1
訓練之制
Regulations on Military Training
2
禁軍月奉五百以上，皆日習武技。 三百以下，或給役，或習技。 其後別募廂兵，亦閱習武技，號教閱廂軍。 戍川、廣者舊不訓練，嘉祐以後稍習焉。 凡諸日習之法，以鼓聲為節，騎兵五習，步兵四習，以其坐作進退非施於兩軍相當者然。 自宋初以來，中外諸軍皆用之。
Members of the Imperial Guard who received five hundred cash or more per month were required to drill in martial skills every day. Those paid less than three hundred cash either performed corvée duties or trained in military skills. Later, when garrison troops were recruited separately, they too were drilled in martial skills; these units were designated instruction-review garrison troops. Troops stationed in Sichuan and Guangdong had traditionally received no drill, but after the Jiayou period they gradually began training. Daily drill followed drum cadence: cavalry practiced five routines and infantry four, since these formations for sitting, standing, advancing, and retreating were not the same as maneuvers used when two armies met in battle. From the founding of the dynasty onward, all armies throughout the empire adopted these methods.
3
明道二年，樞密使王曙言：“天下廂軍止給役而未嚐習武技，宜取材勇者訓肄，升補禁軍。 ”上可其奏。
In 1033, Privy Councillor Wang Shu memorialized: Garrison troops across the empire perform only corvée labor and have never been drilled in martial skills. Brave men should be selected for training and promoted into the Imperial Guard. The emperor approved the proposal.
4
康定元年，帝御便殿閱諸軍陣法。 議者謂諸軍止教坐作進退，雖整肅可觀，然臨敵難用，請自今遣官閱陣畢，令解鐙以弓弩射。 營置弓三等，自一石至八斗； 弩四等，自二石八斗至二石五斗，以次閱習。 詔行之陝西、河東、河北路。 是歲，詔：“教士不衽帶金革，緩急不足以應敵。 自今諸軍各予鎧甲十、馬甲五，令迭披帶。 ”又命諸軍班聽習雜武技，勿輒禁止。
In 1040, the emperor reviewed army battle formations in the informal audience hall. Critics argued that troops were drilled only in ceremonial marching, which looked impressive but would prove useless in combat. They proposed that after formation reviews, soldiers should dismount and practice shooting with bows and crossbows. Each camp was to stock three grades of bow, ranging from one picul draw weight down to eight-tenths of a picul; and four grades of crossbow, from two piculs eight tenths down to two piculs five tenths, with men trained on each grade in succession. An edict ordered these measures implemented in the Shaanxi, Hedong, and Hebei circuits. That same year an edict declared: Soldiers who drill without wearing armor and weapons will be unprepared when battle comes. Henceforth each army unit is to receive ten suits of body armor and five horse armors, with troops taking turns wearing them during drill. Troops were also permitted to practice assorted martial skills in their companies without arbitrary prohibition.
5
慶曆元年，徙邊兵不教者於內郡，俟習武技即遣戍邊。
In 1041, border troops who had received no training were transferred to interior prefectures and, once they had mastered martial skills, were sent back to frontier garrison duty.
6
二年，諸軍以射親疏為賞罰，中的者免是月諸役，仍籍其名。 闕校長，則按籍取中多者補。 樞密直學士楊偕請教騎兵止射九斗至七鬥三等弓，畫的為五暈，去的二十步，引滿即發，射中者，視暈數給錢為賞。 騎兵佩劈陣刀，訓肄時以木杆代之。 奏可。
In 1042, armies began rewarding and punishing troops based on close-range shooting accuracy. Those who hit the target were exempted from all corvée duties for that month, and their names were recorded. When a company commander's post fell vacant, the man with the most recorded hits was promoted to fill it. Privy Council academician Yang Jie proposed that cavalry be trained on three grades of bow ranging from nine-tenths to seven-tenths of a picul. The target was marked with five concentric rings at twenty paces; archers drew to full draw and released immediately. Hits were rewarded in cash according to which ring was struck. Cavalry carried array-breaking sabers; during drill wooden staffs were used in their place. The emperor approved the proposal.
7
四年，詔：“騎兵帶甲射不能發矢者，奪所乘馬與本營藝優士卒。 ”韓琦言：“教射唯事體容及強弓，不習射親不可以臨陣。 臣至邊，嚐定弓弩挽強、蹠硬、射親格，願行諸軍立賞肄習。 歲以春秋二時各一閱，諸營先上射親吏卒之數，命近臣與殿前、馬步軍司閱之。 其射親入第四至第七等，量先給賜； 入第三等已上及挽強、蹠硬中格，悉引對親閱； 等數多者，其正副指揮使亦第賜金帛。 ”詔以所定格班教諸軍。 四年，遣官以陝西陣法分教河北軍士。
In 1044, an edict declared: Any cavalryman who cannot loose an arrow while wearing armor shall forfeit his mount to the most skilled archer in his camp. Han Qi argued: Archery drill today emphasizes posture and heavy bows alone. Troops who never practice close-range shooting cannot be sent into battle. When I reached the frontier, I established standards for bow draw weight, crossbow foot-stomp force, and close-range shooting accuracy. I ask that these standards be applied across all armies with rewards offered for diligent practice. Each spring and autumn a review would be held. Every camp would first report how many officers and men had qualified in close-range shooting, and court officials together with the Palace, Cavalry, and Infantry Bureaus would conduct the inspection. Men who qualified in close-range shooting at grades four through seven would receive preliminary rewards in proportion to their grade; those who reached grade three or above, or who met the standards for bow draw weight and crossbow foot-stomp force, would all be presented to the emperor for personal inspection; and commanders whose units produced the greatest number of high-grade performers would themselves receive graded gifts of gold and silk. An edict ordered all armies trained according to these established grade standards. In 1044, officials were dispatched to teach Hebei troops the battle formations used in Shaanxi.
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五年，密詔益、利、梓、夔路鈐轄司，以弓弩習士卒，候民間觀聽浸熟，即便以短兵日教三十人，十日一易。 知并州明鎬言：“臣近籍諸營武藝之卒，使帶甲試充奇兵外，為三等，庶幾主將悉知軍中武技強弱，臨敵可用。 ”詔頒其法三路。 範仲淹請以帶甲射一石充奇兵，餘自九斗至七鬥第為三等，射力及等即升之。 詔著為令。
In 1045, a secret edict to the supervisory commissioners of the Yi, Li, Zi, and Kui circuits ordered troops trained with bows and crossbows. Once the local population had grown accustomed to seeing the drills, thirty men per day were to be trained in close combat weapons, with the group rotated every ten days. Bingzhou prefect Ming Hao reported: I have recently registered the most skilled soldiers in every camp, tested them in armor for assignment as elite troops, and divided them into three grades so that commanders may know precisely which men are strongest and weakest in martial skill and deploy them effectively in battle. An edict ordered his method promulgated across all three frontier circuits. Fan Zhongyan proposed that any soldier who could shoot a one-picul bow in armor be classified as an elite trooper. The remainder, graded from nine-tenths down to seven-tenths of a picul in three tiers, would be promoted as soon as they met the standard for their grade. An edict codified this as permanent regulation.
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六年，詔諸軍夏三月毋教弓弩，止習短兵。 又詔：“以春秋大教弓射一石四斗、弩廣三石八斗、槍刀手勝三人者，立為武藝出眾格。 中者，本營闕階級即以次補。”
In 1046, an edict forbade bow and crossbow drill during the third month of summer; troops were to practice only close-combat weapons. Another edict declared: At the major spring and autumn reviews, any archer who shot a one-picul-four-tenths bow, any crossbowman who drew a three-picul-eight-tenths weapon, or any spearman or saberman who defeated three opponents would qualify for the outstanding martial skill grade. Qualified men would be promoted in order of merit whenever a rank fell vacant in their camp.
10
至和元年，詔：“諸軍選將校，武藝鈞，以射親為上。 ”韓琦又言：“奉詔，軍士弩廣四石二斗並弓箭、槍手應舊規選中者，即給挺補守闕押官，然則排連舊制為虛文矣。 請三路兵遇春秋大教，武技出眾者優給賞物，免本營他役，候階級闕，如舊制選補。 ”奏可。
In 1054, an edict declared: When selecting officers from the ranks, if candidates are equal in martial skill, close-range shooting proficiency shall be the deciding factor. Han Qi added: Under the edict, any soldier who draws a four-picul-two-tenths crossbow, or any archer or spearman who meets the old selection standards, is immediately given an officer's tally and appointed acting deputy on the waiting list. This renders the old platoon and company promotion system meaningless. I ask that at the major spring and autumn reviews on the three frontier circuits, soldiers of outstanding martial skill receive preferential rewards and exemption from other camp duties, and that when ranks fall vacant they be promoted according to the established system. The emperor approved the proposal.
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治平二年，詔：“河北戰卒三十萬一千、陝西四十五萬九百並義勇等，委總管司訓練，毋得冗占。”
In 1065, an edict declared: Hebei's 301,000 combat troops, Shaanxi's 450,900, together with militia and similar forces, are entrusted to the overall command offices for training and must not be diverted to non-military duties.
