1
唐制，取士之科，多因隋舊，然其大要有三。 由學館者曰生徒，由州縣者曰鄉貢，皆升於有司而進退之。 其科之目，有秀才，有明經，有俊士，有進士，有明法，有明字，有明算，有一史，有三史，有開元禮，有道舉，有童子。 而明經之別，有五經，有三經，有二經，有學究一經，有三禮，有三傳，有史科。 此歲舉之常選也。 其天子自詔者曰制舉，所以待非常之才焉。
Tang rules for selecting officials drew heavily on Sui practice, but in essence there were three main paths. Candidates from state schools were called "student disciples"; those recommended by prefectures and counties were called "local tribute." Both were forwarded to the responsible offices, which decided who advanced and who did not. Examination categories included Xiucai (literary talent), Mingjing (classics), Junshi (outstanding scholars), Jinshi (presented scholars), Mingfa (law), Mingzi (writing), Mingsuan (mathematics), one-history and three-history examinations, Kaiyuan Rites, Daoist recommendation, and Tongzi (child prodigy). Mingjing itself was subdivided into five-classics, three-classics, two-classics, single-classic specialized study, Three Rites, Three Commentaries, and history examinations. These were the routine annual examinations. Examinations specially proclaimed by the emperor were called "decree examinations," reserved for recruiting exceptional talent.
2
凡學六，皆隸於國子監：國子學，生三百人，以文武三品以上子孫若從二品以上曾孫及勳官二品、縣公、京官四品帶三品勳封之子為之； 太學，生五百人，以五品以上子孫、職事官五品期親若三品曾孫及勳官三品以上有封之子為之； 四門學，生千三百人，其五百人以勳官三品以上無封、四品有封及文武七品以上子為之，八百人以庶人之俊異者為之； 律學，生五十人，書學，生三十人，算學，生三十人，以八品以下子及庶人之通其學者為之。 京都學生八十人，大都督、中都督府、上州各六十人，下都督府、中州各五十人，下州四十人，京縣五十人，上縣四十人，中縣、中下縣各三十五人，下縣二十人。 國子監生，尚書省補，祭酒統焉。 州縣學生，州縣長官補，長史主焉。
There were six schools, all under the Directorate of Education. The National University enrolled three hundred students: descendants of civil and military officials of the third rank and above; great-grandsons of collateral kin of the second rank and above; and sons of meritorious officials of the second rank, county dukes, and fourth-rank capital officials who held third-rank merit titles and enfeoffments. The Great Academy took five hundred students: descendants of officials of the fifth rank and above; close relatives of fifth-rank active-duty officials or great-grandsons of third-rank officials; and sons of meritorious officials of the third rank and above who held enfeoffments. The Four Gates Academy enrolled thirteen hundred students. Five hundred places went to sons of meritorious third-rank officials without enfeoffment, fourth-rank officials with enfeoffment, and civil or military officials of the seventh rank and above; eight hundred went to exceptionally talented commoners. The Law School had fifty students; the Writing School and Mathematics School each had thirty, drawn from sons of officials below the eighth rank and commoners who had mastered those subjects. Quotas were: eighty students in the capital district; sixty each in great and middle military prefectures and upper prefectures; fifty each in lower military prefectures and middle prefectures; forty in lower prefectures; fifty in capital counties; forty in upper counties; thirty-five each in middle and lower-middle counties; and twenty in lower counties. Students at the Directorate of Education were appointed by the Department of State Affairs and placed under the libationer's authority. Prefectural and county students were appointed by local magistrates and supervised by the chief secretary.
3
凡館二：門下省有弘文館，生三十人； 東宮有崇文館，生二十人。 以皇緦麻以上親，皇太后、皇后大功以上親，宰相及散官一品、功臣身食實封者、京官職事從三品、中書黃門侍郎之子為之。
There were two academies: the Hongwen Academy under the Secretariat, with thirty students; and the Chongwen Academy in the Eastern Palace, with twenty students. Enrollment was limited to imperial relatives within the zimama degree and closer; relatives of the empress dowager and empress within the dagong degree and closer; and sons of chancellors, first-rank honorary officials, meritorious officials receiving substantive enfeoffment income, capital active-duty officials from the third rank down, and Secretariat and Chancellery vice-directors.
4
凡博士、助教，分經授諸生，未終經者無易業。 凡生，限年十四以上，十九以下； 律學十八以上，二十五以下。
Erudites and teaching assistants taught the classics in separate sections; students who had not completed a classic could not switch subjects. Students were generally required to be between fourteen and nineteen years of age; for the Law School, between eighteen and twenty-five.
