branches pointing outward—the stronghold of the great chieftain Bulamangtang. On the west bank Chieftain Delengxiaoleng fielded one hundred thirty boats and three thousand men and erected two stockades. By nightfall fires blazed at the tips of every stockade post. Soon drums beat steadily, mingled with pipes and tribal song; cries carried to the west bank and echoed back through the night until dawn. Rebels at Bawa and Zhangbo south of Laoguanshun also threw up stockades in support. On gengwu they assaulted the stockade; the commanding general inspected the walls in person. Brigadier Defu was shot and died the following day. The fleet was sent between the two stockades to anchor south of the fort and sever river-borne relief. They brought up the Weiyuan great gun—weighing three thousand jin, firing thirty-jin balls with thunderous report. It punched through timber but could not bring the stockade down. They turned to fire: shieldmen with pole-screens first, troops with kindling behind; a hundred teams advanced together, crossed the moats, and reached the palisade; A thick fog rose from the fourth watch until dawn; the timbers were too wet to catch, and a headwind sprang up—they withdrew. They tried long hide ropes with hooks; under strain the hide rings snapped; Then they cut hundreds of zhang of old vines in the ravines, hooked the stockade by night, and set thousands of men to haul—each time rebel axes severed the vines. Brigadier Mabiao mined under the stockade, packing a shaft dozens of zhang deep; the blast heaved the palisade more than a zhang into the air, and the garrison screamed in terror; The stockade dropped back to earth, heaved and fell three times, then lay still. The stockade stood on a slope while the mine ran level; the earth was too deep to blow apart effectively. Supply trains from Bawa and Zhangbo kept lead, powder, and grain flowing; with no hope of cutting them off, the garrison would not flee.

然懵駁聞新街之敗，大懼，而攻圍日久，死傷者多。十一月己丑，布拉莽儻乃遣使求罷兵。明日，復以懵駁書至。傅恆、阿桂召諸將問可否，諸將皆言懵駁從阿瓦致書，非震悚誠切不出此，可借此息兵。壬辰，作檄答之，言：「汝國欲貸天討，必繕表入貢，還所拘縶官兵，永不犯邊境。如撤兵背約，明年復當深入，不汝貸也。」癸巳，緬十三頭目來議事，乃遣明亮、海蘭察、哈青阿、明仁、哈國興、常青、馬彪、依常阿、于文煥、雅爾姜阿等會議，申諭所約三事，頭目皆拱手聽命。哈國興曰：「汝國僻在海裔，不知籓臣典禮，汝入貢當具表文，文首行書『緬甸王臣某奉表大皇帝陛下』，與安南、高麗各外籓等。」其管五營頭目得勒溫曰：「謹受教。」目左右具書以歸。丁酉，陳錦布、毯百餘端，獻經略將軍，而進魚鹽犒軍。於是焚舟鎔巨砲，奏聞，以己亥班師。甲辰，進虎踞關，緬人遣頭目率六十餘人送至關上。是日奉旨以緬地瘴癘，命貰其罪，令渾覺還孟拱，而以所進四象送京師。伊勒圖、傅恆先後還京。

Mengbo, hearing of the defeat at Xinjie, was terrified; the long siege had inflicted heavy casualties. On jichou in the eleventh month Bulamangtang sent envoys seeking peace. The next day a letter from Mengbo arrived as well. Fu Heng and Agui consulted the generals, who agreed: a letter from Ava meant genuine fear; they could use it to stop the war. On renchen they issued a reply: "To be spared imperial retribution, your country must submit a memorial and tribute, release the captive imperial officers, and never again violate the frontier. Break the terms after we withdraw, and next year we march deep again—without mercy." On guisi thirteen Burmese chiefs came to parley. Mingliang, Hailancha, Haqing'a, Mingren, Haguoxing, Changqing, Mabiao, Yichang'a, Yu Wenhuan, Ya'erjiang'a, and others met them, restated the three conditions, and the chiefs assented with folded hands. Haguoxing said: "Your realm sits at the edge of the sea and knows little of tributary forms. Your memorial must open with 'Burma's king's subject [name] presents this memorial to His Majesty the Great Emperor'—as Annam, Korea, and other outer vassals do." Delewen, chief of the five camps, replied: "We accept your instruction. They had their attendants write it down and left. On dingyou they offered more than a hundred bolts of brocade and felt to the commanding general, with fish and salt to feast the troops. They burned the boats, melted the great guns, reported to the throne, and withdrew on jihai. On jiachen they reached Huju Pass, where Burmese chiefs with more than sixty men escorted them to the gate. That day the throne pardoned their offenses given Burma's miasmic climate, returned Hunjue to Menggong, and sent the four elephants to the capital. Iletu and Fu Heng returned to the capital in turn.

木邦、蠻暮兩土司走入內地後，線甕團居緬寧之海臘，丁山、瑞團居盞達之壩築，其猛密頭人線官猛亦率眾居綿川戶南山，餘遷徙無常處。及是，移線甕團於蒙化，移瑞團、線官猛於大理，各取官莊租贍之；而賀丙則從其請，居於萬仞關外之南底壩。其後又以召丙、叭先捧等分置於寧洱縣之蕨箕壩，而大山之侄阿隴、允帽頭目之女老安皆屬縣官，予以廩給。猛勇頭目召工、整欠頭目召教、景海頭目召別，咸原輸誠進獻。

After the Mohnyin and Mangmu chieftains fled inland, Xian Wengtuan settled at Hailai in Mianning, Dingshan and Ruituan at Bazhu in Zhandai, and Mengmi headman Xian Guanmeng led his followers to Huchuannan Mountain in Mianchuan; others wandered without fixed homes. They were now resettled—Xian Wengtuan in Menghua, Ruituan and Xian Guanmeng in Dali—supported on rents from official estates. He Bing, at his own request, was placed at Nandi Dam beyond Wanren Pass. Later Zhaobing, Baxianpeng, and others were resettled at Jueji Dam in Ning'er County; Dashan's nephew Along and Yunmao chieftain's daughter Lao'an were placed under county administration with grain stipends. Mengyong Chieftain Zhaogong, Zhengqian Chieftain Zhaojiao, and Jinghai Chieftain Zhaobie had all pledged allegiance and sent tribute.

三十五年二月，因緬人貢使不至，帝令毋許奸商挾貨貿遷以利緬，且漏內地消息。時阿桂還至省城，命核所用軍裝馬匹，又命總督彰寶檄斥緬入貢使遲滯狀，使都司蘇爾相持至老官屯，布拉莽儻留之。阿桂回至永昌察賊狀，三十六年三月，阿桂奏言：「蠻暮、木邦、猛密三土司外，始有緬人村落，距邊已二千餘里，偏師不可深入。若出近邊，則所殲乃濮夷野人，與緬無損。不如休息數年，外約暹羅同時大舉。」帝以大舉非計，乃罷阿桂，以溫福代之。明年，金川反，溫福、阿桂皆赴四川。而緬亦方用兵暹羅，於是暹羅滅於緬。

In the second month of year thirty-five, with no Burmese tribute mission forthcoming, the Emperor forbade merchants from profiteering with Burma and leaking inland intelligence. Agui returned to the provincial capital to audit equipment and horses; Governor Zhang Bao was told to rebuke Burma for delaying tribute and sent Brigade Commander Su Erxiang to Laoguanshun, where Bulamangtang held him. Back in Yongchang to assess the enemy, Agui memorialized in the third month of year thirty-six: "Beyond Mangmu, Mohnyin, and Mengmi, Burmese villages begin more than two thousand li from the border; a partial force cannot advance far. Strikes near the frontier would kill only Pu tribesmen, doing Burma no real harm. Better to rest a few years and coordinate a joint major campaign with Siam." The Emperor rejected a grand offensive, dismissed Agui, and appointed Wenfu in his place. The next year the Jinchuan rebellion erupted; Wenfu and Agui were both sent to Sichuan. Burma was also at war with Siam—and Siam fell to Burma.

四十一年，金川平。時緬甸先遣孟遮等五人以書呈雲南總督圖思德，總督縶之歸京師。及是，命赴市曹觀狀，且告之故，乃縱使歸緬，而令阿桂以大學士赴永昌備邊。緬懼，請入貢，原出楊重英、蘇爾相，求開關互市。明年，出蘇爾相，而楊重英不至。

In year forty-one Jinchuan was pacified. Burma had earlier sent Mengzhe and four others with a letter to Yunnan Governor Tuside, who detained them and sent them to the capital. They were taken to the execution ground to witness a sentence and told why; then released to Burma, while Agui was sent to Yongchang as Grand Secretary to ready the border. Terrified, Burma offered tribute, promised to release Yang Chongying and Su Erxiang, and asked to reopen border trade. The next year they released Su Erxiang—but not Yang Chongying.

四十三年，暹羅遺民起兵逐緬人復國。五十一年，詔封鄭華為暹羅國王，於是緬益懼。五十二年，耿馬土司罕朝瑗報言：「滾弄隔岸即緬甸木邦，緬酋孟雲遣大頭目葉渺瑞洞、細哈覺控、委盧撤亞三名，率小頭人從役百餘人，齎金葉表文，金塔及馴象八、寶石、金箔、檀香、大呢、象牙、漆盒諸物，絨氈、洋布四種，懇求進貢。譯其文，稱孟雲乃甕藉牙第四子，幼為僧，懵駁其長兄也。懵駁死，子贅角牙立。孟雲次兄孟魯，以甕藉牙有兄終弟及之諭，懵駁死而子襲，非約，乃戕殺贅角牙，欲自立，國人不服，亦殺孟魯，迎孟雲立之。孟雲深知父子行事錯謬，感大皇帝恩德，屢欲投誠進貢，因與暹羅構釁，且移建城池，未暇備辦。今緬甸安寧，特差頭目遵照古禮進表納貢。」總督富綱等以聞，帝允所請，賚其使而歸之，且賚孟雲佛像、文綺、珍玩器皿。五十四年，孟雲遣使賀八旬萬壽，乞賜封，又請開關禁以通商旅，帝皆從之，封為緬甸國王，賜敕書、印信，及御製詩章、珍珠手串，遣道員、參將齎往其新都蠻得列，定十年一貢。自是西南無緬患。

In year forty-three Siamese survivors rose up, expelled the Burmese, and restored their kingdom. In year fifty-one Zheng Hua was enfeoffed King of Siam—and Burma grew more afraid. In year fifty-two Gengma chieftain Han Chaoyuan reported: "Gunyong faces Burma's Mohnyin across the river. Burmese ruler Mengyun has sent three senior chiefs—Yemiaoruidong, Xihajuekong, and Weilucerya—with more than a hundred subordinates, bearing a gold-leaf memorial, a golden pagoda, eight tame elephants, gems, gold leaf, sandalwood, woolens, ivory, lacquer boxes, felts, and foreign cloths, begging leave to present tribute. The memorial named Mengyun as the fourth son of Wengjiaya—a former monk and Mengbo's younger brother. When Mengbo died, his son Zhuajiaoya took the throne. Mengyun's elder brother Menglu invoked Wengjiaya's rule of succession from brother to brother: Mengbo's son Zhuajiaoya had seized the throne unlawfully. Menglu killed Zhuajiaoya and tried to reign; the court rejected him and killed Menglu, raising Mengyun instead. Mengyun acknowledged his family's errors, was grateful for the Emperor's grace, and had long wished to submit—but wars with Siam and rebuilding his capital had delayed him. Now that Burma is at peace, he sends these chiefs to present tribute by ancient forms." Governors Fugang and others reported this; the Emperor granted the request, rewarded the envoys and sent them home, and also sent Mengyun a Buddha image, brocades, and fine gifts. In year fifty-four Mengyun sent birthday congratulations for the Emperor's eightieth year, sought investiture, and asked to reopen trade. The Emperor agreed, enfeoffed him King of Burma, and sent an edict, seal, imperial poems, and a pearl rosary; an intendant and regimental colonel carried them to his new capital Manudelie. Tribute every ten years was fixed. After that the southwest knew no further trouble from Burma.