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熙寧元年，詔曰：“國家置兵以備戰守，而主兵之官冗占者眾，肄習弗時，或誤軍事。 帥臣、安撫、監司其察所部有占兵不如令者以聞。 ”十月，樞密院請陝西、河東選三班使臣及士人任殿侍者，以為河北諸路指使，教習騎軍。 或言河朔兵有教閱之名而無其實，請班教法於其軍，久而弗能者，罷為廂軍。 奏可。
In 1068, an edict declared: The state maintains armies for war and defense, yet many officers in command of troops are diverted to non-military duties, drill is neglected, and military readiness suffers. Commanders, pacification commissioners, and supervisory officials shall investigate their jurisdictions for violations of these regulations and report them. In the tenth month, the Bureau of Military Affairs proposed that Shaanxi and Hedong select third-rank envoys and scholars serving as palace attendants to serve as drill instructors for the Hebei circuits in cavalry training. Some officials reported that Hebei troops bore the title of instruction-review units but received no actual training. They proposed assigning drill instructors to these armies and demoting to garrison status any soldier who failed to master the skills within a reasonable time. The emperor approved the proposal.
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二年，帝常語執政：“並邊訓練士卒，何以得其精熟？ ”安石對曰：“京東所教兵已精強，願陛下推此法以責邊將，間詔其兵親臨閱試。 訓練簡閱有不如詔者罰之，而賞其能者。 賞不遣賤，罰不避貴，則法行而將吏加勸，士卒無不奮勵矣。 ”九月，選置指使巡教諸軍，殿前司四人，馬、步軍司各三人。
In 1069, the emperor often asked his chief ministers: How can we bring frontier troops to full martial proficiency? Wang Anshi replied: The troops trained in Jingdong are already highly skilled. Your Majesty should extend this system to hold frontier commanders accountable and occasionally summon their troops for personal inspection. Commanders whose troops fail to meet drill standards should be punished, while those whose units excel should be rewarded. If rewards reach even the humblest soldier and punishments fall even on the highest officers, the regulations will be enforced, commanders will be motivated, and every soldier will strive to excel. In the ninth month, drill instructors were appointed to tour all armies: four from the Palace Guard Bureau and three each from the Cavalry and Infantry Bureaus.
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三年，帝親閱河東所教排手，進退輕捷，不畏矢石。 遂詔殿前司，步軍指揮當出戍者，內擇槍刀手伉健者百人，教如河東法，藝精者免役使，以優獎之。
In 1070, the emperor personally reviewed shield-bearers trained in Hedong. Their maneuvers were swift and agile, and they showed no fear of arrows or stones. The emperor then ordered the Palace Guard Bureau to select one hundred robust spearmen and sabermen from infantry units about to deploy on garrison duty, train them by the Hedong method, and exempt the most skilled from corvée labor as a reward.
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五年四月，詔在京殿前馬步諸軍巡教使臣，並以春秋分行校試。 射命中者第賜銀楪，兵房置籍考校，以多少定殿最。 五月，詔以涇原路蔡挺衙教陣隊於崇政殿引見，仍頒諸路。 其法：五伍為隊，五隊為陣，陣橫列，騎兵二隊亦五伍列之。 其出皆以鼓為節，束草象人而射焉，中者有賞。 馬步皆前三行槍刀，後二行弓弩，附隊以虎蹲弩、床子弩各一，射與擊刺迭出，皆聞金即退。 預籍人馬之強者隱於隊中，遇可用，則別出為奇。 帝以其點閱周悉，常有出野之備，故令頒行。
In April 1072, an edict ordered drill instructors for all capital armies of the Palace, Cavalry, and Infantry Bureaus to conduct graded examinations in spring and autumn. Archers who hit their targets received graded silver dish rewards. Barracks offices kept score registers, with overall rankings determined by the number of hits. In May, troops trained in battle formations under Cai Ting in Jingyuan circuit were presented at Chongzheng Hall, and the formation method was promulgated to all circuits. The method organized troops in squads of five, five squads in a formation arrayed horizontally, with two cavalry squads similarly arranged in groups of five. All maneuvers followed drum cadence. Bundles of straw shaped like human figures served as targets; hits were rewarded. Both cavalry and infantry placed spearmen and sabermen in the front three ranks and archers in the rear two. Each squad carried one crouching-tiger crossbow and one bed-frame crossbow. Shooting and thrusting alternated in sequence, and all withdrew at the sound of the gong. The strongest men and horses were registered in advance and concealed within squads, to be deployed separately as surprise forces when needed. The emperor judged their drill thorough and always ready for field deployment, and ordered the method promulgated empire-wide.
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六年，詔：“河北四路承平日久，重於改作，苟遂因循，益隳軍製。 其以京東武衛等六十二營隸屬諸路，分番教習，餘軍並分遣主兵官訓練。 ”九月，詔：“自今巡教使臣校殿最，雖以十分為率，其事藝第一等及九分已上，或射親及四分，雖殿，除其罰； 第二等事藝及八分，或射親不及三分，雖最，削其賞。 ”十月，選涇原士兵之善射者，以教河朔騎軍馳驟野戰。 帝曰：“裁並軍營，凡省軍員四千餘人，此十萬軍之資也。 儻訓練精勇，人得其用，不惟勝敵，亦以省財。 ”安石等曰：“陛下頻年選擇使臣，專務訓練，間禦便殿躬親試閱，賞罰既明，士卒皆奮。 觀其技藝之精，一人為數夫之敵，此實國家安危所係也。 ”是時，帝初置內教法，旬一禦便殿閱武，校程其能否而勸沮之，士無不爭勸者。
In 1073, an edict declared: The four Hebei circuits have enjoyed peace so long that they resist innovation. Continued inertia will only further erode military readiness. The sixty-two camps of the Jingdong Martial Guard and similar units are to be assigned to the various circuits for rotating drill, while all remaining armies are to receive dedicated training officers. In September, an edict declared: When touring instructors rank units on a ten-point scale, any unit whose troops achieve first-grade martial skill at nine points or above, or close-range shooting at four points, shall be exempt from punishment even if ranked last overall; but any unit ranked first overall whose martial skill reaches only second grade at eight points, or whose close-range shooting falls below three points, shall have its reward reduced. In October, skilled archers from Jingyuan were selected to train Hebei cavalry in mounted galloping and field combat. The emperor remarked: By consolidating army camps we have reduced personnel by more than four thousand — the equivalent of resources for a hundred thousand troops. If training makes them elite and each man is used to his full capacity, we will not only defeat our enemies but also save state revenue. Wang Anshi and others replied: Your Majesty has for years appointed dedicated training officers and occasionally reviewed troops personally in the informal hall. With rewards and punishments clearly enforced, every soldier strives to excel. When their skills are honed, one soldier can match several ordinary men. This truly bears on the security of the state. At this time the emperor instituted the inner-court drill system, reviewing troops in the informal hall every ten days, assessing their ability and encouraging or restraining them as appropriate. No soldier failed to strive for excellence.
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七年，詔教閱戰法，主將度地之形，隨宜施行。 二月，詔：“自今歲一遣使，按視五路安撫使以下及提舉教閱諸軍、義勇、保甲官，課其優劣以聞而誅賞之。”
In 1074, an edict on instruction-review battle methods directed commanding generals to adapt tactics to the terrain. In February, an edict declared: Beginning this year, an envoy shall be dispatched annually to inspect pacification commissioners and all officials responsible for drill review of armies, militia, and baojia units across the five circuits, assess their performance, and recommend rewards or punishments.
18
八年，詔：“在京諸軍營屯迫隘，馬無所調習。 比創四教場，益寬大，可以馳騁。 其令騎軍就教者，日輪一營，以馬走驟閱習。 ”五月，臧景陳馬射六事：一、順騣直射，二、背射，三、盤馬射，四、射親，五、野戰，六、輪弄，各為說以曉射者。 詔依此教習。 八月，帝令曾孝寬視教營陣。 大閱八軍陣於荊家陂，訖事大賞。
In 1075, an edict noted: Army camps in the capital are too cramped for cavalry drill. Four new drill grounds have been established, spacious enough for full galloping exercises. Cavalry units assigned to drill shall rotate one camp per day for mounted galloping exercises. In May, Zang Jing presented six mounted archery techniques: shooting along the horse's neck, backward shooting, shooting while wheeling, close-range shooting, field combat shooting, and wheeling maneuvers — each explained in detail for the instruction of archers. An edict ordered training conducted according to these methods. In August, the emperor ordered Zeng Xiaokuan to observe formation drill. A grand review of the eight armies' formations was held at Jingjiapo, followed by generous rewards.