5
凡《禮記》、《春秋左氏傳》為大經，《詩》、《周禮》、《儀禮》為中經，《易》、《尚書》、《春秋公羊傳》、《谷梁傳》為小經。 通二經者，大經、小經各一，若中經二。 通三經者，大經、中經、小經各一。 通五經者，大經皆通，餘經各一，《孝經》、《論語》皆兼通之。 凡治《孝經》、《論語》共限一歲，《尚書》、《公羊傳》、《谷梁傳》各一歲半，《易》、《詩》、《周禮》、《儀禮》各二歲，《禮記》、《左氏傳》各三歲。 學書，日紙一幅，間習時務策，讀《國語》、《說文》、《字林》、《三蒼》、《爾雅》。 凡書學，石經三體限三歲，《說文》二歲，《字林》一歲。 凡算學，《孫子》、《五曹》共限一歲，《九章》、《海島》共三歲，《張丘建》、《夏侯陽》各一歲，《周髀》、《五經算》共一歲，《綴術》四歲，《緝古》三歲，《記遺》、《三等數》皆兼習之。
The Record of Rites and the Zuo Commentary to the Spring and Autumn were classified as major classics; the Odes, Rites of Zhou, and Ceremonial Rites as middle classics; and the Changes, Documents, Gongyang Commentary, and Guliang Commentary as minor classics. Mastery of two classics required one major and one minor classic, or two middle classics. Mastery of three classics required one major, one middle, and one minor classic. Mastery of five classics required all major classics, one each of the remaining classics, and proficiency in both the Classic of Filial Piety and the Analects. Time limits for study were: one year for the Classic of Filial Piety and Analects together; one and a half years each for the Documents, Gongyang Commentary, and Guliang Commentary; two years each for the Changes, Odes, Rites of Zhou, and Ceremonial Rites; and three years each for the Record of Rites and Zuo Commentary. Writing students copied one sheet of paper daily, practiced current-affairs policy questions in between, and read the Discourses of the States, Shuowen, Zilin, Sancang, and Erya. In the Writing School, the three stone-classic scripts required three years of study, the Shuowen two years, and the Zilin one year. Mathematics students studied the Sunzi and Wucao together for one year; the Jiuzhang and Haidao for three years together; the Zhang Qiujian and Xiahou Yang for one year each; the Zhoubi and Wujing suan for one year together; the Zhui shu for four years; the Jigu for three years; and the Jiyi and Sandeng shu alongside all of these.
6
旬給假一日。 前假，博士考試，讀者千言試一帖，帖三言，講者二千言問大義一條，總三條通二為第，不及者有罰。 歲終，通一年之業，口問大義十條，通八為上，六為中，五為下。 並三下與在學九歲、律生六歲不堪貢者罷歸。 諸學生通二經、俊士通三經已及第而願留者，四門學生補太學，太學生補國子學。 每歲五月有田假，九月有授衣假，二百里外給程。 其不帥教及歲中違程滿三十日，事故百日，緣親病二百日，皆罷歸。 既罷，條其狀下之屬所，五品以上子孫送兵部，准廕配色。
Students received one day of leave every ten days. Before each leave period, erudites tested students: readers faced one slip test per thousand characters (three characters per slip); lecturers answered one question on major principles per two thousand characters. Passing two of three questions counted as a pass; failure brought punishment. At year's end, after completing the annual curriculum, students answered ten oral questions on major principles: eight correct answers ranked as upper, six as middle, and five as lower. Students who ranked in the lower grade, as well as those who after nine years in school—or six years in the Law School—were still unfit for presentation, were dismissed and sent home. Students who had mastered two classics, or Junshi who had mastered three classics and already passed but wished to continue studying, advanced from the Four Gates Academy to the Great Academy, and from the Great Academy to the National University. Each year students received field-work leave in the fifth month and clothing leave in the ninth month; those living more than two hundred li away were granted travel time. Students who defied instruction, exceeded thirty days of unauthorized absence in a year, took one hundred days for personal affairs, or two hundred days to care for ill relatives were all dismissed and sent home. Upon dismissal, their records were forwarded to the appropriate office; descendants of fifth-rank officials and above were referred to the Ministry of War for hereditary appointment and uniform assignment.