六十年，緬王遣使祝釐，進緬石長壽佛、貝葉緬字經、福字鐙、金海螺、銀海螺、金鑲緬刀、金柄麈尾、黃緞傘、貼金象轎、洋槍、馬鞍、象牙、犀角、孔雀、木化石、玄猴皮、各色呢、各色花布，都十有八種。時有三緬盜逸入印度，緬人以五千人追之，突入印度之勢他加境，英人領土也。英守將爾斯根詰緬人，以盜付之。嘉慶元年，緬王復遣使朝貢。總督勒保以緬使甫經回國，不宜數來，檄雲南司道拒勿納。事聞，帝諭曰：「緬甸國王以本年國慶，特遣使臣齎表備物申虔稱賀，勒保不據實奏聞，遽行拒絕，致令使臣徒勞跋涉，殊失柔遠綏懷之意。勒保交部嚴議。」命軍機大臣擬旨曉諭緬王，頒賜蟒錦四端。五年，緬甸入貢。十年冬，緬甸復遣使叩關求入貢，以是年暹羅伐緬，有敕諭暹羅罷兵故也。帝以非貢期，卻之。

In year sixty the Burmese king sent felicitations with eighteen kinds of gifts: a Burmese-jade longevity Buddha, a palm-leaf sutra in Burmese script, a "Fortune" lamp, gold and silver conches, a gold-inlaid knife, a gold-handled flywhisk, a yellow satin umbrella, a gilt elephant litter, foreign muskets, a saddle, ivory, rhinoceros horn, a peacock, petrified wood, black monkey pelts, and assorted felts and calicos. Three Burmese bandits fled into India; five thousand Burmese pursuers burst into Shittagaung—British territory. British commandant Ersgen challenged the Burmese and surrendered the fugitives. In Jiaqing year one the Burmese king again sent a tribute mission. Governor Lepao, arguing the envoys had just left and should not return so soon, ordered Yunnan officials to turn them away. Reported to the throne, the Emperor rebuked Lepao: "Burma's king sent envoys this national anniversary with tribute and sincere congratulations. Lepao neither reported truthfully nor received them, wasting their journey—contrary to policy toward distant realms. Lepao was referred to the ministry for disciplinary review." The Grand Council was ordered to reassure the Burmese king and send four bolts of python brocade. In year five Burma sent tribute. In the winter of year ten Burma again knocked at the pass seeking tribute—Siam had attacked that year, and an edict had ordered Siam to stand down. It was not a tribute year; the Emperor refused.

時緬甸雖失暹羅，國勢猶盛。其疆域南盡南海，北迄孟拱，西包阿拉幹，東聯麻爾古。又有拈人之地環其東境，舊稱九十九國，多為領屬，地廣兵強。既東失暹羅，乃西覬印度之富，時思襲取。緬西北有曼尼坡部，又西有阿薩密部，緬嘗以兵攻二部，漸有從西黑特旁侵入英領之勢。西黑特居阿薩密南，為印度孟加東北境，過此即克車部，英人所保護也。緬人恃其習戰，蔑視英人，後果侵英邊，殺英戍兵，擄其人民。又南侵入勢他加，英人以少兵守內府河口之刷浦黎島。道光三年，緬人攻守島英兵，英以眾寡不敵而潰，亡數人。英人來責言，緬置不答，益輕英。

Though Burma had lost Siam, its power remained formidable. Its lands ran south to the South Sea, north to Menggong, west through Arakan, east to Malaku. The Nian peoples ringed its eastern frontier—the old "Ninety-Nine States," mostly its dependencies—vast lands and strong armies. Having lost Siam to the east, Burma now eyed India's wealth to the west and plotted raids. Northwest lay Manipur and beyond it Assam; Burma had repeatedly attacked both, and was edging toward British territory via Syhiem. Syhiem stood south of Assam on Bengal's northeastern frontier; beyond it lay Koch, under British protection. Confident in their martial skills, the Burmese despised the British—and duly raided the frontier, killing garrison troops and taking captives. They also struck south into Shittagaung; the British held Shapuree Island at the Naf estuary with a small garrison. In Daoguang year three the Burmese assaulted the island garrison; outnumbered, the British broke and lost several men. Britain protested; Burma ignored the complaints and despised them all the more.

明年，英人伐緬，水師副提督喀姆稗兒率師進厄勒瓦諦江，即大金沙江也。次仰光，緬人禦諸海口而敗，英軍遂登陸攻仰光、克曼庭村寨。緬兵懼，每戰輒奔潰，然去必毀其積貯，堅壁清野以待，英人野無所掠，糧運又不繼，遂大困。緬王乘其敝，自阿瓦遣大隊圍攻之，英軍固守不動，緬人不能勝。英軍尋以巨砲反攻緬，緬軍潰。逾數月，喀姆稗兒乘間攻克艾報、墨爾階兩城，與瀕海地那悉林之地，然英軍傷病相屬，其強壯能勝戰者僅三千人，乃移病卒休養於艾報諸城，勢復振。進攻擺古河口之悉林工廠，與葡萄牙所築舊堡，悉取之。又克馬爾達般省。

The next year Britain invaded; Rear Admiral Campbell sailed up the Irrawaddy—the great Irrawaddy River. At Rangoon the Burmese lost a naval battle; the British landed and took Rangoon and Kemmendine. Burmese troops fled every battle but scorched earth as they went—burning stores and emptying the countryside. The British found nothing to forage and supply lines failed; they were soon in dire straits. The king seized the moment, sending a large force from Ava to besiege them; the British held fast and Burma could not break them. The British soon counterattacked with heavy guns and routed the Burmese. Months later Campbell took Pegu, Martaban, and coastal Tenasserim—but casualties mounted until only three thousand fit fighters remained. Sick troops were sent to recuperate in Pegu, and the army rallied. They took the Syriam factory at the Bassein estuary and the old Portuguese fort. They also conquered Ma'erdaban province.

緬人懼，徵鎮守阿拉幹長勝軍回援，其帥班都拉，健將也。班都拉既至，急突英軍，不得入，乃退而集師。十一月，班都拉以眾六萬攻仰光及克曼廷村寨，不克。還至丹阿卜，掘地營而守，喀姆稗兒於是進攻普羅美，其地西距厄勒瓦諦江約三里許。明年，英軍分水陸進，將軍可敦將水師，喀姆稗兒將陸軍，會於丹阿卜，合力奪地營，緬將班都拉中砲死，遂長驅入普羅美城。時值大雨，約各休兵一月，以九月十七日為期。入夏以來，英別將馬立生攻克阿拉幹部，並逐阿薩密北部緬人，進駐克車。

Alarmed, the Burmese recalled the Changsheng Army from Arakan under the doughty general Bandula. Bandula arrived and launched a fierce assault but could not break through; he withdrew to regroup. In the eleventh month Bandula led sixty thousand men against Rangoon and Kemmendine without success. He fell back to Danubyu and dug in; Campbell then advanced on Prome, some three li west of the Irrawaddy. The next year Cotton's fleet and Campbell's land force converged on Danubyu, stormed the earthworks, and killed Bandula by cannon fire before marching into Prome. Heavy rains brought a month's truce, set to end on the seventeenth of the ninth month. That summer Lieutenant Morrison took Arakan, drove the Burmese from northern Assam, and garrisoned Koch.

十月，緬軍三路攻普羅美，英守將僅有歐人三千，印人二千，緬軍不能入。十二月，英人分擊緬軍，緬軍沿厄勒瓦諦江敗退，各以一萬二千人分入米投、麥龍，築壘堅守。未幾，米投破，餘兵奔麥龍，緬人力竭，求成於英，英將允之，遣人議和款，要以四事：一，割阿拉幹、艾報、墨爾階與意愛各城歸英轄；二，阿薩密部與各小部，緬人毋得干預其治權；三，賠軍費一千萬羅比；四，應准各國代理人駐紮緬京，且得以兵五十名為衛，英艦之入緬港者，毋得勒令繳槍彈船舵。

In the tenth month Burma assaulted Prome on three fronts with a garrison of only three thousand Europeans and two thousand Indians—the attack failed. In the twelfth month the British divided to attack; the Burmese fell back along the Irrawaddy, twelve thousand men each fortifying Meto and Mailung. Meto soon fell and survivors retreated to Mailung; exhausted, Burma sued for peace. The British general agreed to negotiate on four terms: first, cede Arakan, Pegu, Martaban, and Yee-ngai to British rule; Second, Burma was not to interfere in Assam or the smaller states; Third, pay ten million rupees in indemnity; Fourth, foreign agents might station fifty guards in the capital, and British ships in Burmese ports were not to be disarmed or stripped of rudders.

議員簽押呈緬王署押，緬王不允，飭整戰備。英將偵知緬王無和意，明年一月十九日，攻克麥龍城，緬人復遣使議和，且徵蒲甘兵衛京城。英將知非王本意，進攻不已，緬廷乃使美士迫拉意斯持前署押約章，並羅比二百五十萬至英軍乞止兵，英乃撤兵去。時道光六年也。

Negotiators signed and submitted the treaty for the king's seal; he refused and ordered preparations for renewed war. Learning the king would not yield, the British general took Mailung on the nineteenth of the first month; Burma again sent peace envoys and summoned Pagan troops to defend the capital. The British general knew this was not the king's will and pressed on; the court sent Maung Bare with the signed treaty and two and a half million rupees to buy a halt—and Britain withdrew. This was Daoguang year six.

約成，緬國遂失西偏沿海地數部。然緬國上下均不服此約。迨緬王弗極道為其弟撒拉瓦第所篡，撒拉瓦第素主排英，尤蔑視前約。先是英使臣軍佐白奈駐阿瓦，與緬王齟齬而去，兩國交遂破，英政府撤回駐緬職事人。是後緬人遇英人頗暴厲，英艦至緬者，緬人常與其水手閧，英廷遣使詰責緬廷，且護以水師。比英使至仰光，謁其督臣，語不合，英使遂以兵艦封其港，責償前英船所受損失費，要緬廷禮接英使，仰光督臣在英使前謝罪。時緬王蒲甘曼嗣立，執不允。於是英、緬再失和，而修職貢於中國如故。

The treaty cost Burma several western coastal provinces. Yet all Burma, court and country alike, rejected the treaty. When Tharawadi deposed his brother Bagyidaw, the new king—long an anti-British partisan—especially scorned the earlier treaty. Major Baynes, Britain's envoy at Ava, had quarreled with the king and left; diplomatic ties broke and Britain recalled its residents. Thereafter Burmese treatment of Britons turned violent; sailors brawled with Burmese whenever ships called, and London protested under naval escort. When a British envoy reached Rangoon and quarreled with the governor, warships blockaded the port; Britain demanded compensation, ceremonial reception, and a public apology from the governor. The new king Pagan Min refused. Britain and Burma were at odds again—but tribute to China continued unchanged.

咸豐三年十一月，羅繞典奏緬國貢使入京，請變通辦理。帝諭軍機大臣曰：「朕念緬甸國王久列籓封，貢使遠道輸誠，具徵忱悃。惟其國貢使向取道貴州、湖南、湖北進京。現在粵匪未平，若令繞道而行，殊非所以示體恤。即傳旨其使臣，此次無庸來京，仍優予犒賞，委員護送回國。」

In the eleventh month of Xianfeng year three, Luo Raodian reported that Burmese tribute envoys were en route and asked for special arrangements. The Emperor told the Grand Council: "Burma's king has long held investiture; envoys traveling from afar show sincere loyalty. Their envoys have always come via Guizhou, Hunan, and Hubei. The Cantonese rebels are not yet suppressed; forcing a detour would hardly show considerate care. Tell their envoys at once: this time they need not come to court; grant generous rewards and escort them home."

是年，緬、英再開戰，南方嚴城要地盡入於英，前所交還擺古部亦為英擾。英將道好西宣言以擺古隸英版圖。適緬親王曼同下王於獄，自立為王，遣使說印督道好西索還擺古，英廷命軍佐雅實勿裏為擺古行政長官，且充使以報。偕雅實勿裏行者為參贊亨利幼兒、地質學家倭爾罕，挾緬王立永讓擺古之約，緬王拒焉。久之，至同治元年始定約，英乃於緬甸海岸設官分部，稱「英領緬甸」，即擺古、厄勒瓦諦、阿拉幹、地那悉林也。以厄勒瓦諦江東支海口為會城，即所謂仰光鎮，以溫個那職視巡撫。

That year war resumed; Britain seized the south's strongholds and even raided Bassein, which had been returned. General Dalhousie declared Bassein annexed to the British dominions. Prince Mindon imprisoned the king and seized the throne, sending envoys to Dalhousie to demand Bassein's return; London appointed Colonel Arthur Phayre Bassein's administrator and envoy in reply. Counselor Henry Yule and geologist Oldham accompanied Phayre, bearing a treaty for Bassein's permanent cession; the king refused. Years later, in Tongzhi year one, a treaty was signed; Britain organized the coast as "British Burma"—Bassein, Irrawaddy, Arakan, and Tenasserim. The eastern Irrawaddy estuary became the seat of government—Rangoon—with Wen-gena serving in a role akin to governor-general.