19
元豐元年十月，詔立在京校試諸軍技藝格，第為上中下三等。 步射，六發而三中為一等，二中為二等，一中為三等。 馬射，五發驟馬直射三矢、背射二矢，中數、等如步射法。 弩射，自六中至二中，床子弩及炮自三中至一中，為及等。 並賞銀有差。 槍刀並標排手角勝負，計所勝第賞。 其弓弩墜落，或縱矢不及堋，或挽弓破體，或局而不張，或矢不滿，或弩蹠不上牙，或擭不發，或身倒足落，並為不合格。 即射已中賞，餘箭不合格者，降一等，無可降者罷之。
In October 1078, an edict established capital-wide standards for testing troops' martial skills, divided into upper, middle, and lower grades. For foot archery, three hits out of six shots qualified for the first grade, two hits for the second, and one hit for the third. For mounted archery, five shots were required: three while galloping straight and two backward. Hit counts and grade assignments followed the foot archery rules. For crossbow shooting, six hits down to two qualified; for bed-frame crossbows and catapults, three hits down to one qualified. All qualified performers received graded silver rewards. Spearmen, sabermen, and shield-bearers competed in paired contests, with rewards graded according to victories won. Dropping the bow or crossbow, failing to reach the target butt, breaking form while drawing, setting but not drawing the crossbow, failing to seat the arrow fully, failing to stomp the crossbow trigger, failing to release the catch, or falling from one's mount all counted as disqualification. Even if earlier shots had earned a reward, any subsequent unqualified shot lowered the grade by one rank; if no lower grade remained, the soldier was dismissed.
20
是月，賈逵、燕達等言：“近者增損東南排弩隊法，與東南所用兵械不同，請止依東南隊法，以弩手代小排。 若去敵稍遠則施箭，近則左手持弩如小排架隔，右手執刀以備斬伐，與長兵相參為用。 ”詔可，其槍手仍以標兼習。 十一月，京西將劉元言：“馬軍教習不成，請降步軍，又不成，降廂軍。 ”乃下令諸軍，約一季不能學者，如所請降之。 十二月，詔：“開封府界、京東西將兵，十人以一人習馬射，受教於中都所遣教頭。 在京步軍諸營弓箭手，亦十人以一人習馬射，受教於教習馬軍所。 藝成，則展轉分教於其軍。”
That month, Jia Kui, Yan Da, and others reported: Recent modifications to the southeast shield-crossbow squad method differ from weapons actually used in the southeast. We ask that only the original southeast squad method be followed, with crossbowmen replacing the small shield unit. At greater distance they shoot; at close range the left hand holds the crossbow like a small shield for parrying while the right hand grips a saber for cutting, coordinated with long weapons. The edict approved the proposal; spearmen were still required to practice with shield standards as well. In November, Jingxi general Liu Yuanyan proposed: Cavalry who fail to master their drill should be demoted to infantry; if they fail again, to garrison troops. An order was then issued to all armies: any soldier who failed to master his assigned skills within one season would be demoted as proposed. In the twelfth month, an edict ordered that among commanding troops in the Kaifeng prefectural boundary and the East and West Jing circuits, one soldier in ten was to train in mounted archery under drill instructors sent from the capital. Infantry archers in the capital's various camps were likewise required to have one man in ten train in mounted archery at the cavalry training office. Once they had mastered the skill, they were to teach it in rotation throughout their own units.
21
二年四月，遣內侍石得一閱視京西第五將所教馬軍。 五月，得一言其教習無狀，詔本將陳宗等具折。 宗等引罪，帝責曰：“朝廷比以四方驕悍為可虞，選置將臣分總禁旅，俾時訓肄，以待非常。 至於部勒規模，悉經朕慮，前後告戒已極周詳。 使宗等稍異木石，亦宜略知人意。 屍祿日久，既頑且慵，苟遂矜寬，實難勵眾，可並勒停。 ”是月，詔殿前、步軍司兵各置都教頭掌隸教習之事，弩手五營、弓箭手十營、槍刀標排手五營各選一人武藝優者奏補。 逐司各舉散直二人為指使，罷巡教使臣。 是日，詔河東、陝西諸路：“舊制，馬軍自十月一日馳射野戰，至穀雨日止。 塞上地涼，自今教起八月，止五月一日。 ”七月，詔諸路教閱禁軍毋過兩時。 九月，內出教法格並圖象頒行之。 步射執弓、發矢、運手、舉足、移步，及馬射、馬使蕃槍、馬上野戰格鬥，步用標排，皆有法象，凡千餘言，使軍士誦習焉。
In the fourth month of the second year, the palace eunuch Shi Deyi was sent to review the cavalry under instruction by the Fifth Command of Jingxi. In the fifth month, Deyi reported that drill standards had been grossly neglected. An edict required the unit commanders Chen Zong and his colleagues to submit full written accounts. Chen Zong and the others pleaded guilty. The Emperor rebuked them: "The court has lately regarded the pride and violence of the frontier as a grave concern. We chose generals to command the Imperial Guard in separate divisions so they would drill on schedule and stand ready for emergencies. Every rule of command and every standard of drill has been weighed by Us personally. Our repeated admonitions could scarcely have been more explicit. Even men less responsive than wood and stone ought to have grasped something of Our meaning. They have long lived off empty stipends, grown obstinate and slack. To show mercy now would make it impossible to rouse the ranks. All are to be dismissed from their posts. " That month, an edict directed the Palace Guard Bureau and the Infantry Bureau each to appoint chief drill instructors to supervise training. From five crossbow camps, ten archer camps, and five spear, saber, and shield camps, each was to nominate one soldier of outstanding skill for imperial appointment. Each bureau was to name two officers on detached duty as coordinators, and the touring drill commissioners were abolished. That same day, an edict went to the Hedong and Shaanxi circuits: "Under the former rule, cavalry trained in galloping archery and field combat from the first day of the tenth month until Grain Rain. On the northern frontier the climate is colder; henceforth drill is to begin in the eighth month and end on the first day of the fifth month. " In the seventh month, an edict limited instruction-review drills for Imperial Guard units in every circuit to no more than two sessions per day. In the ninth month, the palace issued training regulations together with illustrated drill forms for distribution throughout the army. Foot archery—grip, release, hand movement, footwork, and stepping—and mounted archery, foreign lance work from horseback, mounted field fighting, and infantry shield-and-standard drill all had prescribed forms. The text ran to more than a thousand characters, which soldiers were to memorize and practice.
22
四年五月，詔東南諸路轉運、提點刑獄司，體量將兵自降教閱新法之後，軍士有所倍費以聞。 蓋自團立將兵以來，軍人日新教閱，舊資技藝以給私費者，悉無暇為故也。
In the fifth month of the fourth year, transport and judicial inspection commissioners in the southeast were ordered to investigate whether soldiers under regional commanders had faced doubled personal expenses since the new instruction-review regulations took effect, and to report their findings. The reason was that, once regional army commands were established, soldiers drilled in instruction-review every day. Men who had once used spare hours and side skills to meet private expenses no longer had the time.
23
六年，從郭忠紹之請，步軍弩手第一等者，令兼習神臂弓。
In the sixth year, at Guo Zhongshao's request, first-tier infantry crossbowmen were ordered to train with the Divine Arm bow as well.
24
七年八月，詔開封府界、京東西路專選監司提舉教閱。 神宗留心武備，既命立武學、校《七書》以訓武舉之士，又頒兵法以肄軍旅，微妙淵通，取成於心，群臣莫望焉。
In the eighth month of the seventh year, an edict directed that supervisory officials be specially chosen in the Kaifeng prefectural boundary and the East and West Jing circuits to oversee instruction-review drills. Emperor Shenzong devoted himself to military preparedness. He founded the Martial Academy and had the Seven Military Classics collated to train military examination candidates, then promulgated battle doctrine to drill the armies—subtle, far-reaching, and shaped entirely by his own understanding, beyond anything his ministers could equal.
25
元祐元年四月，右司諫蘇轍上言：“諸道禁軍自置將以來，日夜按習武藝，將兵皆蚤晚兩教，新募之士或終日不得休息。 今平居無事，朝夕虐之以教閱，使無遺力以治生事，衣食殫盡，憔悴無聊，緩急安得其死力？ 請使禁軍，除新募未習之人，其餘日止一教。 是月，朝請郎任公裕言：“軍中誦習新法，愚懵者頗以為苦。 夫射誌於中，而擊刺格鬥期於勝，豈必盡能如法？ ”樞密院亦以為元降教閱新法自合教者指授，不當令兵眾例誦。 詔從之。 九月，樞密院奏：“異時馬軍教禦陣外，更教馬射。 其法：全隊馳馬皆重行為‘之’字，透空發矢，可迭出，最便利。 近歲專用順鬃直射、抹鞦背射法，止可輕騎挑戰，即用眾乃不能重列，非便。 請自今營閱排日，馬軍‘之’字射與立背射，隔日互教。 ”詔可。
In the fourth month of the first year of Yuanyou, Right Remonstrance Bureau censor Su Zhe memorialized: "Since regional commanders were placed over the Imperial Guard in every circuit, troops have drilled in martial skills day and night. Commanders hold instruction morning and evening, and newly recruited men sometimes cannot rest from dawn to dusk. In ordinary times, when we grind them down morning and night with instruction-review, they have no strength left to make a living. Food and clothing run out; they grow gaunt and hopeless. When crisis comes, how can we expect them to fight to the death? I ask that the Imperial Guard, except for newly recruited men still in basic training, be limited to one drill session per day. That month, Court Gentleman Ren Gongyu said: "Having the army memorize the new regulations has become a genuine hardship for slow-witted men. Archery seeks to hit the target; thrusting and hand-to-hand fighting seek victory. Must every man reproduce the forms exactly? " The Bureau of Military Affairs agreed that the instruction-review regulations originally issued should be taught by drill instructors through direct demonstration, not recited in chorus by the rank and file. An edict approved the proposal. In the ninth month, the Bureau of Military Affairs reported: "Formerly, after cavalry finished defensive-formation drill, they also trained in mounted archery. The method called for the entire unit to gallop in double ranks tracing a zigzag 'Zhi' pattern, loosing arrows into open air so that men could cycle out in turn. It was the most practical approach. In recent years training has relied solely on shooting straight along the horse's mane and backward shots by sweeping the saddle bow—useful only for light cavalry skirmishes. In massed action the ranks cannot hold a double line. That is unsatisfactory. We ask that from now on, on scheduled camp-review days, cavalry alternate between zigzag-pattern shooting and stationary backward shooting, teaching one method one day and the other the next. " The edict approved.