7
每歲仲冬，州、縣、館、監舉其成者送之尚書省； 而舉選不繇館、學者，謂之鄉貢，皆懷牒自列於州、縣。 試已，長吏以鄉飲酒禮，會屬僚，設賓主，陳俎豆，備管弦，牲用少牢，歌《鹿鳴》之詩，因與耆艾敘長少焉。 既至省，皆疏名列到，結款通保及所居，始由戶部集閱，而關於考功員外郎試之。
Each year in mid-winter, prefectures, counties, academies, and the directorate sent their qualified students to the Department of State Affairs; candidates who did not come through academies or schools were called "local tribute" and registered themselves at their prefecture or county with their credentials in hand. After the local examination, the magistrate held a district drinking ceremony with his staff, arranging host and guest, setting out offerings, providing music, sacrificing with the lesser pen ritual, singing the "Deer Cry" ode, and with village elders discussing the order of seniority. Upon reaching the capital, candidates listed their names and registered arrival, submitted mutual guarantees and addresses, underwent review by the Ministry of Revenue, and were then examined by the vice-director of the Ministry of Personnel.
8
凡秀才，試方略策五道，以文理通粗為上上、上中、上下、中上，凡四等為及第。 凡明經，先帖文，然後口試，經問大義十條，答時務策三道，亦為四等。 凡《開元禮》，通大義百條、策三道者，超資與官； 義通七十、策通二者，及第。 散、試官能通者，依正員。 凡三傳科，《左氏傳》問大義五十條，《公羊》、《谷梁傳》三十條，策皆三道，義通七以上、策通二以上為第，白身視五經，有出身及前資官視學究一經。 凡史科，每史問大義百條、策三道，義通七、策通二以上為第。 能通一史者，白身視五經、三傳，有出身及前資官視學究一經； 三史皆通者，獎擢之。 凡童子科，十歲以下能通一經及《孝經》、《論語》，卷誦文十，通者予官； 通七，予出身。 凡進士，試時務策五道、帖一大經，經、策全通為甲第； 策通四、帖過四以上為乙第。 凡明法，試律七條、令三條，全通為甲第，通八為乙第。 凡書學，先口試，通，乃墨試《說文》、《字林》二十條，通十八為第。 凡算學，錄大義本條為問答，明數造術，詳明術理，然後為通。 試《九章》三條、《海島》《孫子》《五曹》《張丘建》《夏侯陽》《周髀》《五經算》各一條，十通六，《記遺》、《三等數》帖讀十得九，為第。 試《綴術》、《輯古》，錄大義為問答者，明數造術，詳明術理，無注者合數造術，不失義理，然後為通。 《綴術》七條、《輯古》三條，十通六，《記遺》、《三等數》帖讀十得九，為第。 落經者，雖通六，不第。
Xiucai candidates answered five policy-and-strategy questions. Those whose writing showed general coherence received one of four passing grades: upper-upper, upper-middle, upper-lower, or middle-upper. Mingjing candidates first faced text-quotation tests, then oral examination: ten questions on major principles of the classics and three current-affairs policy questions, graded in four ranks. For the Kaiyuan Rites examination, candidates who passed one hundred questions on major principles and three policy questions received extraordinary promotion and appointment; those who passed seventy principle questions and two policy questions were considered to have passed. Honorary and probationary officials who passed were treated the same as regular appointees. The Three Commentaries examination required fifty questions on the Zuo Commentary and thirty each on the Gongyang and Guliang, plus three policy questions. Passing seven principle questions and two policy questions counted as a pass. Commoners were ranked like five-classics graduates; those already holding office or former rank were ranked like single-classic specialists. History examinations posed one hundred questions on major principles and three policy questions per history; passing seven principle questions and two policy questions counted as a pass. Those who mastered one history were ranked like five-classics or three-commentaries graduates if commoners, or like single-classic specialists if they already held office or former rank; those who mastered all three histories received special promotion. For the child-prodigy examination, candidates under ten who had mastered one classic plus the Classic of Filial Piety and Analects recited ten passages from a scroll; those who passed all ten received immediate appointment; passing seven received qualification for future office. Jinshi candidates answered five current-affairs policy questions and faced text-quotation from one major classic. Passing both completely earned first grade; passing four policy questions and four or more quotation slips earned second grade. Law candidates were tested on seven statutes and three administrative regulations. Passing all earned first grade; passing eight earned second grade. Writing candidates first took an oral examination; if they passed, they faced a written test on twenty items from the Shuowen and Zilin. Passing eighteen counted as a pass. Mathematics candidates answered questions drawn from major principles in the texts; they had to demonstrate numerical clarity, construct methods correctly, and explain the reasoning in detail before they could pass. The examination included three questions on the Jiuzhang and one each on seven other mathematical texts; passing six of ten counted as a pass. For the Jiyi and Sandeng shu, candidates read ten quotation slips and needed nine correct. For the Zhui shu and Jigu examinations, candidates answered questions on major principles, demonstrating numerical clarity and sound method. Where texts lacked annotations, they had to derive methods from the numbers without violating the underlying principles. The Zhui shu examination had seven questions and the Jigu three; passing six of ten counted as a pass. For the Jiyi and Sandeng shu, reading ten quotation slips with nine correct also counted as passing. Candidates who failed the classic portion did not pass, even if they answered six questions correctly overall.