初，英人欲覓一自英領緬甸通中國商路，苦為緬隔。後緬王許英人威廉遊歷緬境，北抵八募，又溯厄勒瓦諦江而上，至江上游之山峽。同治六年，緬廷與英人結通航緬境之約，又命英人代收八募與其他口岸商稅。次年，緬王曼同薨，子錫袍嗣位，復命旅於仰光之英工程師威廉、生物理學學士愛迭生、水師兵官暴厄爾與司忒華德、白恩諸人探訪運路，而以軍佐斯賴登率之行，且諭八募守臣以兵五十人護行。於是安抵八募東北之中國騰越廳境。八年，緬始開厄勒瓦諦江航路，上通八募，命水師兵官斯討拉爾駐八募，理其事。緬王頗注重商務，凡克亨山一帶危險地，皆設官防護，英人交口譽之。然緬王戇而多忌，廢斥舊臣，誅鋤兄弟親戚殆盡。外官雖有四千六百餘土司，皆祿無常俸，專朘民膏，百姓恆產，任意抄沒，緬、英雖交好，而猜忌尤深。

Britain first sought a trade route from British Burma to China, blocked by Burmese territory. Later the king allowed Williams to traverse Burma north to Bhamo and up the Irrawaddy to its upper gorges. In Tongzhi year six Burma granted navigation rights and entrusted Bhamo and other port duties to British collection. The next year Mindon died and Thibaw succeeded; he again dispatched Williams the engineer, Edison the scientist, naval officers Bourne and Stewart, Bai-en, and others under Colonel Sladen to survey routes, with fifty Bhamo troops as escort. They reached China's Tengyue sub-prefecture northeast of Bhamo without incident. In year eight Burma opened the Irrawaddy to Bhamo; naval officer Storer was posted there to oversee navigation. The king valued commerce, posting guards along the perilous Kaung-hin route—earning universal British praise. Yet the king was dull and deeply suspicious, purging old ministers and slaughtering kinsmen nearly to extinction. More than four thousand six hundred unsalaried frontier headmen preyed on the people, seizing property at will; despite outward friendship with Britain, mutual suspicion ran deep.

光緒九年，法蘭西由下安南進踞北圻，暹羅亦命官分駐老撾土酋各部，英據南緬既久，洞知上緬寶藏之區，甲於南海，且慮法人由北圻西趨，蔓及緬甸。十一年十月三日，英首相侯爵沙力斯伯裏值倫敦府尹大宴時，宣佈伐緬意，假判斷木商歇業為名，由印度派兵進攻，入蠻得勒，擒其王，流之於印度孟買海濱拉德乃奇黎島。初，緬與法蘭西、義大利立私約，損自主權利，英弗善也。至是欲存緬祀，則私約不能廢，遂決計滅之，並取所屬拈人地。南緬地區部為四：曰擺古部，曰阿拉幹部，曰厄勒瓦諦部，曰地那悉林部。北緬地區部為六：曰北部，曰中部，曰拉歇山嶺部，曰南部，曰東部，曰喀倫尼山嶺部，各部皆設行政長官，而隸於印度總督，緬甸自是遂亡。

In Guangxu year nine France seized Tonkin from lower Annam; Siam posted officials across Laos; long established in the south, Britain coveted upper Burma's riches and feared French expansion westward from Tonkin. On the tenth month's third day in year eleven, at the Lord Mayor's banquet, Prime Minister Salisbury announced war on Burma over a timber merchant's dispute; Indian troops took Mandalay, captured the king, and exiled him to Ratnagiri off Bombay. Burma had earlier signed private treaties with France and Italy that eroded its sovereignty—London was displeased. To preserve the dynasty required keeping those treaties; Britain therefore resolved to annex Burma and its Nian dependencies. Southern Burma was divided into four departments: Bassein, Arakan, Irrawaddy, and Tenasserim. Northern Burma comprised six departments—north, center, Yoma hills, south, east, and Karenni hills—each under an administrator reporting to India's Governor-General; Burma ceased to exist.

時出使大臣曾紀澤駐英，帝以屬國故，命與英外部會商緬事。初議立君存祀，俾守十年一貢之例，不可得。旋議由英駐緬大員按期遣使齎送儀物，其界務、商務兩事，則擬先定分界，再議通商。英人自以驟辟緬甸全境，所獲已多，有稍讓中國展拓邊界之意。英外部侍郎克蕾稱：「英廷原將潞江以東之地，自雲南南界之外起，南抵暹羅北界，西濱潞江，即洋圖所謂薩爾溫江，東抵瀾滄江下游，其中北有南掌國，南有拈人各種，或留為屬國，或收為屬地，聽中國自裁。」曾紀澤轉咨總理衙門，言：「南掌本中華貢國，英人果將潞江以東讓我，宜即受之，將拈人、南掌均留為屬國，責其按期朝貢，並將上邦之權明告天下，方可防後患而固邊圉。」

Envoy Zeng Jize was then in London; the Emperor ordered him to consult the Foreign Office because Burma was a tributary state. They first proposed preserving the dynasty and ten-year tribute schedule—Britain refused. Talk turned to British envoys bearing tribute gifts on schedule; boundary and trade were to be settled separately—boundaries first, commerce later. Having seized all Burma at a stroke, the British were somewhat willing to let China expand its frontier. Under-Secretary Clare said: "Britain would yield lands east of the Lu River—from beyond Yunnan's southern border south to Siam, west to the Salween, east to the lower Mekong—including Lan Xang in the north and Nian peoples in the south; China might keep them as tributaries or annex them as territory." Zeng reported to the Zongli Yamen: "Lan Xang was China's tributary; if Britain truly ceded land east of the Lu River, we should accept, keep the Nian peoples and Lan Xang as dependencies under tribute, and proclaim suzerainty to the world—securing the frontier against future trouble."

紀澤又向英外部索還八募。八募即蠻幕之新街。昔時蠻幕土司地甚大，後悉並於緬，其商貨彙集之區謂之新街，洋圖譯音則為八募，距騰越邊外百數十里，在大金沙江上游之東，龍川江下游之北，檳榔江下游之南，向為滇、緬通商巨鎮。英人以其為全緬菁華所萃，不許。爭論久之，克蕾始雲，英廷已飭駐緬英官勘驗一地，以便允中國立埠，且可在彼設關收稅。參贊官馬格裏言八募雖不可得，其東二三十里舊有八募城，似肯讓與中國，日後貿易亦可大興。且允將大金沙江為兩國公共之江，如此，則利益與彼分之，其隱裨大局，尤較得潞東之地為勝。議未定，紀澤旋回國。

Zeng also demanded Bhamo's return. Bhamo is Xinjie of the Manmu domain. Once vast, the Manmu domain was absorbed by Burma; its trading center Xinjie—Bhamo on foreign maps—lay a hundred-odd li beyond Tengyue, east of the upper Irrawaddy between the Longchuan and Betel-nut rivers—a major Yunnan-Burma mart. Britain refused—it was the jewel of all Burma's commerce. After prolonged debate Clare said Britain would survey a site for a Chinese trading port with customs rights. Counselor Mark noted Bhamo itself was unobtainable, but old Bhamo city twenty or thirty li east might be ceded—with great trade potential. They also offered joint use of the Irrawaddy—sharing benefits more advantageously, they argued, than taking land east of the Lu River. Talks remained inconclusive when Zeng returned home.

十二年六月，總署與英使歐格訥議約五條：第一，申明十年呈進方物之例；第三，中緬邊界應由中、英兩國派員會同勘定，其邊界通商事宜另立專章。約成，遷延者五年。

In the sixth month of year twelve the Zongli Yamen and envoy O'Conor agreed on five treaty articles: first, reaffirm the ten-year tribute schedule; Third, the Sino-Burmese border would be jointly surveyed, with trade provisions in a separate chapter. The treaty signed, implementation stalled for five years.

十七年，出使大臣薛福成始申前議，奏言：「英人所稱原讓潞東之地，南北將及千里，東西亦五六百里，果能將南掌與拈人收為屬國，或列為甌脫之地，誠系綏邊保小之良圖。惟查南掌即老撾之轉音。臣閱外洋最新圖說，似老撾已歸屬暹羅。若徒受英人之虛惠，終不能實有其地，非計之得者。南掌、拈人本各判為數小國，分附緬甸、暹羅。宜先查明南掌入暹羅之外，是否尚有自立之國，以定受與不受。其向附緬甸之拈人，地實大於南掌，稍能自立，且素服中國之化。若收為我屬，則普洱、順甯等府邊徼皆可鞏固矣。至曾紀澤所索八募之地，雖為英人所不肯舍，其曾經默許之舊八募者，亦可為通至大金沙江張本。若將來竟不與爭，或爭而不得，竊有五慮焉。夫天下事不進則退。從前展拓邊界之論，非謂足增中國之大也。臣聞乾隆年間，緬甸恃強不靖，吞滅滇邊諸土司，騰越八關之外，形勢不全。西南一隅，本多不甚清晰之界，若我不求展出，彼或反將勘入。一慮也。我不於邊外稍留餘地，彼必築鐵路直接滇邊，一遇有事，動受要脅。二慮也。長江上源為小金沙江，最上之源由藏入滇，距邊甚近，洋圖即謂之揚子江。我若進分大金沙江之利，尚可使彼離邊稍遠。萬一能守故界，則彼窺知江源伊邇，或浸圖行船，徑入長江以爭通商之利。三慮也。夫英人經營商埠，是其長技。我稍展界，則通商在緬甸，設關收稅，亦可與之俱旺。我不展界，則通商在滇境，將來彼且來擇租界、設領事，地方諸務不能不受其牽制。四慮也。我得大金沙江之利，則迤西一路之銅，可由輪船遵海北上，運費當省倍蓰。否則彼獨據運貨之利，既入滇境，窺知礦產之富，或且漸生狡謀。五慮也。凡此五慮，皆在意計之中。又查中、英所定緬約第一條內，緬甸每屆十年，向有派員呈進方物成例。英國允由緬甸最大之大臣，每屆十年派員循例舉行，所派之人應選緬甸國人等語。當時中外注意專在申明成例，惟緬甸何年入貢，並未計及，所以但有此約，而英之駐緬大員尚未舉行。竊恐久不催問，此約即成虛設。臣查成案，緬甸向系十年一貢。自道光二十三年入貢後，道路不通，至光緒元年始復入貢一次。計截至光緒十一年，正應緬甸入貢之期。若不按時理論，彼亦斷不過問。此與勘界各為一事，未便受其牽制，臣擬再加查訪，即行文外部，請其知照駐緬大員，補進光緒十一年應呈方物，俟光緒二十一年，再按定例辦理。萬一彼謂必俟駐緬十年始呈方物，則經此一番考覈，彼於光緒二十一年之期斷難宕緩矣。」

In year seventeen Envoy Xue Fucheng revived the proposal: "The Lu River east lands Britain once offered span nearly a thousand li north-south and five or six hundred east-west; keeping the Nian peoples and Lan Xang as dependencies or buffer zones would truly secure the frontier. But Lan Xang is simply Laos transliterated. Latest foreign maps suggest Laos already belongs to Siam. Accepting an empty British concession would gain us nothing—a poor bargain. The Nian peoples and Lan Xang were fragmented small states owing allegiance variously to Burma and Siam. We must first determine whether any independent states remain besides Laos under Siam before deciding to accept. The Burma-leaning Nian peoples hold more land than Lan Xang, maintain some independence, and have long accepted Chinese culture. If brought under our suzerainty, Pu'er, Shunning, and neighboring frontiers would be secured. Bhamo itself Britain would not yield—but the old Bhamo once tacitly offered could anchor trade access to the Irrawaddy. If we fail to contest Bhamo—or contest and lose—I have five private concerns. In affairs of state, one advances or retreats—never stands still. Frontier extension was never merely about enlarging China's map. In the Qianlong era Burma's strength swallowed Yunnan frontier headmen; beyond Tengyue's eight passes the strategic position was incomplete. The southwest had many ill-defined borders; if we do not push outward, others may survey inward. That is the first concern. If we leave no buffer beyond the frontier, they will run a railway straight to Yunnan's border—and whenever crisis comes, we will be at their mercy. That is the second concern. The Yangtze's upper reach is the Jinsha River, whose Tibetan headwaters enter Yunnan near the border—foreign maps simply call it the Yangtze. By securing a share of the Irrawaddy's benefits, we might still keep them farther from the frontier. If we merely hold the old line, they will discover how near the river's source lies—and may gradually aim to sail into the Yangtze and seize trade advantages. That is the third concern. Building trade ports is Britain's specialty. A modest border extension would keep trade in Burma, where we could levy customs and prosper alongside them. Without extension, trade falls within Yunnan—and they will eventually demand concessions and consuls, constraining local governance. That is the fourth concern. Control of the Irrawaddy would let western Yunnan's copper go north by sea steamer—cutting transport costs many times over. Otherwise they alone would control shipping; once inside Yunnan they would learn how rich the mines are—and crafty designs might follow. That is the fifth concern. All five concerns were carefully weighed. The first article of the Sino-British Burma treaty also reaffirmed Burma's ten-year tribute precedent. Britain agreed that every ten years Burma's chief minister would send Burmese envoys bearing tribute as before. Attention then focused only on reaffirming precedent—not on which year Burma last sent tribute; so though the treaty stood, Britain's resident in Burma had not acted. I fear that without prompt inquiry this clause will lapse into a dead letter. Precedent shows Burma paid tribute every ten years. After Daoguang year twenty-three the route was cut off; tribute resumed only once, in Guangxu year one. By Guangxu year eleven Burma's tribute year had come due. If we do not raise it on schedule, Britain will certainly not raise it either. Boundary work and tribute are separate and should not be linked; I propose further inquiry and a note to the Foreign Office asking Britain's resident in Burma to deliver the Guangxu year eleven tribute, then resume the regular schedule in Guangxu year twenty-one. If they claim tribute must wait ten years from the resident's arrival, this inquiry will at least make them honor the Guangxu year twenty-one deadline."