26
三年五月，罷提舉教習馬軍所。
In the fifth month of the third year, the office charged with supervising cavalry training was abolished.
27
六年六月，三衙申樞密院，乞近伏七十日依令式放諸軍教。 王嚴叟白韓忠彥曰：“景德故事，皆內侍省檢舉傳宣，今但歲舉為常，則不復見朝廷恩意。 ”忠彥以為然，又開陳太皇太后。 曰：“如此則為常事，待處分內侍省。 ”遂詔：“今後入伏，遣中侍傳宣諸軍住教。”
In the sixth month of the sixth year, the Three Yamen petitioned the Bureau of Military Affairs to suspend drill in all armies for the seventy-day dog-days period, as regulations prescribed. Wang Yansou told Han Zhongyan: "Under the Jingde precedent, the Palace Domestic Service investigated the matter and issued the announcement. If we treat it as an annual routine, the court's gracious concern will no longer be felt. " Han Zhongyan agreed and raised the point with the Grand Empress Dowager. She said: "If it becomes an ordinary annual matter, let the Palace Domestic Service handle the arrangements. " An edict followed: "Henceforth, when the dog days begin, eunuch attendants are to be sent to announce to all armies that drill is suspended.
28
紹聖元年三月，樞密院言：“禁軍春秋大教賞法，每千人增取二百一十人，給賞有差。 ”從之。
In the third month of the first year of Shaosheng, the Bureau of Military Affairs reported: "Under the spring and autumn grand drill reward rules for the Imperial Guard, two hundred and ten additional men are chosen for every thousand; rewards are graded accordingly. " The proposal was approved.
29
二年二月，樞密院言：“馬軍自九月至三月，每十日一次出城氵率渲，教習回答野戰走驟向背施放，遇風雪假故權住。 ”從之。
In the second month of the second year, the Bureau of Military Affairs reported: "From the ninth month through the third month, cavalry are to leave the city once every ten days for field drill, training in field-combat responses, galloping maneuvers, advances and retreats, and shooting. Training may be temporarily suspended for wind, snow, or approved leave. " The proposal was approved.
30
三年五月，詔在京、府界諸路禁軍格鬥法，自今並依元豐條法教習。 七月，詔選弩手兼習神臂弓。 八月，詔：“殿前、馬步軍司見管教頭，別選事藝精強、通曉教像體法者，展轉教習。 其弓箭手馬、步射射親，用點藥包指及第二指知鏃，並如元豐格法。 ”是月，又詔復神臂弓射法為百二十步。
In the fifth month of the third year, an edict ordered that hand-to-hand combat methods for Imperial Guard units in the capital, the prefectural boundary, and all circuits were henceforth to follow Yuanfeng regulations. In the seventh month, an edict directed that crossbowmen be selected to train with the Divine Arm bow as well. In the eighth month, an edict ordered: "From among the Palace Guard Bureau's and the Cavalry and Infantry Bureaus' current drill instructors, select men of exceptional skill who fully understand the illustrated training forms, and have them teach in rotation. For archers in mounted and foot close-range shooting, the index fingertip and second finger are used to feel the arrowhead—all according to Yuanfeng regulations. " That month, another edict restored the Divine Arm bow shooting distance to one hundred twenty paces.
31
元符元年十月，曾布既上巡教使臣罰格，因言：“祖宗以來，禦將士常使恩歸人主，而威令在管軍。 凡申嚴軍政，豈待朝廷立法而後施行耶？ 是管軍失職矣。 ”帝深以為然。
In the tenth month of the first year of Yuanfu, after submitting penalty regulations for touring drill commissioners, Zeng Bu added: "Since the founding of the dynasty, favor shown to officers and soldiers has always been made to reflect on the sovereign, while discipline and command have rested with the unit commanders. Must military discipline wait for the court to pass a law before it can be enforced? To require such legislation is itself a dereliction by the commanders. " The Emperor strongly agreed.
32
政和元年二月，詔：“春秋大教，諸軍弓弩鬥力，並依元豐舊制。”
In the second month of the first year of Zhenghe, an edict ordered: "In the spring and autumn grand drills, bow and crossbow draw-strength competitions for all armies shall follow the former Yuanfeng system.
33
四年五月，臣僚上言：“神臂弓垛遠百二十步，給箭十隻，取五中為合格，軍中少得該賞，恐惰於習射。 送殿前、馬步軍司勘會，將中貼箭數並改為上垛，其一中貼此兩上垛。 ”從之。
In the fifth month of the fourth year, officials memorialized: "With the Divine Arm bow at a stacked target one hundred twenty paces away, ten arrows are issued and five hits are required to qualify. Too few soldiers earn rewards, and practice may grow slack. Refer the matter to the Palace Guard Bureau and the Cavalry and Infantry Bureaus for review: count hits on the target face as upper-mound hits, with one target-face hit equal to two upper-mound hits. " The proposal was approved.
34
五年三月，詔：“自今敢占留將兵，不赴教閱，並以違御筆論。 不按舉者，如其罪。 ”十一月，臣僚言：“春秋大教，諸軍弓弩上取鬥力高強，其射親中多者，激賞太薄，無以為勸。 ”詔依元豐法。
In the third month of the fifth year, an edict declared: "Henceforth anyone who dares hold back commanding troops from instruction-review shall be punished for violating an imperial rescript. Officials who fail to report such offenses shall be punished equally. " In the eleventh month, officials reported: "In the spring and autumn grand drills, bow and crossbow competitions reward the strongest draw and the most close-range hits, yet the incentive payments are too small to motivate the troops. " An edict ordered a return to Yuanfeng regulations.
35
八年，詔州郡禁軍出戍外，常留五分在州教閱，從毛友之請也。
In the eighth year, at Mao You's request, an edict required that when prefectural Imperial Guard units were sent on external garrison duty, half the force was to remain in the prefecture for instruction-review drill.
36
宣和三年四月，立騎射賞法，其背射上垛中貼者，依步射法推賞。
In the fourth month of the third year of Xuanhe, reward rules for mounted archery were established: backward shots that hit the upper mound or the target face were to be rewarded by the same standards used for foot archery.
37
靖康元年二月，詔：“軍兵久失教習，當汰冗濫。 今三衙與諸將招軍，惟務增數希賞，但及等杖，不問勇怯。 招收既不精當，教習又不以時，雜色占破，十居三四。 今宜招兵之際，精加揀擇，既係軍籍，專使教習，不得以雜色拘占。 又神臂弓、馬黃弩乃中國長技，宜多行教習，以扞邊騎。 仍令間用衣甲教閱，庶使習熟。 ”四月，詔復置教場，春秋大閱，及復內教法以激賞之。
In the second month of the first year of Jingkang, an edict declared: "The army has long gone without proper drill and must be purged of slack and redundant men. Today the Three Yamen and regional generals recruit solely to inflate numbers and claim rewards. So long as a man meets the height requirement, no one asks whether he is brave or timid. Recruitment is careless, training irregular, and miscellaneous assignments consume the men—three or four out of every ten. Recruits should be carefully chosen. Once enrolled, they should train exclusively and must not be pulled away for miscellaneous duties. The Divine Arm bow and the locust crossbow are among the empire's finest weapons. They should be taught widely to counter enemy horsemen on the frontier. Drill should also be conducted periodically in armor so that men grow accustomed to fighting in full kit. " In the fourth month, an edict reestablished drill grounds, restored spring and autumn grand reviews, and revived palace training standards backed by reward incentives.
38
陣法熙寧二年十一月，趙禼乞講求諸葛亮八陣法，以授邊將，使之應變。 詔郭逵同禼講求，相度地形，定為陣圖聞奏。
Battle Formations. In the eleventh month of the second year of Xining, Zhao Xu asked to investigate Zhuge Liang's Eight Formations and teach them to frontier generals so they could respond to changing conditions. An edict directed Guo Kui to join Zhao Xu in the investigation, survey the terrain, finalize formation diagrams, and submit a memorial.