既而英人不認允曾紀澤三端之說，謂普洱外邊南掌、拈人諸地，及大金沙江為公用之江，與八募設關也。十九年七月，福成奏言：「英人自翻前議，雖以公法為解，實亦時勢使然。前議三端，既不可恃，則展拓邊界之舉，毫無把握。前歲英兵遊弋滇邊，以查界為名，闌入界內。常駐之地，則有神護關外之昔董，暨鐵壁關外之漢董。雲貴督臣王文韶迭經電達總理衙門。臣承總理衙門急電，照會外部，斥其違理，責令退兵。又屢赴外部爭論，英兵稍自撤退，滇邊至今靜謐。臣又查野人山地，綿亙數千里，不在緬甸轄境之內。曾紀澤曾照會外部，請以大金沙江為界，江東之境，均歸滇屬，英人堅拒不納。其印督至進兵盞達邊外之昔馬，攻擊野人，以示不原分地之意。臣相機理論，稍就範圍，於是有就滇境東南讓我稍展邊界之說。據稱已與印督商定於孟定橄欖壩西南邊外讓我一地曰科幹，在南丁河與潞河中間，蓋即孟艮土司舊壤，計七百五十英方里。又自孟卯土司邊外包括漢龍關在內，作一直線，東抵潞江麻栗壩之對岸止，悉劃歸中國，約計八百英方里。又有車裏、孟連土司，轄境甚廣，向隸雲南版圖，近有新設鎮邊一廳，系從孟連屬境分出。英人以兩土司昔嘗入貢於緬，並此一廳爭為兩屬，今亦原以全權讓我，訂定約章，永不過問。至滇西老界與野人山地毗連之處，亦允我酌量展出。其駐兵之昔董大寨，雖未肯讓歸中國，原以穆雷江北現駐英兵之昔馬歸我，南起坪隴峰，北抵薩伯坪峰，西逾南嶂至新陌，計三百英方里；又自穆雷江以南、既陽江以東有一地，約計七八十英方里。是彼於野人山地亦稍讓矣。其餘均依滇省原圖界線劃分。外部於三月二十三日行文照會前來，臣先行文外部，訂定大局。惟騰越八關界趾未清，尚須理論。外部請待印督所寄地圖，又值外部諸員避暑在外，稍有停頓。前據督臣王文韶電稱漢龍關自前明已淪於緬，天馬關亦久為野人所占踞，則八關僅存六關。現經再三爭論，此二關亦可歸中國。又前年英兵所駐之漢董，本在界線之外，因其扼我形勢，逼處堪虞，向彼力索。外部亦原退讓，以表格外睦誼。刻下界務已竣，商務本不似界務之繁重，且已先將大意議明，無甚爭論。現正商訂條款，計可刻期蕆事。」尋福成議定商約，續爭回鐵壁、虎踞二關，時二關皆英兵佔據也。

Britain then rejected Zeng Jize's three proposals—Lan Xang and Nian lands beyond Pu'er, joint use of the Irrawaddy, and a customs post at Bhamo. In the seventh month of year nineteen Xue Fucheng memorialized: "Britain has reversed its earlier offers—citing international law, but really yielding to circumstances. Those three earlier offers are gone; any hope of extending the frontier has vanished. Two years earlier British troops had patrolled Yunnan's border and, under cover of boundary survey, crossed the line. They had established permanent posts at Hsihkyeng beyond Shenhu Pass and Hsihkhu beyond Iron Wall Pass. Governor Wang Wenshao of Yunnan-Guizhou telegraphed the Zongli Yamen repeatedly. On urgent orders from the Zongli Yamen I protested to the Foreign Office, condemning the violation and demanding withdrawal. Repeated protests at the Foreign Office gradually brought withdrawal; the Yunnan frontier has been quiet since. I also found that the Wild Headman Hills stretch thousands of li beyond Burma's jurisdiction. Zeng Jize had proposed the Irrawaddy as boundary, with all lands east under Yunnan—Britain refused. India's Governor-General even marched to Hsima beyond Chendu and attacked hill tribes to show he would not yield territory. I negotiated as circumstances allowed and gradually narrowed the dispute—until talk arose of a modest extension on Yunnan's southeast. Reportedly Britain agreed to cede Kogan southwest of Mengding Olive Dam, between the Namting and Lu rivers—the old Menggen chieftaincy—some seven hundred fifty square miles. From beyond the Mengmao chieftaincy, including Hanlong Pass, a straight line east to the Lu River's Maliba bank would also go to China—about eight hundred square miles. The Cheli and Menglian chieftaincies—once broad domains under Yunnan, recently split to form Zhenbian sub-prefecture—were also involved. Britain had claimed dual suzerainty because both chieftains once tribute Burma—but now agreed to cede full authority by treaty, never to interfere again. Where Yunnan's old line met the Wild Headman Hills, they also allowed modest outward extension. They would not yield the main Hsihkyeng garrison, but offered Hsima north of the Mule River—from Pinglong Peak south to Sabaping Peak north, west to Xinmo beyond Nanzhang—three hundred square miles; plus another seventy or eighty square miles south of the Mule River and east of the Jiyang River. Thus they yielded ground even in the Wild Headman Hills. The rest followed Yunnan's original map line. On the third month's twenty-third day the Foreign Office sent a note; I had already written to settle the broad terms. Only Tengyue's eight passes remained unsettled. The Foreign Office awaited maps from India—and several officials were on summer holiday, causing delay. Governor Wang Wenshao had reported that Hanlong Pass fell to Burma in the Ming and Tianma Pass to hill tribes—leaving only six of the eight passes. After repeated argument both passes can revert to China. Hsihkhu, where British troops had camped, lay outside the line—but dominated our position; we pressed hard for its return. The Foreign Office agreed to yield it as a gesture of special goodwill. Boundary work is now done; commerce is lighter work, and the main points are already agreed. Treaty articles are being drafted and should be finished on schedule." Xue Fucheng soon concluded the commercial treaty and recovered Iron Wall and Tiger Perch passes—both held by British troops.

二十年正月，訂滇緬新約十九條，劃定自尖高山起，向西南行至江洪抵湄江之界線，大金沙江許中國任便行船，刪去八募設關一條。於是緬事粗結。惟十年進呈方物之例，英外部初許待至光緒二十三年照約舉行；繼稱英廷已豫備光緒二十年第一次派員赴中國，至是又聲請展緩，迄未實行云。暹羅，在雲南之南，緬甸之東，越南之西，南瀕海灣。順治九年十二月，暹羅遣使請貢，並換給印、敕、勘合，允之。自是奉貢不絕。

In the first month of year twenty a nineteen-article Yunnan-Burma treaty fixed the border from Jianshan Peak southwest to Chiang Hung on the Mekong, granted China free navigation on the Irrawaddy, and dropped the Bhamo customs clause. Burma affairs were thus roughly settled. Only the ten-year tribute precedent remained unsettled—the Foreign Office first agreed to wait until Guangxu year twenty-three; then said envoys would come in Guangxu year twenty—then asked delay again; it has never happened. Siam lay south of Yunnan, east of Burma, west of Vietnam, facing the gulf. In the twelfth month of Shunzhi year nine Siam asked to resume tribute and receive new seals, patents, and tally-slips—and was granted. Tribute then continued without interruption.

康熙二年，暹羅正貢船行至七洲海面，遇風飄失護貢船一，至虎門，仍令駛回。三年七月，平南王尚可喜奏暹羅來餽禮物，卻不受。其年，議准暹羅進貢，正貢船二艘，員役二十名，補貢船一艘，員役六名，來京，並允貿易一次。明年十一月，國王遣陪臣等齎金葉表文，文曰：「暹羅國王臣森列拍臘照古龍拍臘馬嘑陸坤司由提呀菩埃誠惶誠恐稽首，謹奏大清皇帝陛下。伏以新君禦世，普照中天，四海隸帡幪，萬方被教化。卑國久荷天恩，傾心葵藿，今特竭誠朝貢，敬差正貢使握坤司吝喇耶邁低禮、副貢使握坤心勿吞瓦替、三貢使握坤司敕博瓦綈、大通事揭帝典，辦事等臣，梯航渡海，齎上金葉表文、方物進獻，用伸拜舞之誠，恪盡遠臣之職。伏冀俯垂天聽，寬宥不恭，微臣不勝瞻天仰聖戰慄屏營之至，謹具表以聞。御前方物：龍涎香、西洋閃金緞、象牙、胡椒、腇黃、豆蔻、沉香、烏木、大楓子、金銀香、蘇木、孔雀、六足龜等；皇后前半之。」帝錫國王緞、紗、羅各六；金緞、紗、羅各四，王妃各減二。正副使等賞賚有差。定暹羅貢期三年一次，貢道由廣東，常貢外加貢無定額。貢船以三艘為限，每艘不許逾百人，入京員役二十名，永以為例。

In Kangxi year two Siam's main tribute ship reached the Qizhou seas; one escort was lost in a storm and, reaching Humen, was ordered to sail back. In the seventh month of year three Prince of Pingnan Shang Kexi reported Siam's gift offering, which was declined. That year Siam's tribute was approved: two main ships with twenty men, one supplementary ship with six, bound for the capital—with one round of trade permitted. The next year's eleventh month the king sent ministers with a gold-leaf memorial: "The King of Siam, your subject Sen Liet Phra Thaok Long Phra Ma Ha Lu Kun Si Yo Thia Pho Ae, kowtows in fear and trembling to memorialize the Great Qing Emperor. The new Son of Heaven illuminates the realm; the four seas are sheltered and all lands receive civilization. Our humble state long cherished Heaven's grace; now we send chief envoy Okun Si Lin Ya Mai Di Li, deputy Okun Sin Fotun Wati, third envoy Okun Si Chi Bo Wati, chief interpreter Chai Di Dian, and others across the seas with gold-leaf memorial and tribute gifts, bowing in distant loyalty. We humbly beg Your Majesty to incline Heaven's ear and pardon our lack of refinement; trembling before Heaven and the Sage, we respectfully submit this memorial. Imperial gifts: ambergris, Western gold brocade, ivory, pepper, bezoar, cardamom, agarwood, ebony, areca nuts, gold and silver incense, sappanwood, peacocks, six-legged tortoises, and more; The Empress received half." The Emperor granted the king six each of satin, gauze, and silk; four each of gold brocade, gauze, and silk—the queen consort two fewer each. Chief and deputy envoys received graded rewards. Siam's tribute was fixed at every three years via Guangdong; supplementary tribute had no fixed quota. Tribute ships were capped at three, each under one hundred men, with twenty permitted in the capital—forever the rule.

十二年，貢使握坤司吝喇耶邁低禮等至，具表請封。四月，冊封暹羅國王，賜誥命及駝鈕鍍金銀印，令使臣齎回。誥曰：「來王來享，要荒昭事大之誠；悉主悉臣，國家著柔遠之義。朕纘承鴻緒，期德教暨於遐陬，誕撫多方，使屏翰躋於康乂。彝章具在，渙號宜頒。爾暹羅國森烈拍臘照古龍拍臘馬嘑陸坤司由提呀菩埃秉志忠誠，服躬禮義，既傾心以向化，乃航海而請封。礪山帶河，克荷維籓之寄；制節謹度，無忘執玉之心。念爾悃忱，朕甚嘉尚。今封爾為暹羅國王，錫之誥命，爾其益矢忠貞，廣宣聲教，膺茲榮寵，輯乃封圻。於戲！保民社而王，纂休聲於舊服；守共球之職，懋嘉績於侯封。欽哉，無替朕命！」

In year twelve envoys Okun Si Lin Ya Mai Di Li and others arrived requesting investiture. In the fourth month the King of Siam was invested with patent and camel-nobbed gilded silver seal for the envoys to carry home. The patent read: "The king comes to enjoy—in remote regions sincerity toward the great is shown; all subjects, all ministers—the state shows its principle of gentle reach to the distant. I continue the great enterprise, expecting virtue to reach the far corners, cherishing all regions until border and center alike know peace. The eternal statutes stand; the proclamation should go forth. You, King of Siam Sen Liet Phra Thaok Long Phra Ma Ha Lu Kun Si Yo Thia Pho Ae, have held loyal purpose and served with propriety; having turned to civilization, you crossed the sea to request investiture. With mountains as whetstone and rivers as girdle, you can bear the charge of the feudatory; observe measure and hold to regulation—do not forget the heart of one who bears jade tribute. Considering your sincere devotion, I greatly commend it. Now I invest you as King of Siam and grant this patent; devote yourself further to loyalty, spread civilization, accept this honor, and keep your realm in order. Alas! Protect the people and land as king, continue good renown in your old domain; keep the duty of the common sphere, strive for fine achievement in your marquisate. Revere this—do not neglect my command!"

二十三年，王遣正使王大統、副使坤孛述列瓦提，齎金葉表入貢。帝諭暹羅進貢員役，有不能乘馬者，官給夫轎，從人給舁夫。先是貢船抵虎跳門，守臣查驗後，進泊河干，封貯貨物，俟禮部文到，方准貿易。至是疏請嗣後貢船到廣，具報即准貿易，並請本國採買器用，乞諭地方官給照置辦，允之。頒賞暹羅之鞾，始折絹。貢使回國，禮部派司官、筆帖式各一人伴送。二十四年，議定暹羅國王原賞緞三十四，今加十六，共表裏五十。四十七年，貢馴象二、金絲猴二。是年，禮官議准暹羅貢船壓艙貨物在廣東貿易，免其徵稅。

In year twenty-three the king sent chief envoy Wang Datong and deputy Kun Bo Su Lie Wa Ti with a gold-leaf tribute memorial. The Emperor ordered sedan chairs for tribute personnel who could not ride, and bearers for attendants. Previously tribute ships at Hujiao Gate were inspected, moored, and sealed until Board of Rites documents arrived before trade was allowed. A memorial now asked that tribute ships at Guangdong trade upon report, and that local officials license purchases of Chinese goods—granted. Boots bestowed on Siam were first commuted to silk. Returning envoys were escorted by one Board of Rites department official and one clerk each. In year twenty-four Siam's satin grant was raised from thirty-four to fifty bolts for outer and inner garments. In year forty-seven they sent two trained elephants and two golden langurs. That year the Board of Rites approved tax exemption for surplus cargo on Siam's tribute ships trading in Guangdong.

六十一年，部議暹羅入貢照安南國例，加賜國王緞八、紗四、羅八、織金紗羅各二；王妃緞、織金緞、紗、織金紗、羅、織金羅各二。是年，國王奏稱彼國有紅皮船二，前被留禁，請令廣東督撫交貢使帶回。帝可其請，並諭禮部曰：「暹羅米甚豐足，若運米赴福建、廣東、寧波三處各十萬石貿易，有裨地方，免其稅。部臣與暹羅使臣議定，年運三十萬石，逾額米糧與貨物照例收稅。

In year sixty-one the ministry ruled that Siam's tribute grants follow Annam's precedent: for the king, eight bolts of satin, four of gauze, eight of plain gauze, and two each of gold-woven gauze and gauze. The queen consort received two bolts each of satin, gold-woven satin, gauze, gold-woven gauze, plain gauze, and gold-woven gauze. That year the king reported two teak ships previously detained and asked the Guangdong governor and governor-general to return them to his envoys. The Emperor granted the request and told the Board of Rites: "Siam's rice is plentiful—if it ships one hundred thousand shi each to Fujian, Guangdong, and Ningbo for trade, benefiting those regions, exempt it from tax. Officials and Siamese envoys agreed on three hundred thousand shi annually; rice and goods beyond quota would be taxed as usual.

雍正二年十月，廣東巡撫年希堯陳暹羅運米並進方物，詔曰：「暹羅不憚險遠，進獻穀種、果樹及洋鹿、獵犬等物，恭順可嘉。壓船貨物概免徵稅，用獎輸心向化之誠。」六年，帝諭暹羅商船運來米穀永遠免稅。七年，常貢內有速香、安息香、袈裟、布疋等，帝以無必須之物，免其入貢，著為例。時貢使呈稱「京師為萬國景仰，國王欲令觀光上國，遍覽名勝，歸國陳述，以廣見聞」。帝命賢能司官帶領遊覽，並賞銀一千兩，遇所喜物購買。使臣復稱本國產馬甚小，國王命購數匹帶歸，允之，命馬價向內庫支給。復賜國王御書「天南樂國」扁額、緞二十五、玉器八、琺琅器一、松花石硯二、玻璃器二、瓷器十四。貢使赴廣採買京弓、銅線等物，復詔賞給。

In the tenth month of Yongzheng 2 (1724), Governor Nian Xiyao reported Siam's rice and tribute goods; the court replied: "Undaunted by distance, Siam has sent grain seed, fruit trees, foreign deer, hunting dogs, and more—such reverence deserves praise. All surplus ship cargo is tax-free, to reward their sincere turn toward civilization." In year six the Emperor permanently exempted rice shipped by Siamese merchant vessels from tax. In year seven regular tribute included aloeswood, benzoin, kasaya robes, and cloth; the Emperor waived these unnecessary items and made it precedent. The envoy reported: "The capital is admired by all nations; the king wishes his men to tour the sights, visit famous places, and report home to broaden their knowledge." The Emperor assigned capable officials to guide their tour and granted one thousand taels for purchases they fancied. The envoys said Siamese horses were small and the king wanted several purchased; the Emperor agreed and ordered payment from the privy purse. He also granted the king an imperial plaque reading "Joyful Kingdom at Heaven's South," twenty-five bolts of satin, eight jade pieces, one cloisonné vessel, two Songhua inkstones, two glass items, and fourteen porcelains. Envoys purchased capital bows and copper wire in Guangdong, and the Emperor again ordered rewards.

乾隆元年六月，國王遣陪臣朗三立哇提等齎表及方物來貢，增馴象一隻，金緞二疋、花幔一條，並言昔賜蟒龍袍藏承恩亭上，曆世久遠，難保無虞，懇再賜一二襲。帝特賞蟒緞四疋。禮部奏暹羅照丕雅大庫呈稱伊國造福送寺需銅，懇弛禁，議弗許，帝特賞八百斤。八年，詔暹羅商人運米來閩、粵諸省貿易，萬石以上免船貨稅銀十之五，五千石以上免十之三。其米照市價公平發糶。若民間米多，官為收買，以補常平社倉，或散給沿海標營兵糧之用。十三年，入貢方物外，附黑熊一、鬥雞十二、太和雞十六、金絲白肚猿一。十四年，國王遣陪臣朗呵派提等入貢，錫御書「炎服屏籓」四字。十六年，帝諭閩督喀爾吉善等籌辦官運暹羅米法。疏陳非便，並言不如獎勵商人赴暹羅運米至二千石以上者，予議敘給頂戴，從之。十八年，國王遣使入貢，懇賜人葠、纓牛、良馬、象牙、及通徹規儀內監。禮臣不可，帝加賜人葠四斤，特飭使臣歸國曉諭國王「恪守規制，益勵敬恭」。二十二年，入貢，特賜其王蟒緞、錦緞各二，閃緞、片金緞各一，絲緞四，玉器、瑪瑙各一，松花石硯二，琺琅器十有三，瓷器百有四。三十一年，暹羅入貢，賜與前同。

In the sixth month of Qianlong 1 (1736), the king sent ministers Lang Sanli Wati and others with tribute, adding one trained elephant, two bolts of gold brocade, and a floral canopy; they said python-dragon robes kept at Chengen Pavilion were aging and asked for one or two fresh sets. The Emperor specially granted four bolts of python-pattern satin. The Board reported Siam, via Zhao Piya Daku, requested copper for temple offerings—the ministry refused, but the Emperor granted eight hundred jin. In year eight Siamese rice merchants trading in Fujian and Guangdong received five-tenths tax relief above ten thousand shi and three-tenths above five thousand. Rice was to be sold at fair market prices. If local supply was ample, officials would buy rice for granaries or coastal garrison rations. In year thirteen they added one black bear, twelve fighting cocks, sixteen Taihe chickens, and one golden white-bellied langur. In year fourteen attendant ministers Lang Hepaiti and others came in tribute; the Emperor granted the inscription "Hot-Clime Screen and Rampart." In year sixteen the Emperor ordered the Fujian governor to plan official Siamese rice shipments. A memorial called official transport impractical and proposed rewarding merchants who shipped over two thousand shi from Siam with honors and caps—approved. In year eighteen the king's envoys requested ginseng, yaks, fine horses, ivory, and protocol-savvy eunuchs. Officials refused; the Emperor added four jin of ginseng and told envoys to instruct the king to "observe regulations and stay reverent." In year twenty-two the king received two python and two brocade satins, one shimmering and one leaf-gold satin, four silk satins, jade and agate, two Songhua inkstones, thirteen cloisonné pieces, and 104 porcelains. In year thirty-one Siam's tribute grants matched the previous ones.

頃之，兩廣總督李侍堯奏暹羅為花肚番所破，繳還原頒賜物。花肚番即緬甸也。當其時，緬甸攻暹羅，進圍其國都阿由提亞，三月陷之，殺其王，暹羅遂亡。

Soon after, Governor-General Li Shiyao reported Siam destroyed by the Huadufen and returned prior imperial gifts. The Huadufen were the Burmese. Burma besieged Ayutthaya, took it in the third month, killed the king, and Siam fell.

緬甸酋懵駁既破暹羅，恃強侵雲南邊，高宗疊遣將軍明瑞、大學士傅恆、將軍阿桂、阿裏袞等征之，緬甸調征暹羅軍自救。阿由提亞之陷也，暹羅守長鄭昭方率軍有事柬埔寨，聞都城陷，旋師赴援，疊與緬甸戰，構兵數年。既以緬甸困于中國，鄭昭乘其疲敝擊破之，國復。昭，中國廣東人也。父賈于暹羅，生昭。長有才略，仕暹羅。既破緬軍，國人推昭為主，遷都盤穀，鎮撫綏輯，國日殷富。四十六年，鄭昭遣使朗丕彩悉呢、霞握撫突等入貢，奏稱暹羅自遭緬亂，復土報仇，國人以詔裔無人，推昭為長，遵例貢獻。帝嘉之，宴使臣於山高水長。所貢方物，收象一頭、犀角一石，餘物准在廣東出售，與他貨皆免稅。特賜國長蟒緞、珍物如舊制。

After Mengbo destroyed Siam he encroached on Yunnan; the Gaozong sent Mingrui, Fu Heng, Agui, and Aligun against him; Burma recalled its Siamese garrison. When Ayutthaya fell, frontier commander Zheng Zhao was campaigning in Cambodia; he turned back, fought Burma repeatedly for years. Strained by war with China, Burma weakened; Zheng Zhao routed them and restored the kingdom. Zhao was a native of Guangdong. His father traded in Siam, where Zhao was born. Talented and capable, he entered Siamese service. After defeating the Burmese, the people made Zhao ruler, moved the capital to Bangkok, pacified the realm, and prosperity grew. In year forty-six Zheng Zhao sent envoys Lang Picaini and Xia Wofutu in tribute, reporting Burma's invasion, recovery of the realm, and Zhao's elevation for lack of Zhao-lineage heirs. The Emperor praised them and feasted the envoys at the Lofty Mountain, Long Waters pavilion. One elephant and one shi of rhinoceros horn were retained; other tribute goods could be sold tax-free in Guangdong. The leader received python satin and treasures as under the old system.