39
五年四月，詔蔡挺先進教閱陣圖。 帝嚐謂：“今之邊臣無知奇正之體者，況奇正之變乎！ 且天地五行之數不過五，五陣之變，出於自然，非強為之。 ”宰相韓絳因請諸帥臣各具戰陣之法來上，取其所長，立以為法。 從之。 帝患諸將軍行無行陣之法，嚐曰：“李靖結三人為隊必有意。 星書，羽林皆以三人為隊，靖深曉此，非無據也。 ”乃令賈逵、郭固試之。 十二月，知通遠軍王韶請降合行條約，詔賜御製《攻守圖》、《行軍環珠》、《武經總要》、《神武秘略》、《風角集占》、《四路戰守約束》各一部，餘令關秦鳳路經略司抄錄。
In the fifth month of the fifth year, an edict required Cai Ting to submit instruction-review formation diagrams in advance. The Emperor once remarked: "Our frontier commanders today understand neither the basic principles of orthodox and unorthodox formations, nor—what is harder still—their transformations. Heaven, earth, and the Five Phases never exceed the number five. The variations of the five formations arise from nature; they are not arbitrary inventions. " Chancellor Han Jiang then asked every frontier commander to submit his own battle-formation methods so the court could adopt the best and codify them. The request was approved. The Emperor was troubled that campaigning generals had no marching-formation doctrine and once said: "When Li Jing grouped three men into a squad, he must have had a purpose. In astrological writings, the Feathered Forest constellation is arrayed in threes. Li Jing understood that deeply; his method was not groundless. " He then ordered Jia Kui and Guo Gu to trial the method. In the twelfth month, Wang Shao, administrator of Tongyuan Army, requested copies of regulations in force. An edict granted him one copy each of the imperial Attack and Defense Diagrams, Marching Ring-Pearl, Essentials of the Military Canon, Secret Strategies of Divine Warfare, Collected Wind-Omen Divinations, and Four-Circuit Battle-and-Defense Regulations; other titles were to be copied by the Qinfeng Circuit frontier commission.
40
六年，詔諸路經略司，結隊並依李靖法，三人為一小隊，九人為一中隊，賞罰俟成序日取裁。 其隊伍及器甲之數，依涇原路牙教法。 九月，趙禼言：“欲自今大閱漢蕃陣隊，且以萬二千五百人為法，旌旗麾幟各隨方色。 戰國時，大將之旗以龜為飾，蓋取前列先知之義。 令中軍亦宜以龜為號。 其八隊旗，別繪天、地、風、雲、龍、虎、鳥、蛇。 天、地則象其方園，風、雲則狀其飛揚，龍、虎則狀其猛厲，鳥、蛇則狀其翔盤之勢，以備大閱。 ”樞密院以為陣隊旗號若繪八物，應士眾難辨，且其間亦有無形可繪者。 遂詔止依方色，仍異其形製，令勿雜而已。
In the sixth year, an edict to every circuit frontier commission required squad organization to follow Li Jing's method: three men to a small squad, nine to a medium squad. Rewards and punishments were to be fixed once the system was in order. Squad counts and armor allotments were to follow the Jingyuan Circuit drill-teeth regulations. In the ninth month, Zhao Xu proposed: "In future grand reviews of Han and non-Han formation units, I propose a standard force of twelve thousand five hundred men, with banners and pennants colored according to the cardinal directions. In Warring States times a field commander's banner bore the tortoise emblem, signifying that the vanguard must see ahead of all others. The central army should likewise adopt the tortoise as its emblem. The eight unit banners should be painted with Heaven, Earth, Wind, Cloud, Dragon, Tiger, Bird, and Serpent. Heaven and Earth would show square and round forms; Wind and Cloud their rising motion; Dragon and Tiger their fierce power; Bird and Serpent their wheeling flight—all for the grand review. " The Bureau of Military Affairs objected that if formation banners depicted all eight symbols, troops would struggle to tell them apart, and some symbols have no fixed shape that can be painted. An edict followed: banners were to use directional colors only, with distinct shapes so units would not be confused—and no more.
41
七年，又命呂惠卿、曾孝寬比校三五結隊法。 十月，以新定結隊法並賞罰格及置陣形勢等，遣近侍李憲付趙禼曰：“陣法之詳已令憲麵諭，今所圖止是一小陣，卿其從容析問，憲必一一有說。 然置陣法度，久失其傳，今朕一旦據意所得，率爾為法，恐有未盡，宜無避忌，但具奏來。 ”繼又詔曰：“近令李憲齎新定結隊法並賞罰格付卿，同議可否，因以團立將官，更置陣法，卿必深悉朝廷經畫之意。 如日近可了，宜令李憲齎赴闕。 ”禼奏曰：
In the seventh year, Lü Huiqing and Zeng Xiaokuan were ordered to compare the three-five squad-formation methods. In the tenth month, palace attendant Li Xian delivered the newly fixed squad-formation method, reward-and-penalty regulations, and deployment diagrams to Zhao Xu with this message: "Li Xian has already explained the formation doctrine to you in person. The diagram provided shows only one small formation. Question him at leisure; he can answer every point. Deployment doctrine has long been lost. We have now improvised a system from Our own understanding and set it down hastily as law. We fear it is incomplete. Speak without reserve and report everything in full. " A follow-up edict read: "We recently sent Li Xian to deliver the new squad-formation method and reward-and-penalty regulations for your joint review. This work accompanies the establishment of regional commanders and the reform of battle formations. You must grasp the court's strategic purpose fully. If the review can be finished soon, have Li Xian bring the materials to court. " Zhao Xu replied in memorial:
42
置陣之法，以結隊為先。 李靖以五十人為一隊，每三人自相得者結為一小隊，合三小隊為一中隊，合五中隊為一大隊，餘押官、隊頭、副隊頭、左右傔旗五人即充五十，並相依附。 今聖製：每一大隊合五中隊，五十人為之； 中隊合三小隊，九人為之； 小隊合三人為之，亦擇心意相得者。 又選壯勇善槍者一人為旗頭，令自擇如己藝、心相得者二人為左右傔； 次選勇悍者一人為引戰； 又選軍校一人執刀在後，為擁隊。 凡隊內一人用命，二人應援； 小隊用命，中隊應援； 中隊用命，大隊應援； 大隊用命，小隊應援。 如逗撓觀望不即赴救，致有陷失者，本隊委擁隊軍校，次隊委本轄隊將，審觀不救所由，斬之。 其有不可救，或赴救不及，或身自受敵，體被重創，但非可救者，皆不坐。 其說雖與古同，而用法尤為精密。 此蓋陛下天錫勇智，不學而能也。
In deployment doctrine, squad organization comes first. Li Jing made fifty men one squad. Every three compatible men formed a small squad; three small squads formed a medium squad; five medium squads formed a large squad. The remaining five—the supervisory officer, squad leader, deputy leader, and left and right adjutant-banner men—brought the total to fifty, all bound to one another. Under the imperial regulations now in force, each large squad comprises five medium squads, fifty men in all; each medium squad comprises three small squads of nine men; and each small squad is three men chosen for mutual trust and compatibility. One stalwart skilled with the spear is chosen as flag leader and allowed to pick two men of comparable skill and temperament as his left and right adjutants; next a fierce fighter is chosen as vanguard; and one military officer with drawn blade is posted to the rear as rally guard. Within every squad, when one man goes all out, two must support him; when a small squad is committed, the medium squad must respond; when a medium squad is committed, the large squad must respond; When the large squad is committed, the small squads must respond in turn. Anyone who hangs back or waits instead of rushing to the rescue, thereby causing defeat or loss, shall be investigated by the rally-guard officer of his own squad and the commander of the next squad in the chain; once the reason for failure to rescue is established, the offender is to be beheaded. No penalty applies where rescue was impossible, where help could not arrive in time, or where a man was himself under heavy attack and gravely wounded—provided the situation was truly beyond rescue. The doctrine matches the ancients, but its application is far more exact. This surely reflects courage and wisdom heaven-bestowed upon Your Majesty— mastery without need of study.
43
然議者謂四十五人而一長，不若五人而一長之密。 且以五人而一長，即五十人而十長也，推之於百千萬，則為長者多，而統製不一也。 至如周製：五人為伍，屬之比長； 五伍為兩，屬之閭胥； 四兩為卒，屬之族師； 五卒為旅，屬之黨正； 五旅為師，屬之州長； 五師為軍，屬之命卿。 此猶今之軍製，百人為都，五都為營，五營為軍，十軍為廂。 自廂都指揮使而下，各有節級，有員品，亦昔之比長、閭胥、族師、黨正之任也。
Critics object, however, that one leader for every forty-five men is less tight than one for every five. One leader per five men means ten leaders for fifty; carried to hundreds, thousands, and tens of thousands, leaders multiply and unified command breaks down. Consider the Zhou system: five men formed a squad under a squad chief; five squads formed a pair under a neighborhood clerk; four pairs formed a platoon under a clan instructor; five platoons formed a company under a precinct chief; five companies formed a division under a prefectural chief; five divisions formed an army under an appointed minister. This parallels the present military organization: one hundred men to a company, five companies to a battalion, five battalions to an army, and ten armies to a wing. From the wing commander down, every rank has its grade and authorized strength—the same functions once held by squad chiefs, neighborhood clerks, clan instructors, and precinct chiefs.