四十七年，昭卒，子鄭華嗣立。華亦材武，屢破緬，緬酋孟隕不能敵，東徙居蠻得勒。五十一年，華遣使入貢御前方物：龍涎香、金鋼鑽、沉香、冰片、犀角、孔雀尾、翠皮、西洋氈、西洋紅布、象牙、樟腦、降真香、白膠香、大楓子、烏木、白豆蔻、檀甘密皮、桂皮、螣黃，外馴象二。中宮前無象，物半之。並請封。十二月戊午，封鄭華為暹羅國王，如康熙十二年之例。制曰：「我國誕膺天命，統御萬方，聲教覃敷，遐邇率服。暹羅國地隔重洋，向修職貢，自遭緬亂，人民土地悉就摧殘，實堪憫惻！前攝國事長鄭昭，當舉國被兵之後，收合餘燼，保有一方，不廢朝貢。其嗣鄭華，克承父志，遣使遠來，具見忱悃。朕撫綏方夏，罔有內外，悉主悉臣，設暹羅舊王后嗣尚存，自當擇其嫡派，俾守世封。茲聞舊裔遭亂淪亡，鄭氏攝國長事，既閱再世，用能保其土宇，輯和人民，闔國臣庶，共所推戴。用是特頒朝命，封爾鄭華為暹羅國王，錫之誥印，尚其恪修職事，慎守籓封，撫輯番民，勿替前業，以副朕懷柔海邦、興廢繼絕之至意。」是年，粵督穆騰額奏定暹羅正副貢船各一免稅，餘船按貨征榷，以杜奸商取巧。

In year forty-seven Zhao died; his son Zheng Hua succeeded. Hua was martial too, repeatedly defeating Burma; Mengyun could not stand against him and moved east to Mandele. In year fifty-one Hua sent envoys with imperial gifts: ambergris, diamonds, agarwood, borneol, rhinoceros horn, peacock feathers, kingfisher trim, Western felt and red cloth, ivory, camphor, eaglewood, benzoin, areca nuts, ebony, white cardamom, sandalwood and kamani bark, cinnamon, and orpiment—plus two trained elephants. For the empress, who had never received an elephant, half the goods were sent. He also requested investiture. On the wuwu day of the twelfth month, Zheng Hua was enfeoffed King of Siam, following the Kangxi 12 precedent. The patent read: "Our state received Heaven's mandate, governing all regions; our voice and teaching spread far, and near and distant lands alike submitted. Siam lies across heavy seas and long paid tribute; since Burma's invasion its people and land have been devastated—truly pitiable! Former regent Zheng Zhao, after the whole country had been ravaged by war, gathered what remained, held one region together, and never ceased tribute. His heir Zheng Hua carried on his father's purpose, sent envoys from afar, and showed sincere devotion. I pacify all regions without distinction of inner and outer—all lords, all subjects; had heirs of Siam's old royal house survived, the legitimate line would naturally have kept the hereditary seal. Now I hear the old line perished in turmoil; the Zheng house has governed for two generations, kept its territory, settled its people, and won the whole country's acclaim. Therefore I invest you, Zheng Hua, as King of Siam and grant patent and seal; perform your duties faithfully, guard your feudatory, pacify your people, and do not abandon what your house has built—to fulfill my intent of cherishing distant realms and restoring what was lost." That year Governor Muteng'e fixed one principal and one deputy tribute ship as tax-exempt and taxed other ships by cargo, to stop merchant evasions.

先是緬甸憚國威內附，後屢為暹羅所敗，五十三年，來貢，乞諭暹羅罷兵。五十四年正月，帝賜鄭華敕曰：「朕惟自古帝王功隆丕冒，典重懷柔，凡航海梯山重譯而至者，無不悉歸涵育，咸被恩膏。爾暹羅國王鄭華遠處海隅，因受封籓職，遣使帕使滑裏遜通亞排那赤突等恭齎方物，入貢謝恩，具徵忱悃。朕念爾國與緬甸接壤，往者懵駁、贅角牙相繼為暴，侵陵爾國，興師構怨，匪爾之由。今緬甸孟雲新掌國事，悔罪輸誠，籥求內附，已於其使臣回國時諭令孟雲與爾國重修和好，毋尋干戈。爾亦宜盡釋前嫌，永弭兵釁，同作籓封，共承恩眷。茲特賜國王絲、幣等物，尚其祇受嘉命，倍篤忠忱，仰副眷懷，長膺天寵。欽哉！」

Burma had once submitted out of fear of our might but was repeatedly defeated by Siam; in year fifty-three it sent tribute, begging that Siam be told to cease fighting. In the first month of year fifty-four the Emperor granted Zheng Hua an edict: "Since ancient times emperors' merit has reached vast heaven and their canon has emphasized gentle rule; all who come by sea or mountain, through many tongues—all are nurtured and showered with grace. You, King of Siam Zheng Hua, dwell far at the sea's edge; having received feudatory investiture, you sent envoys Pa Shi Huali Xuntong, Yapainachi Tu, and others with tribute to express gratitude—fully showing sincere devotion. I know your country borders Burma; formerly Mengbo and Zhuajiaoya successively acted violently, invaded your realm, and raised armies—the fault was not yours. Now Burma's Mengyun has newly taken power, repented, and sought submission; when his envoys returned I already told Mengyun to renew friendship with your country and lay down arms. You too should release old grievances, forever cease fighting, serve equally as feudatories, and share in imperial grace. I now grant you silk, cloth, and other gifts; receive this command reverently, redouble your loyalty, answer my grace, and long enjoy Heaven's favor. Revere this!"

明年，鄭華咨稱：「乾隆三十一年，烏肚構兵，國破君亡。其父鄭昭光復故物，十僅五六。舊有丹荖氏、麻叨、塗懷三城，仍被佔據，懇諭令烏肚歸還，以復國土之舊。」粵督郭世勳以聞。帝念暹羅所稱之「烏肚番」即緬甸。前緬甸與暹羅詔氏構兵，系已故緬酋懵駁，非今王孟雲之事。丹荖氏等三城，亦系詔氏在國時被緬甸侵佔，非鄭氏國土。相安年久，自應各守疆界。今暹羅已經易世，暹羅又系異姓繼立為王，更不當爭論詔氏舊失疆土。命軍機大臣代世勳擬檄諭止之。是年，入貢，因慶祝萬壽，加進壽燭、沉香、紫膠香、冰片、燕窩、犀角、象牙、通大海、哆囉呢九種，帝亦加賜國王御筆「福」字。六十年，暹羅破柬埔寨，取阿可耳及破丁篷二地。

The next year Zheng Hua petitioned: "In Qianlong 31, Wudu attacked; the state was destroyed and the king killed. His father Zheng Zhao recovered the old realm—but only five or six tenths of it. The three cities Danlaoshi, Madou, and Tuhuai were still occupied; he humbly asked that Wudu be ordered to return them and restore the old borders." Governor Guo Shixun reported this. The Emperor noted that the "Wudu barbarians" Siam named were the Burmese. Burma's earlier war with Siam's Zhao house was the work of the late chief Mengbo, not today's king Mengyun. The three cities Danlaoshi and the rest had been seized from the Zhao house while it still ruled—not from Zheng territory. They had lived at peace for years; each side should keep its own borders. Siam had already changed dynasties; with a different house on the throne, it was still less fitting to dispute the Zhao house's old lost lands. The Emperor ordered the Grand Council to draft a proclamation for Shixun instructing them to desist. That year, for the birthday celebration, tribute added nine items: longevity candles, aloeswood, purple lac, borneol, bird's nest, rhinoceros horn, ivory, tongdahai, and doro ni cloth; the Emperor also granted the king an imperial brush character for "Fortune." In year sixty Siam defeated Cambodia and took Akor and Potaim.

嘉慶元年，暹羅遣使進太上皇帝、皇帝漢、番字金葉表文並方物。正月，命使臣與甯壽宮千叟宴，賜正使聖制千叟宴詩一章。二年，遣使賀歸政及登極，貢龍涎香、冰片等二十四種。帝奉太上皇帝命賜鄭華敕曰：「九服承風，建極著會歸之義，三加錫命，樂天廣怙冒之仁。舊典維昭，新綸用沛。爾暹羅國王鄭華屢供王會，久列籓封。茲於嘉慶二年，復遣使臣奉表入貢，鑒其忱悃，允荷褒揚。至以天朝疊慶重熙，倍呈方物，具見輸誠效順，弗懈益虔。國家厚往薄來，字小柔遠，自有定制。第念爾國僻處海陬，梯航遠涉，其所備物若從擯卻，勞費轉多，特飭收受，加賜文綺等物。嗣後止宜照常進呈一分，以示體恤。王其祇承眷顧，益懋忠純，永膺蕃庶之恩，長隸職方之長。欽哉！」三年，召暹羅使臣宴重華宮。五年，國王遣使齎祭文、儀物，詣高宗純皇帝前進香，並獻方物，廣東巡撫遵旨令使臣毋庸來京，悉將方物齎回。六年，副貢使怕窩們孫哖哆呵叭病歿廣東，?地方官妥為照料，賞銀三百兩，先行回國。

In Jiaqing 1 Siam sent envoys with gold-leaf memorials in Chinese and foreign script to the Retired Emperor and the Emperor, along with local products. In the first month the envoys joined the Thousand Elders Feast at Ningshou Palace; the chief envoy received an imperial poem composed for that feast. In year two envoys congratulated the abdication and accession, presenting twenty-four kinds including ambergris and borneol. At the Retired Emperor's command the Emperor granted Zheng Hua an edict: "The nine domains receive our influence; establishing the pole shows the principle of gathering all under heaven; thrice adding bestowed commands shows Heaven's broad cherishing grace. Old canons remain bright; new silks flow abundantly. You, King of Siam Zheng Hua, have long attended court assemblies and stood among the feudatories. Now in Jiaqing 2 you again sent envoys with tribute; seeing your sincere devotion, praise is well deserved. Presenting doubled gifts for the court's layered celebrations shows submission and obedience, never slackening but growing more reverent. The state gives generously and receives lightly, cherishing small states and gentling the distant—by fixed regulation. But your country lies remote at the sea's edge and your envoys come from afar; rejecting what you prepared would only increase your labor and expense—so I order acceptance and grant patterned silks and other gifts. Hereafter you should present only the usual single set, as a mark of considerate care. King, receive this grace reverently, strive further in pure loyalty, forever enjoy favor for your people, and long remain within the imperial roster. Revere this!" In year three Siam's envoys were summoned to feast at the Chonghua Palace. In year five the king sent envoys with sacrificial text and ritual objects to offer incense before the Gaozong Chun Emperor and present local products; the Guangdong governor, following orders, told them not to come to the capital and to take all gifts back. In year six deputy envoy Pa Womensun Nian Duo Habba died of illness in Guangdong; local officials were ordered to see to his remains properly, three hundred taels were granted, and his body was sent home.

十年，暹羅貢表，言與緬甸戰獲捷，有詔和解之。十二年九月，帝諭鄭華：「不許違例用中國人駕船，代運貨物往來，以免奸商隱匿，致啟訟端。倘有違背，奸商治罪，國王亦難辭其咎。特申禁令，以嚴逾越之防。爾國王其凜遵毋忽！」

In year ten Siam's tribute memorial reported victory over Burma; an edict ordered reconciliation. In the ninth month of year twelve the Emperor told Zheng Hua: "You may not violate regulations by using Chinese captains to transport goods on your behalf, lest unscrupulous merchants hide behind the arrangement and provoke lawsuits. If this is violated, the merchants will be punished—and the king cannot escape blame either. This prohibition is declared to guard strictly against overstepping bounds. King, obey reverently—do not neglect this!"