44
議者謂什伍之製，於都法為便，然都法恐非臨陣對敵決勝之術也。 況八陣之法，久失其傳，聖製一新，稽之前聞，若合符節。 夫法一定，易以致人。 敵好擊虛，吾以虛形之； 敵好背實，吾以實形之。 然而所擊者非其虛，所背者非其實，故逸能勞之，飽能饑之，此所謂致人而不致於人也。
Critics hold that the decimal-and-five-squad system suits company drill well enough, but company drill is hardly the art of meeting the enemy in battle and winning. The eight-formation doctrine had long been lost; Your Majesty's new system, compared with earlier accounts, fits them like tally to seal. Once a formation is fixed, the enemy can easily manipulate you. If the enemy likes to strike where we seem weak, we show weakness; if he likes to turn away from strength, we show strength. Yet what he strikes is not truly weak, and what he turns from is not truly strong—so the rested enemy can be worn down and the fed enemy can be starved. This is what it means to move the enemy without being moved by him.
45
七年七月，詔諸路安撫使各具可用陣隊法，及訪求知陣隊法者以聞。 九月，崇儀使郭固以同詳定古今陣法賜對，於是內出《攻守圖》二十五部付河北。
In the seventh year, seventh month, an edict directed every circuit pacification commissioner to submit workable squad-and-formation methods and to seek out and report anyone versed in such doctrine. In the ninth month, Honored Ceremonial Commissioner Guo Gu was granted audience for his work jointly codifying ancient and modern formations; the court then issued twenty-five copies of the Attack-and-Defense Diagrams to Hebei.
46
八年二月，帝批：“見校試七軍營陣，以分數不齊，前後抵牾，難為施用。 可令見校試官摭其可取者，草定八軍法以聞。 ”初，詔樞密院曰：“唐李靖兵法，世無全書，雜見《通典》，離析訛舛。 又官號物名與今稱謂不同，武人將佐多不能通其意。 令樞密院檢詳官與王震、曾收、王白、郭逢原等校正，分類解釋，令今可行。 ”又命樞密院副都承旨張誠一、入內押班李憲與震、逢原行視寬廣處，用馬步軍二千八百人教李靖營陣法。 以步軍副都指揮使楊遂為都大提舉，誠一、憲為同提舉，震、逢原參議公事，夏元象、臧景等為將副、部隊將、幹當公事，凡三十九人。
In the eighth year, second month, the emperor wrote in the margin: "The seven-army camp formations under review have uneven troop strengths and conflicting front-and-rear arrangements, making them hard to use. Order the review officers to gather what is workable and draft an eight-army method for submission. " Earlier an edict to the Bureau of Military Affairs had said: "Li Jing's Tang military treatise survives only in fragments scattered through the Comprehensive Institutions, disjointed and corrupt. Official titles and equipment names differ from present usage, and most officers and aides cannot make sense of them. Have the bureau's review officers, together with Wang Zhen, Zeng Shou, Wang Bai, Guo Fengyuan, and others, collate, classify, and explain the text so that it can be put into practice today. " The court also ordered Vice Director of Palace Reception Zhang Chengyi of the Bureau of Military Affairs and Inner-Palace Escort Chief Li Xian, together with Wang Zhen and Guo Fengyuan, to find open ground and drill two thousand eight hundred mounted and foot soldiers in Li Jing's camp-formation method. Foot Army Vice Commander-in-Chief Yang Sui was appointed chief superintendent; Zhang Chengyi and Li Xian were co-superintendents; Wang Zhen and Guo Fengyuan were planning officers; Xia Yuanxiang, Zang Jing, and others served as deputy generals, troop squad commanders, and staff officers—thirty-nine men in all.
47
誠一等初用李靖六花陣法，約受兵二萬人為率，為七軍，內虞候軍各二千八百人，取戰兵千九百人為七十六隊，戰兵內每軍弩手三百，弓手三百，馬軍五百，跳蕩四百，奇兵四百，輜重每軍九百，是為二千八百人。 帝諭近臣曰：
Zhang Chengyi and his colleagues began with Li Jing's six-flower formation, using roughly twenty thousand troops as the standard and organizing seven armies. Each rear-guard army numbered two thousand eight hundred men, of whom one thousand nine hundred combat troops formed seventy-six squads. In each army's combat force there were three hundred crossbowmen, three hundred archers, five hundred cavalry, four hundred assault troops, four hundred surprise troops, and nine hundred baggage handlers—two thousand eight hundred men per army. The emperor told his close ministers:
48
黃帝始置八陣法，敗蚩尤於涿鹿。 諸葛亮造八陣圖於魚復平沙之上，壘石為八行。 晉桓溫見之，曰：“常山蛇勢。 ”此即九軍陣法也。 至隋韓擒虎深明其法，以授其甥李靖。 靖以時遇久亂，將臣通曉者頗多，故造六花陣以變九軍之法，使世人不能曉之。 大抵八陣即九軍，九軍者，方陣也。 六花陣即七軍，七軍者，圓陣也。 蓋陣以圓為體，方陣者內圓而外方，圓陣即內外俱圓矣。 故以方圓物驗之，則方以八包一，圓以六包一，此九軍六花陣之大體也。 六軍者，左右虞候軍各一，為二虞候軍； 左右廂各二，為四廂軍； 與中軍共為七軍。 八陣者，加前後二軍，共為九軍。 開國以來，置殿前、馬步軍三帥，即中軍、前後軍帥之別名； 而馬步軍都虞候是為二虞候軍，天武、捧日、龍神衛四廂是為四廂軍也。 中軍帥總製九軍，即殿前都虞候，專總中軍一軍之事務，是其名實與古九軍及六花陣相符而不少差也。 今論兵者俱以唐李筌《太白陰經》中陣圖為法，失之遠矣。
The Yellow Emperor first devised the eight formations and defeated Chiyou at Zhuolu. Zhuge Liang laid out the eight-formation diagram on the flat sands at Yufu, stacking stones in eight ranks. When Huan Wen of Jin saw it, he said, "This is the coiling-snake formation of Mount Chang. " That is the nine-armies formation doctrine. In Sui times Han Qihu mastered the method and passed it to his nephew Li Jing. Because the realm had been torn by long disorder and many commanders already understood the old method, Li Jing devised the six-flower formation as a variant of the nine-armies doctrine so that others could not easily grasp it. In essence the eight formations are the nine armies, and the nine armies constitute the square formation. The six-flower formation corresponds to seven armies, and the seven armies constitute the round formation. Formations take the circle as their underlying form: a square formation is round within and square without; a round formation is round both inside and out. Test this with square and round objects: a square encloses one center with eight sides, a circle with six petals—such is the broad principle of the nine-armies and six-flower formations. The six armies are the left and right rear-guard armies—two rear-guard armies in all; two wings on the left and two on the right—four wing armies; together with the center army, seven armies in all. The eight formations add front and rear armies for nine armies in total. Since the dynasty's founding, the three commanders of the Palace Guard and the mounted and foot armies have been alternate names for the center, front, and rear army commanders; the mounted and foot armies' rear-guard commanders are the two rear-guard armies, and the four wings of the Celestial Martial, Sun-Upholding, and Dragon Spirit Guards are the four wing armies. The center army commander who commands all nine armies—that is, the Palace Guard rear-guard commander, who oversees the center army—matches the ancient nine-armies and six-flower systems in name and substance without the slightest deviation. Military theorists today all treat the formation diagrams in Li Quan's Tang Secret Classic of the Great White as authoritative— a grievous error.
49
朕嚐覽近日臣僚所獻陣圖，皆妄相眩惑，無一可取。 果如其說，則兩敵相遇，必須遣使豫約戰日，擇寬平之地，夷阜塞壑，誅草伐木，如射圃教場，方可盡其法爾。 以理推之，其不可用決矣。 今可約李靖法為九軍營陣之製。 然李筌圖乃營法，非陣法也。 朕采古之法，酌今之宜，曰營曰陣，本出於一法，特止曰營，行曰陣； 在奇正言之，則營為正、陣為奇也。
We have reviewed the formation diagrams recently submitted by officials; all are empty show, and not one is usable. If their doctrine were true, two armies could fight only after envoys had fixed a date in advance, chosen open ground, leveled hills and filled ravines, and cleared brush and trees like a parade ground—only then could the method be fully deployed. Reason alone shows they are unusable. We shall now adapt Li Jing's method into the nine-army camp-formation system. Li Quan's diagrams describe camp organization, not battle formations. Drawing on ancient methods and adapting them to present needs, camp and formation are one doctrine: halted, it is a camp; in motion, a formation; in the language of regular and irregular deployment, the camp is the regular force and the formation the irregular.
50
於是以八月大閱八軍陣於城南荊家陂。 已事，賜遂而下至指使、馬步軍銀絹有差。 八年，詔諸路權住教五軍陣，止教四禦陣。
That August a grand review of the eight-army formation was held at Jingjiapo south of the capital. When the review ended, Yang Sui and his subordinates down to adjutants and mounted and foot troops received grants of silver and silk in varying amounts. In the eighth year an edict directed all circuits to suspend drill in the five-army formation and teach only the four defensive formations.
51
九年四月，帝於輔臣論營陣法，謂：“為將者少知將兵之理，且八軍、六軍皆大將居中，大將譬則心也，諸軍，四體也。 運其心智，以身使臂，以臂使指，攻左則右救，攻右則左救，前後亦然，則軍何由敗也！”
In the ninth year, fourth month, the emperor discussed camp and formation doctrine with his chief ministers, saying, "Too few generals understand how to command troops. In both the eight-army and six-army systems the commander stands at the center—the commander is the heart, the armies the four limbs. Direct the mind, move the body to command the arms and the arms to command the fingers—strike the left and the right responds, strike the right and the left responds, and the same for front and rear. How then could the army be defeated!
52
元豐四年，以九軍法一軍營陣按閱於城南好草陂，已事，獎諭。
In the fourth year of Yuanfeng the single-army camp formation of the nine-army method was inspected at Haocao Po south of the capital; afterward commendations were issued.
53
七年，詔：“已降五陣法，令諸將教習，其舊教陣法並罷。 ”蓋九軍營陣為方、圓、曲、直、銳，凡五變，是為五陣。
In the seventh year an edict declared: "The five-formation method has been issued; all generals are to drill in it, and previous formation instruction is abolished. " The nine-army camp formation has five variants—square, round, curved, straight, and sharp—constituting the five formations.
54
元祐元年，高翔言，乞以禦陣與新陣法相兼教閱，從之。 蓋元豐七年，詔專用五陣法，而舊教禦陣遂廢； 至是，復令互教。 紹聖三年，復罷教禦陣。
In Yuanyou 1 Gao Xiang memorialized asking that defensive formations be drilled alongside the new formation method; the request was granted. In the seventh year of Yuanfeng an edict had mandated the five-formation method alone, and drill in the old defensive formations was dropped; now both were to be taught again in combination. In Shaosheng 3 drill in defensive formations was abolished once more.
55
大觀二年，詔以五陣法頒行諸路。
In Daguan 2 an edict ordered the five-formation method issued to every circuit.
56
高宗建炎元年，始頒樞密院教閱法，專習製禦摧鋒破敵之藝、全副執帶出入、短樁神臂弓、長柄刀、馬射穿甲、木挺。 每歲擬春秋教閱法，立新格。 神臂弓日給箭二十，射親去垛百二十步。 刀長丈二尺以上，氈皮裹之，引鬥五十二次，不令刀頭至地。 每營選二十人閱習，經兩閱者五十人為一隊，教習分合，隨隊多少，分隸五軍。 每軍各置旗號，前軍緋旗，飛鳥為號； 後軍皂旗，龜為號； 左軍青旗，蛟為號； 右軍白旗，虎為號； 中軍黃旗，神人為號。 又別以五色物號製招旗、分旗。 舉招旗，則五軍以旗相應，合而成陣； 舉分旗，則五軍以旗相應，分而成隊。 左右前卻，或分藏為伏，或分出為奇，皆舉旗為號。 更鳴小金、應鼓，備瞻望不及者。 豫約伏藏之所，緩鳴小金即止，急鳴應鼓即奇兵出陣趍戰，急鳴小金即伏兵出。 其春秋大教推賞，依海行格法。
In Gaozong's first year of Jianyan the Bureau of Military Affairs instruction-review regulations were first issued, focusing on defensive combat, shattering enemy vanguards, full armor drill, short-post Divine Arm bow practice, long-handled saber, mounted archery against armored targets, and wooden staff work. Each year new standards were set for spring and autumn instruction-review drills. With the Divine Arm bow, twenty arrows were issued per day; archers shot at targets one hundred twenty paces from the rampart. Sabers at least twelve chi long, wrapped in felt and leather, were drawn and thrust fifty-two times without letting the tip touch the ground. Each battalion chose twenty men for review; those who passed two reviews were formed into fifty-man squads to drill in splitting and combining, then assigned among the five armies according to squad strength. Each army had its flags and signals: the front army bore scarlet flags with birds as its sign; the rear army black flags with the turtle as its sign; the left army green flags with the flood dragon as its sign; the right army white flags with the tiger as its sign; the center army yellow flags with the divine figure as its sign. Rally flags and split flags were also made in five colors with corresponding emblems. Raise the rally flag and the five armies answer with their flags and combine into formation; raise the split flag and they answer and divide into squads. Movement left, right, forward, or back; splitting to lie in ambush or detaching as a surprise force—all were signaled by flags. Small bells and response drums supplemented the signals for men who could not see in time. Ambush positions were agreed in advance: a slow small bell meant halt; a rapid response drum sent surprise troops from formation into battle; a rapid small bell brought ambush troops out. Promotions and rewards from the spring and autumn grand drills followed the standard regulations.
57
李綱言：“水戰之利，南方所宜。 沿河、淮、海、江帥府、要郡，宜效古製造戰船，以運轉輕捷安穩為良。 又習火攻，以焚敵舟。 ”詔命楊觀復往江、浙措置，河、淮別委官。 三年，親閱水軍於鎮江登雲門外。
Li Gang said, "Naval warfare suits the south. Command centers and key prefectures along the Yellow River, Huai, coast, and Yangtze should build warships on ancient models, valuing maneuverability, speed, and stability. They should also train in fire attack to burn enemy ships. An edict ordered Yang Guanfu to oversee arrangements in Jiangsu and Zhejiang, with separate officials appointed for the Yellow and Huai river regions. In the third year, the emperor personally reviewed the naval forces outside Dengyun Gate in Zhenjiang.
58
紹興四年，詔內殿按閱神武中軍官兵推賞。
In 1134, an edict ordered a review in the inner hall of the Shenwu Central Army's officers and soldiers, with rewards granted according to merit.
59
二十四年，臣僚言：“州郡禁卒，遠方縱馳，多不訓練，春秋教閱，臨時備數，乞申嚴舊制。”
In 1154, officials memorialized: Prefectural Imperial Guard troops in distant postings roam freely and receive little training. Spring and autumn drill reviews are padded with numbers at the last minute. We ask that the old regulations be strictly enforced.
60
三十一年，詔：“比聞諸路州廂、禁軍、土軍，有司擅私役，妨教閱。 帥府其嚴責守兵勤兵歸營，訓練精熟，以備點視。”
In 1161, an edict declared: We have learned that across the circuits, prefectural garrison troops, Imperial Guard units, and local militia are being diverted to private service by officials, interfering with drill and review. Command headquarters must strictly require that garrison and active troops return to camp, train to full proficiency, and stand ready for inspection.
61
孝宗乾道二年，幸候潮門外，次幸白石閱兵，三衙率將佐道駕，射生官兵就禦輦下獻所獲。 是日，有數將獨手運大刀，上曰：“刀重幾何？ ”李舜舉奏：“刀皆重數十斤。 ”有旨：“卿等教閱精明。 ”又諭陳敏曰：“軍馬衣裝整肅如此。 ”特錫賚鞍馬、金帶，士卒推賞有差。
In 1166, Emperor Xiaozong visited the area outside Houchao Gate and then Baishi to review troops. The Three Yamen led their officers in escorting the imperial procession, and hunting archers presented their quarry beneath the imperial carriage. That day, several generals wielded great sabers single-handedly. The emperor asked: How heavy are those sabers? Li Shunju replied: Each saber weighs several tens of jin. The emperor replied: Your drill and review work has been excellent. He also told Chen Min: The troops' horses, clothing, and equipment are impressively disciplined. He specially granted saddled horses and gold belts, and soldiers received graded rewards according to merit.
62
四年，幸茅灘教閱。 舉黃旗，連三鼓，變方陣； 五鼓，舉白旗，變圓陣； 次二鼓，舉赤旗，變銳陣； 青旗，變直陣。 畢事，上大悅，賞賚加倍。 兵分東西，呈大刀、火炮，上問李舜舉：“按閱比曩時如何？ ”舜舉奏：“今日之兵，陛下親訓練，撫以深恩，錫以重賞，忠勇倍常。”
In the fourth year, the emperor visited Maotan for a drill review. Yellow flags were raised; after three drumbeats the troops shifted into square formation; after five drumbeats white flags were raised and the troops shifted into circular formation; then after two more drumbeats red flags were raised and the troops shifted into wedge formation; green flags were raised and the troops shifted into linear formation. When the review was complete, the emperor was greatly pleased and doubled the rewards. Troops divided into eastern and western formations, displaying great sabers and cannon. The emperor asked Li Shunju: How does this review compare with earlier ones? Shunju replied: Today's soldiers, trained personally by Your Majesty, nurtured with deep kindness and rewarded generously, are twice as loyal and brave as before.