十四年，遣使祝嘏，加賞正副使筵宴重華宮。秋，鄭華卒，世子鄭佛繼立。遣使入貢請封，遭風沉失貢物九種，帝諭不必補進。十五年，封鄭佛為暹羅王，給誥命、駝鈕鍍金銀印，交使齎回。十八年冬，總督蔣攸銛奏暹羅正貢船在洋焚毀，僅副貢船抵粵，副使唧拔察哪丕汶知突有疾，聞正貢船遭焚，驚懼，益劇，不能即赴都。帝命副使留粵調治，所存貢物十種，派員送京，失物毋庸補備。且諭曰：「暹羅國王抒忱納贐，沿海申虔，即與到京齎呈無異。例賞物件及敕書，交兵部發交兩廣總督頒給。」明年，暹羅王聞貢船焚毀，補備方物入貢，遇颶風，船漂散。二十年秋，正副貢船先後抵粵，蔣攸銛以聞。仁宗嘉其恭順，諭曰：「暹羅向系三年一貢，明年又屆入貢之期。此次方物，可作二十一年例貢。」暹羅王復表請准用內地水手駕駛，部議駁之。

In year fourteen envoys were sent with birthday felicitations, and the chief and deputy envoys were additionally granted feasts at the Chonghua Palace. That autumn Zheng Hua died and was succeeded by his heir Zheng Fo. Envoys were sent to present tribute and seek investiture; a storm sank nine kinds of tribute goods, and the Emperor said they need not be replaced. In year fifteen Zheng Fo was invested King of Siam and given patent and a gilded silver seal with a camel-shaped knob, to be carried home by his envoys. In the winter of year eighteen Governor-General Jiang Youqian reported that Siam's principal tribute ship had burned at sea and only the deputy ship reached Guangdong. Deputy envoy Jibachana Biwen Zhitu was already ill; when he heard the principal ship had burned he grew alarmed, his condition worsened, and he could not proceed promptly to the capital. The Emperor ordered the deputy envoy to stay in Guangdong for treatment, had the ten surviving tribute items escorted to the capital, and said the lost goods need not be replaced. He also said: "The King of Siam has shown sincere devotion in his gifts and reverence along the coast—no different from presenting tribute in the capital. The customary rewards and edict will be sent through the Board of War to the governor-general of the two Guang provinces for delivery." The next year, learning the tribute ships had burned, the King of Siam prepared replacement tribute goods, but a typhoon scattered the vessels. In the autumn of year twenty the principal and deputy tribute ships reached Guangdong in succession, and Jiang Youqian reported it. Emperor Renzong praised their reverence and said: "Siam has traditionally sent tribute every three years, and next year the tribute cycle comes due again. Let this consignment count as the regular tribute for year twenty-one." The King of Siam again petitioned to use Chinese sailors as pilots; the ministry rejected the request.

道光元年，暹羅遠征馬來半島開泰州，懸軍深入，破沙魯他軍，南下服派拉克，進與色蘭格耳國戰，以軍疲，由新格拉而還。三年，遣使入貢賀萬壽。四年，鄭佛在位十五年，傳位其子鄭福。明年，遣使入貢請封，舟毀，貢物沉沒。帝免補進，仍封鄭福為暹羅王。福朝貢益恭。十九年三月，宣宗以暹羅服事之勤，諭曰：「暹羅三年一貢，其改為四年。」

In Daoguang 1 Siam launched a distant campaign against Songkhla on the Malay Peninsula, advancing deep with overextended forces; they defeated Salut, subdued Pak Lat to the south, fought Selangor, and withdrew from Singora when the army was exhausted. In year three envoys were sent to present birthday tribute. In year four, after fifteen years on the throne, Zheng Fo abdicated in favor of his son Zheng Fu. The next year envoys were sent for tribute and investiture, but the vessel was wrecked and the tribute lost. The Emperor waived replacement and still invested Zheng Fu as King of Siam. Under Fu tribute grew ever more reverent. In the third month of year nineteen Emperor Xuanzong, praising Siam's diligence, said: "Siam sends tribute every three years—change the interval to four."

咸豐元年，鄭福卒，弟蒙格克托繼立，中國稱曰鄭明者是也。明奉孝和睿皇后、宣宗成皇帝遺詔，遺使進香並齎遞表文、方物，慶賀登極。又因例貢屆期，請將貢物一併呈進。文宗命兩廣總督徐廣縉傳知臣毋庸來京，儀物、方物悉令齎回。至應進例貢，現當國制，二十七月之內不受朝賀，並停止筵宴，俟嗣王請封時再行呈遞。二年，徐廣縉奏：「暹羅國王遣使補進例貢，並請敕封，現已行抵粵東。」帝命於封印前伴送來京；應給嗣王誥命，俟貢使抵都發給齎回。靠粵匪亂熾，貢使竟不能至，入貢中國亦於此止。此後暹羅遂為自主之國矣。

In Xianfeng 1 Zheng Fu died and was succeeded by his younger brother Mongkut—known in China as Zheng Ming. Ming followed the posthumous edicts of Empress Xiaosheng and Emperor Xuanzong, sending envoys to offer incense and present memorials and local products to congratulate the new emperor on his accession. Because the regular tribute cycle had also come due, he asked to present those goods as well. Emperor Wenzong told Governor-General Xu Guangjin to inform the envoys that they need not come to the capital and should take all ritual objects and tribute goods back. Regular tribute must wait: the court was in mourning and for twenty-seven months would receive no congratulatory audiences or feasts; tribute would be accepted when the new king petitioned for investiture. In year two Xu Guangjin reported: "The King of Siam has sent envoys with supplemental regular tribute and a petition for investiture; they have now reached eastern Guangdong." The Emperor ordered them escorted to the capital before the court closed for the mourning seal; the investiture patent would be issued when the envoys reached the capital for them to carry home. But bandit turmoil in Guangdong intensified and the envoys never arrived—Chinese tribute ended here. Thereafter Siam became a fully independent kingdom.

鄭明通佛學，善英語，用歐人改制度，行新政，國治日隆，稱皇帝。復與英、法諸國訂約，遣使分駐各國。同治七年，鄭明卒，子抽拉郎公繼立，廢奴隸，行立憲。北部亂賊蜂起，討平之。法既吞越南，復迫暹羅割湄江東地。光緒十九年，國王派軍防守。法藉口暹羅侵越南，出兵占孔格沙丹格、托倫格二地，復進據老撾之加核蒙隆拍拉朋。暹軍敗退湄河西岸，法復以海軍攻盤穀海港，暹人懼，乞和。既，英人疾法日盛，不益於己，乃與法立約，保證湄南屬暹羅，暹羅賴以少安，致力內政，日蒸富強。宣統二年，卒，子馬活提路特立。

Zheng Ming was steeped in Buddhism, fluent in English, employed Europeans to reform institutions, and launched new policies; as the realm prospered he styled himself emperor. He also signed treaties with Britain, France, and others and posted envoys abroad. In Tongzhi 7 Zheng Ming died and was succeeded by his son Chulalongkorn, who abolished slavery and moved toward constitutional government. Bandits rose across the north and he suppressed them. After annexing Vietnam, France pressed Siam to cede the lands east of the Mekong. In Guangxu 19 the king sent troops to defend the frontier. Citing Siam's encroachment on Vietnam, France seized Kongka Sadung and Talung, then advanced to take Khemmoune Louang Phrabang in Laos. Siamese forces retreated to the west bank of the Mekong; France then attacked Paknam by sea, and Siam sued for peace in fear. Britain, uneasy at France's growing power, then made a treaty with France guaranteeing the Chao Phraya basin to Siam; Siam found a measure of peace, turned to domestic reform, and grew steadily stronger. In Xuantong 2 he died and was succeeded by his son Mahavajiravudh.

暹羅版圖，北緯六度至二十度，東經九十七度至一百七度。官制，設外務、內務、財政、陸軍、海軍、司法、教育、農務、交通九部，佐國王管理國政。另設樞密院，國王選親貴勳臣充之，國之大事皆諮詢而行。中央稱畿甸省。全國分十七州，置總督。州下有縣、郡、村。人口八百萬，中國人占三分之一。軍備仿德國徵兵制，常備軍三萬人，戰時可增十倍。海軍有砲艦、水雷艇數艘。製造槍砲廠、造船所皆備。暹羅疊出英君，政治修明，故介於英、法諸大國屬地，而能自保其獨立也。南掌，舊稱老撾。雍正七年，雲貴總督鄂爾泰疏言：「南掌國王島孫遣使奉銷金緬字編蒲表文一道、馴象二隻，求入貢。」帝嘉獎，其貢道命由普洱府入，沿途護送，從厚支給。八年二月，遣使表貢，並請定貢期，命五年一貢。賜之敕諭並文綺等物，令使臣齎捧回國。九年六月，表謝頒敕諭恩。

Siam spans six to twenty degrees north latitude and ninety-seven to one hundred seven degrees east longitude. The government comprises nine ministries—Foreign Affairs, Interior, Finance, Army, Navy, Justice, Education, Agriculture, and Communications—assisting the king in governing. A privy council of princes, nobles, and meritorious ministers advises the king on all major affairs of state. The capital region is called the Capital Province. The country is divided into seventeen provinces, each with a governor. Below the provinces are counties, districts, and villages. The population is eight million, about one third of them Chinese. The army follows the German conscription model—thirty thousand regulars, expandable tenfold in war. The navy maintains several gunboats and torpedo boats. Gun foundries and shipyards are all in place. Siam has produced a succession of capable rulers and sound governance; surrounded by British and French colonial holdings, it has preserved its independence. Lan Xang was formerly known as Laos. In Yongzheng 7 Governor-General Ortai reported: "The King of Lan Xang, Daosun, sent envoys with a gold-inlaid Burmese-script palm-leaf memorial and two trained elephants, seeking tributary admission." The Emperor praised the gesture and ordered the tribute route through Pu'er Prefecture with generous escort and provisions along the way. In the second month of year eight envoys presented tribute and asked for a fixed schedule; tribute was set at once every five years. An imperial edict and patterned silks were granted for the envoys to carry home. In the sixth month of year nine they memorialized thanks for the imperial edict.

乾隆元年，賜國王島孫彩緞、文綺。八年二月，帝以南掌遠道致貢，改為十年一次。十四年正月，貢馴象。二十六年二月，國王准第駕公滿奏言：「臣母喃瑪喇提拉同臣遣使奉表，進馴象二隻，慶賀皇上五旬萬壽，皇太后七旬萬壽。」准第駕公滿又別備表文一、貢象二，宴賞如例。六月十三日，禮臣議：「嗣後各省巡撫值南掌、琉球、蘇祿、安南等國貢使到境，遴委同知、通判中一員，武弁守備一員，伴行長送至京，並知照經過各省添派妥員護送，按省更替；貢使回國，亦一例辦理。」從之。又奏：「南掌外籓入貢使臣，俱於陳設鹵簿之日，帶領道旁瞻仰天顏，備觀儀典。今國王准第駕公滿遣使叭哩細哩門遮昆來京，擬於七月初八日聖駕起鑾之期，帶領大東門道旁叩見。」

In Qianlong 1 King Daosun was granted colored satin and patterned silks. In the second month of year eight the Emperor, noting Lan Xang's long journey, changed the tribute interval to once every ten years. In the first month of year fourteen they sent trained elephants. In the second month of year twenty-six King Zhundijiagongman reported: "My mother Nanmalatila and I send envoys with memorials and two trained elephants to celebrate the Emperor's fiftieth birthday and the Empress Dowager's seventieth." Zhundijiagongman also sent a separate memorial and two elephants; feasts and rewards followed precedent. On the thirteenth day of the sixth month the Board of Rites proposed: "When tribute envoys from Lan Xang, Ryukyu, Sulu, Annam, and other states reach a province, the governor is to assign one subprefect and one garrison commander to escort them to the capital, with each province along the route providing relays in turn; the same arrangement applies when envoys return home." Approved. They also proposed: "On days when the imperial guard of honor is deployed, envoys from Lan Xang and other outer feudatories should be led to the roadside to behold the Emperor and observe the full ceremonial display. King Zhundijiagongman's envoy Balixilimen Zhekun has come to the capital; on the eighth day of the seventh month, when the imperial procession departs, he is to be brought to the roadside at the Great East Gate for audience."

四十七年，國王召翁遣使臣叭整哄等四人入貢，帝於山高水長連日賜茶果，又賜宴於紫光閣、三無私殿。五十五年，國王表貢馴象祝釐，並附進例貢。帝諭雲貴總督富綱派員護送。南掌貢使定於七月二十日至熱河行在，與蒙古王公、各外籓貢使同預壽筵。五十八年，諭免例進貢象。明年，國王召溫猛遣使請封，特頒誥敕，並駝鈕鍍金銀印，交使臣齎回。六十年，國王奉表祝釐，進長生經一卷、阿魏二十斤、象牙四十、夷錦四十。時召溫猛已播遷越南昭晉州地，既受敕印，仍未能返國。

In year forty-seven King Zhao Ong sent four envoys including Bazhenghong in tribute; the Emperor repeatedly granted tea and fruit at the Shan Gao Shui Chang pavilion and feasts at the Ziguang Pavilion and Sanwusi Hall. In year fifty-five the king sent trained elephants for birthday blessings along with regular tribute. The Emperor ordered Governor-General Fugang to provide an escort. Lan Xang envoys were scheduled to reach the Rehe traveling palace on the twentieth day of the seventh month and join Mongol princes and other feudatory envoys at the birthday feast. In year fifty-eight the court waived the regular tribute of elephants. The next year King Zhao Wenmeng sent envoys seeking investiture; patent, edict, and a gilded silver seal with a camel-shaped knob were specially issued for them to carry home. In year sixty the king sent birthday tribute: one scroll of the Longevity Sutra, twenty jin of asafetida, forty measures of ivory, and forty bolts of foreign brocade. By then Zhao Wenmeng had been driven into exile in Zhaojin Prefecture in Vietnam; though he received patent and seal, he still could not return home.