63
乾道中，詔弓箭手元射一石四斗力升加三斗，元射一石力升加五斗，弩手元射四石力升加五斗，元射兩石七斗力升加八斗，進秩推賞有差。 宰執進射親賞格，虞允文曰：“拍試以鬥力升請給，今用射親定賞，恐不加意鬥力。 ”上曰：“然。 他日雖強弓弩可以取勝，若止習射親，則鬥力不進。 此賞格不須行。”
During the Qiandao era, an edict ordered promotion standards for archers and crossbowmen who increased their draw weight: archers who had drawn one picul four tenths received a three-tenth increment for promotion; those who had drawn one picul received five tenths; crossbowmen who had drawn four piculs received five tenths; those who had drawn two piculs seven tenths received eight tenths. Rank advancement and rewards varied accordingly. The chief ministers presented reward standards based on close-range shooting. Yu Yunwen objected: Trial examinations use draw-weight increments to determine pay. If rewards are now based on close-range shooting alone, soldiers may neglect building draw strength. The emperor agreed: That is so. Strong bows and crossbows may win battles in the future, but if soldiers practice only close-range shooting, their draw strength will never improve. These reward standards should not be implemented.
64
淳熙間，立槍手及射鐵簾格。 上謂輔臣曰：“聞射鐵簾，諸軍鼓躍奮厲。 ”周必大曰：“兵久不用，此輩無進取，自然氣惰。 今陛下激勸告戒，人人皆勝兵。 ”於是殿前、步軍司諸軍及馬軍舊司弓弩手，射鐵簾合格兵共一千八百四十餘。 詔中垛簾弓箭手一石二斗力十箭，弩手四石力八箭，依格進兩秩，各賜錢百緡； 弓箭手一石力十箭以上，弩手三石力八箭，各進兩秩。 詔中外諸軍賞格亦如之。
During the Chunxi era, standards were established for spearmen and for shooting at iron curtain targets. The emperor told his chief ministers: I hear that when troops shoot at iron curtain targets, every army drums and leaps with fierce enthusiasm. Zhou Bida replied: With troops long unused in battle, these men lack ambition and naturally grow slack in spirit. Now Your Majesty's encouragement and admonition have made every man a match-ready soldier. Across all armies of the Palace and Infantry Bureaus and the Cavalry Bureau's crossbowmen, more than 1,840 soldiers qualified at iron-curtain shooting. An edict ordered that archers who hit the curtain target with a one-picul-two-tenths bow using ten arrows, and crossbowmen who qualified with a four-picul weapon using eight arrows, be promoted two ranks and each granted one hundred strings of cash; archers who qualified with a one-picul bow and ten or more arrows, and crossbowmen with a three-picul weapon and eight arrows, were each promoted two ranks. An edict extended these reward standards to all armies throughout the empire.
65
二年，樞密院言：“殿、步司諸軍弓箭手，帶甲六十步射，一石二斗力，箭十二，六箭中垛為本等。 弩手，帶甲百步射，四石力，箭十二，五箭中垛為本等。 槍手，駐足舉手攛刺，以四十攛為本等。 主帥委統製、統領較其藝。 本等外取升加多者，每軍五千五百人以上弓、弩、槍手各十五人，詣主帥審實，上樞密院覆試。 各擇優等二人升轉兩秩，餘人給錢五緡，俟將來再試。”
In the second year, the Bureau of Military Affairs reported: For Palace and Infantry Bureau archers, the base standard is shooting in armor at sixty paces with a one-picul-two-tenths bow, twelve arrows, with six hits on the target mound. For crossbowmen, the base standard is shooting in armor at one hundred paces with a four-picul weapon, twelve arrows, with five hits on the target mound. For spearmen, the base standard is forty upward thrusts delivered from a firm stance. Commanding generals delegate regimental and battalion commanders to assess their men's skills. Beyond the base grade, the fifteen archers, crossbowmen, and spearmen in each army of 5,500 or more who show the greatest improvement proceed to the commanding general for verification, then to the Bureau of Military Affairs for re-testing. The two top performers in each group are promoted two ranks; the remainder receive five strings of cash and await future re-testing.
66
慶元二年，幸候潮門外大閱。 嘉泰二年，詔將按閱諸軍，賞賚依慶元二年增給。
In 1196, the emperor held a grand review outside Houchao Gate. In 1202, an edict ordered that when reviewing all armies, rewards be increased according to the Qingyuan second-year standard.
67
寶慶二年，莫澤言：“州郡禁軍，平時則以防寇盜，有事則以備戎行，實錄於朝廷，非州郡可得私役。 比年州郡軍政隳廢，吝於廩給，闕額恒多。 郡官、主兵官有窠占，寓公有借事，存留者不什一。 當教閱時，鈐、總、路分雖號主兵，僅守虛籍，莫敢號召。 入教之次，坐作進退殆同兒戲。 守臣利虛券不招填，主兵受厚賂改年甲。 且一兵請給，歲不下百緡，以小計之，一郡占三百人，是虛費三萬緡也。 私役禁軍，素有常憲。 守帥辟園池，建第宅，不給餐錢； 寓公去城遼絕，類得借兵，擾害鄉閭。 近而輔郡至有寓公占四五百兵者。 良由兵官之權輕，而私占之禁弛也。 乞嚴戒監司、守倅等，止許借廂軍，仍不得妨教閱，餘官雖廂軍亦勿借。”
In 1226, Mo Ze memorialized: Prefectural Imperial Guard troops serve in peacetime against bandits and in emergencies for military campaigns. They are registered with the court and must not be diverted to private service by prefectures. In recent years prefectural military administration has collapsed. Rations are withheld stingily and vacancies remain chronically unfilled. Prefectural officials and military officers hold illicit allotments; retired officials borrow troops for personal errands. Fewer than one in ten soldiers actually remain in camp. At drill review time, supervisory and circuit officers nominally in command maintain only empty registers and dare not summon the troops. When troops enter drill, their marching is scarcely better than child's play. Prefects profit by leaving vacancies unfilled; military officers accept heavy bribes to falsify age records. Each soldier's pay and rations cost at least one hundred strings per year. A prefecture holding three hundred ghost soldiers on its rolls wastes thirty thousand strings annually. Private employment of Imperial Guard troops has always been prohibited by statute. Prefects and commanders develop gardens and build mansions without paying meal allowances; retired officials living far from the city routinely borrow troops and harass the countryside. Even near the capital, retired officials in auxiliary prefectures hold four or five hundred soldiers apiece. This stems from the weak authority of military officers and the lax enforcement of prohibitions on private holding of troops. We ask that supervisory officials, prefects, and deputies be strictly warned: only garrison troops may be borrowed, and even then drill must not be obstructed. No other officials may borrow troops, garrison or otherwise.
68
淳祐十一年，台臣條陳軍匠不閑閱習之弊：“按舊制，禁兵毋私役。 比歲凡州軍屯營駐紥之處，多循舊習，每一州軍匠無慮數百，官無小大各占破，而雕鏤、組繡、攻金、設色之事靡所不有。 工藝雖精，擊刺不習，設有小警，何能授甲？ 乞申嚴帥守及統兵官，應軍匠聽歸營伍閑習訓練，勿競作無益，虛糜廩稍，以妨軍實。”
In 1251, censorial officials detailed the abuse of military artisans who never drill in their spare time: Under the old system, Imperial Guard troops must not be privately employed. In recent years, wherever prefectural armies are garrisoned, old habits persist. Each prefecture keeps several hundred military artisans, claimed by officials of every rank for carving, embroidery, metalwork, coloring, and every other craft. Their crafts may be fine, but they never drill in combat. At the first alarm, how can they take up arms? We ask that commanders and military officers be strictly instructed to return all military artisans to their companies for drill in spare time, cease useless craft work, stop wasting rations, and restore military readiness.
69
鹹淳初，臣僚言：“諸軍統領、統製、正將、副將正欲在軍訓練，閑於武事，一有調用，令下即行，士悉將智，將悉士勇，所向無敵。 今江南州郡、沿江製閫置帳前官，專任營運，不為軍計，實為家謀，絕無戰陣新功，率從帳前升差。 大略一軍僅二三千，而使臣至五六百，以供雜役。”
At the beginning of the Xianchun era, officials memorialized: Regimental commanders, battalion commanders, chief officers, and deputies are meant to train within the ranks and master military affairs. When orders come, they march at once; soldiers know their commanders' minds and commanders know their soldiers' courage. Such armies are invincible. Today in Jiangnan prefectures and along the Yangzi, frontier commands appoint personal staff officers devoted solely to logistics — not suited for the army's benefit but for their own households. They win no battlefield honors yet rise through personal staff appointments. An army of only two or three thousand men may have five or six hundred staff officers assigned to miscellaneous duties.
70
九年，臣僚言：“比者招募軍兵，一時徒取充數，以覬賞格。 涅刺之後，更不教閱。 主兵官苦以勞役，日夜罔休，一或少違，即罹囹圄，榜掠之酷，兵不堪命，而死者逃者接踵也。 今請以新招軍分隸諸隊，使之熟紀律，習事藝，或旬或月上各郡閱試。 ”蓋弊至於此，而訓練之製大壞矣。
In the ninth year, officials reported: Recent recruitment fills ranks with anyone available simply to claim reward quotas. After tattooing, they receive no further drill or review. Military officers torment them with corvée labor day and night without rest. The slightest infraction brings imprisonment. Flogging is so brutal that soldiers cannot endure it, and deaths and desertions follow one after another. We ask that newly recruited soldiers be assigned to squads, drilled in discipline and martial skills, and reviewed monthly or every ten days in each prefecture. Abuses had reached this point, and the training system lay in ruins.