嘉慶四年，國王遣使齎表，懇求赴京進香。帝諭止之，令雲貴督臣由驛進呈金葉表文，所貢檀香三枝交太常寺。十二年，國王遣使進馴象四隻、象牙四百斤、犀角三十斤、土絹一疋，帝賞賚有加。十四年，越南國王阮福映遣使恭繳南掌敕印。帝諭曰：「南掌國王召溫猛忄耎懦不振，流徙越南，遺棄敕印，朕念其流離，不加聲責，豈能復掌國事？聽其在越南居住可也。其國事以其伯召蛇榮代辦。」二十四年，召蛇榮子召蟒塔度臘虔修職貢，籥懇再頒敕印。禮臣覆稱前繳印信字畫完好，毋庸另鑄，准於頒給敕印外，再給誥命一道，交召蟒塔度臘祇領。道光二十二年，遣使齎敕封召喇嘛呢呀宮滿為南掌國王。

In Jiaqing 4 the king sent envoys with memorials earnestly asking to go to the capital to offer incense. The Emperor refused and ordered the Yunnan-Guizhou governors to forward the gold-leaf memorial by courier; the three branches of sandalwood tribute were handed to the Court of Imperial Sacrifices. In year twelve the king sent four trained elephants, four hundred jin of ivory, thirty jin of rhinoceros horn, and one bolt of native silk; the Emperor granted unusually generous rewards. In year fourteen King Nguyen Phuc Anh of Vietnam sent envoys to surrender Lan Xang's patent and seal. The Emperor said: "King Zhao Wenmeng of Lan Xang is weak and feckless, exiled in Vietnam, and has abandoned his patent and seal; considering his displacement I add no rebuke—but how could he resume governing the state? Let him remain in Vietnam—that is acceptable. State affairs are to be handled on his behalf by his uncle Zhao Sherong." In year twenty-four Zhao Sherong's son Zhao Mangtadula dutifully maintained tribute and earnestly pleaded for reissue of patent and seal. The Board of Rites replied that the surrendered seal's characters were intact and need not be recast; besides reissuing patent and seal, one investiture patent was additionally granted for Zhao Mangtadula to receive. In Daoguang 22 envoys were sent with an investiture edict enfeoffing Zhao Lamaniagongman as King of Lan Xang.

咸豐三年，南掌國長召整塔提拉宮滿遣使叩關，請入貢。帝以南掌貢使向由貴州、湖南、湖北、河南取道進京，惟現在粵匪未盡殲除，命雲貴督臣吳文鎔等即傳諭南掌使臣，此次毋庸來京，仍優與犒賞，俾先行回國。貢物象只即由督臣派員送京。然自是雲南回匪亂起，貢道遂絕。時南掌兼貢越南之順化，暹羅之曼谷。嗣越南衰，南掌入暹羅，號為暹羅屬國。光緒十一年，法人得越南全境，以南掌地居湄公江中間，為傳教通商孔道，復設法保護之，於是南掌又折入於法矣。

In Xianfeng 3 Lan Xang chief Zhao Zhengtatilagongman sent envoys to the border requesting tributary admission. Lan Xang envoys had customarily traveled through Guizhou, Hunan, Hubei, and Henan to reach the capital—but with Guangdong bandits not yet fully suppressed, the Emperor ordered Governors Wu Wenrong and others to tell the Lan Xang envoys not to come to the capital this time, granting generous rewards for them to return home first. The tribute ivory was sent to the capital by officials dispatched by the governor. Then Yunnan Hui rebellions broke out and the tribute route was cut off. At the time Lan Xang also paid tribute to Thanh Hoa in Vietnam and Bangkok in Siam. Later, as Vietnam declined, Lan Xang passed under Siam and became a Siamese dependency. In Guangxu 11, after France took all of Vietnam, Lan Xang—lying between Mekong channels and serving as a route for missionaries and trade—came under French protection and was absorbed into France.

南掌國都曰隆勃剌邦，據湄公江左岸，江東折南流，南岡江自東來會，曲注如玦環，城在山下，當南岡江會流處，水穿城而過。王宮在城之北，背山建屋，規制壯麗。佛墓寺塔森立城市中。瀕江兩岸多花園。居民大半老撾種，或喀木種。老撾種人俗同暹羅，不文身雕題，性愚而嬾。奉佛教，好生惡殺。務耕種、畜牧，能鑄造、紡織。其狀貌短小，鼻寬而脣厚，膚色紅紫，剪發留頂，不蓄須。男子衣飾，橫布一幅圍腰至膝，富貴者以紬緞為之。婦人下裳似裙，上服摺蓋於胸，發黝黑，鬢垂於後項，耳手足皆帶環圈，以金銀銅為飾。其房屋率用藤竹縛造。富室官衙則用堅木，極壯麗。常食睟米，雜以秔稻。中國人教以制酒醴、養蠶絲之法。家畜象、牛，供耕田馱貨。其物產有五金各礦，稻則有秔有睟，多包穀，少粟麥，有靛青、漆、藤、竹、麻、棉、椰葉、桄榔、甘蔗、檳榔、豆蔻、煙葉、芝麻、花生，而松木、楢木尤多。其貨幣或用暹羅之體格，或印度之魯卑，皆銀錢也。此外或用銅錢、用鐵錢，或用銀錠、用海貝。然用錢頗少，以貨易者為多。天氣溫和，自二月至八月多東風、多雨，九月至正月多北風、多晴雲。蘇祿，南洋島國也。雍正四年，蘇祿國王毋漢未母拉律林遣使奉表，貢方物。五年六月，貢使至京，貢珍珠、玳瑁、花布、金頭牙薩白幼洋布、蘇山竹布、燕窩、龍頭、花刀、夾花標槍、滿花番刀、藤席、猿十二種。賜宴賚賞，頒敕諭一道，令使臣齎回。定期五年一貢，貢道由福建。十一年六月，國王奉表謝恩，並奏：「伊祖東王於明永樂間入朝，歸至德州病故。帝命有司營葬，勒碑墓道，諡曰『恭定』，留妻妾傔從十人守墓。畢三年喪，遣歸。今事隔三百餘年，所有墳墓及其子孫存留周恤之處，懇請修理給復。」禮臣議覆：「蘇祿國東王巴都噶叭哈答歿，長子都馬含歸國襲封。次子安都祿，三子溫哈喇，留居守塋，其子孫以祖名分為安、溫二姓，應如所請。飭查王墓所有神道享亭、牌坊，修理整飭，於安、溫二姓中各遴一人給頂戴奉祀。著為例。」帝允之。乾隆五年八月，蘇祿國王麻喊味呵稟朥甯遣番丁護送遭風商人回內地。八年，貢使馬明光奏請三年後復修朝貢，帝命仍遵雍正五年所定五年一貢之例。十九年，蘇祿國王麻喊味安柔律噒遣使貢方物，並貢國土一包，請以戶口人丁編入中國圖籍。帝諭：「蘇祿國傾心向化，其國之土地人民即在統御照臨之內，毋庸復行齎送圖冊。」二十八年，國王遣使貢方物。自後遂不復至。

Lan Xang's capital is Luang Prabang, on the Mekong's left bank; east of the river the current bends south; the Nangang River joins from the east in a jade-ring curve; the city lies below the hills at that confluence, with water running through it. The royal palace stands north of the city, backed against the hills, magnificent in scale. Buddhist tombs, temples, and pagodas stand densely throughout the city. Both banks of the river are lined with gardens. Most of the inhabitants are Lao, or Khmu. The Lao shared Siamese customs but did not tattoo or scar their bodies; they were regarded as simple and indolent by temperament. They practiced Buddhism, cherished life, and abhorred killing. They farmed, raised livestock, and knew metalworking and weaving. They were short in stature, with broad noses, thick lips, and reddish skin; they cropped their hair but left the crown, and wore no beards. Men wore a single cloth wrapped from waist to knee; the wealthy used silk and satin. Women wore skirt-like lower garments and folded upper garments across the chest; their black hair hung at the nape, and they adorned ears, hands, and feet with gold, silver, or copper rings. Ordinary houses were built of lashed rattan and bamboo. Wealthy homes and official halls were built of hardwood and were very imposing. Their staple was glutinous rice mixed with long-grain rice. Chinese taught them to brew liquor and raise silkworms. Households kept elephants and cattle for farming and transport. They produced ores of the five metals, long-grain and glutinous rice, mostly maize with little millet or wheat, indigo, lacquer, rattan, bamboo, hemp, cotton, coconut, sugar palm, sugarcane, betel, cardamom, tobacco, sesame, peanuts, and especially pine and oak timber. Currency was either the Siamese tical or the Indian rupee—both silver. They also used copper or iron cash, silver ingots, or cowrie shells. Coin was little used; barter predominated. The climate was mild: February through August brought east winds and heavy rain; September through January brought north winds and fair weather. Sulu was an island kingdom of the Southern Seas. In the fourth year of Yongzheng, King Muhanweimulalülin of Sulu sent envoys with a memorial and tribute gifts. In the sixth month of the fifth year the envoys reached Beijing with pearls, tortoiseshell, patterned cloth, fine foreign textiles, Sulu bamboo cloth, bird's nests, carved dragon heads, patterned knives, inlaid spears, foreign swords, rattan mats, and twelve kinds of gibbon. The court gave banquets and gifts and issued an imperial edict for the envoys to carry home. Tribute was fixed at once every five years via Fujian. In the sixth month of the eleventh year the king sent a memorial of thanks, reporting: "My ancestor the Eastern King visited the Ming court in the Yongle reign and died of illness at Dezhou on his return. The emperor ordered a burial, a stele on the tomb road, and the posthumous title Respectful and Steadfast; ten wives, concubines, and attendants were left to guard the tomb. After three years' mourning they were sent home. More than three hundred years have passed; we earnestly ask that the tomb be repaired and support for the descendants who remain be restored." The Ministry of Rites replied: "When Sulu's Eastern King Paduka Pahala died, his eldest son Tumahao returned to succeed. The second son Andulu and third son Wenhaluo stayed to guard the grave; their descendants formed the An and Wen clans—the request should be granted. Inspect and repair the spirit way, offering halls, and memorial arch; select one man each from the An and Wen clans to receive official rank and perform sacrifice. Let this become precedent." The emperor approved. In the eighth month of Qianlong year five, King Mahamuidiha of Sulu sent men from Bingning to escort shipwrecked merchants home. In year eight envoy Ma Mingguang asked to resume tribute after three years; the emperor upheld the Yongzheng rule of tribute every five years. In year nineteen King Mahamuidianroulüsi sent tribute and a packet of native soil, asking that his people be registered in Chinese household rolls. The emperor replied: "Sulu has turned wholeheartedly toward civilization; its land and people are already under our rule—there is no need to send maps and registers again." In year twenty-eight the king again sent tribute. After that no further missions came.

蘇祿本巫來由番族，悍勇善鬥。西班牙既據呂宋，欲以蘇祿為屬國，蘇祿不從，西人以兵攻之，為所敗。獨慕義中國，累世朝貢不絕。其國小，有巉岩之嶺，其極南為石崎山、犀角嶼、珠池，因島環繞。海內有珍珠，土人與華商市易，大者利數十倍。此外土產則蘇木、豆蔻、降香、藤條、蓽茇、鸚鵡之類。戶口繁多。地磽瘠，食不足，常糴於別島。土人奉回教。與婆羅洲芒佳瑟民結為海盜云。

Sulu was originally a Malay people, fierce and warlike. After Spain seized Luzon it sought to subjugate Sulu; Sulu refused, Spanish troops attacked, and were defeated. It alone admired China and sent tribute for generations without fail. The kingdom was small, with rugged ridges; at its southern extremity lay Stone Cape, Rhinoceros Horn Islet, and pearl banks amid encircling islands. Pearls were harvested offshore and traded with Chinese merchants; the largest brought profits tenfold or more. Other products included sappanwood, cardamom, eaglewood, rattan, long pepper, and parrots. The population was large. The land was poor; food was scarce and grain often imported from neighboring islands. The people followed Islam. They were said to have joined the Mangkasar people of Borneo in piracy at sea.

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