9
凡弘文、崇文生，試一大經、一小經，或二中經，或《史記》、《前後漢書》、《三國志》各一，或時務策五道。 經史皆試策十道。 經通六，史及時務策通三，皆帖《孝經》、《論語》共十條通六，為第。
Hongwen and Chongwen students were examined on one major and one minor classic, or two middle classics, or one each from the Records of the Grand Historian, Book of Han, Book of Later Han, and Records of the Three Kingdoms, or five current-affairs policy questions. Whether candidates took classics or histories, they also answered ten policy questions. Candidates passed by answering six classic questions correctly, three history or policy questions correctly, and six of ten quotation slips from the Classic of Filial Piety and Analects.
10
凡貢舉非其人者、廢舉者、校試不以實者，皆有罰。
Officials who recommended unqualified candidates, failed to recommend qualified ones, or conducted examinations dishonestly were all subject to punishment.
11
其教人取士著於令者，大略如此。 而士之進取之方，與上之好惡、所以育材養士、招來獎進之意，有司選士之法，因時增損不同。
The statutory provisions on education and recruitment were, in broad outline, as described above. Yet the paths by which scholars advanced, the ruler's changing preferences, the aims of nurturing talent and rewarding achievement, and the methods offices used to select candidates all shifted over time with additions and cuts.
12
自高祖初入長安，開大丞相府，下令置生員，自京師至於州縣皆有數。 既即位，又詔秘書外省別立小學，以教宗室子孫及功臣子弟。 其後又詔諸州明經、秀才、俊士、進士明于理體為鄉里稱者，縣考試，州長重覆，歲隨方物入貢； 吏民子弟學藝者，皆送於京學，為設考課之法。 州、縣、鄉皆置學焉。 及太宗即位，益崇儒術。 乃于門下別置弘文館，又增置書、律學，進士加讀經、史一部。 十三年，東宮置崇文館。 自天下初定，增築學舍至千二百區，雖七營飛騎，亦置生，遣博士為授經。 四夷若高麗、百濟、新羅、高昌、吐蕃，相繼遣子弟入學，遂至八千餘人。
When Gaozu first entered Chang'an and opened the Grand Chancellor's Office, he ordered student quotas established at every level from the capital down to prefectures and counties. After his enthronement, he also ordered a separate elementary school outside the Secretariat to educate imperial clan descendants and sons of meritorious officials. He later ordered that throughout the empire, candidates in Mingjing, Xiucai, Junshi, and Jinshi who showed mastery of principle and were acclaimed locally should be examined by their county, re-examined by the prefect, and sent annually to court with local tribute; sons of officials and commoners studying the arts were all sent to capital schools, and examination regulations were established for them. Schools were established at the prefectural, county, and district levels. When Taizong came to the throne, he gave even greater prominence to Confucian learning. He established the Hongwen Academy under the Secretariat, added Writing and Law schools, and required Jinshi candidates to study an additional classic or historical work. In his thirteenth year, the Eastern Palace established the Chongwen Academy. After the empire was pacified, school buildings increased to twelve hundred wards. Even the seven camps of flying cavalry enrolled students and were assigned erudites to teach the classics. Foreign states including Koguryo, Paekche, Silla, Gaochang, and Tibet successively sent princes and sons to study, until enrollment exceeded eight thousand.
13
高宗永徽二年，始停秀才科。 龍朔二年，東都置國子監，明年以書學隸蘭台，算學隸秘閣，律學隸詳刑。 上元二年，加試貢士《老子》策，明經二條，進士三條。 國子監置大成二十人，取已及第而聰明者為之。 試書日誦千言，並日試策，所業十通七，然後補其祿俸，同直官。 通四經業成，上于尚書，吏部試之，登第者加一階放選。 其不第則習業如初，三歲而又試，三試而不中第，從常調。
In Gaozong's second Yonghui year (651), the Xiucai examination was abolished. In 662, the Directorate of Education was established in the eastern capital. The following year the Writing School was placed under the Orchid Terrace, the Mathematics School under the Secret Archive, and the Law School under Detailed Punishments. In 675, candidates were also tested on the Laozi: two policy questions for Mingjing candidates and three for Jinshi. The Directorate of Education appointed twenty Great Achievers, selected from examination graduates who showed exceptional ability. They recited a thousand characters daily in writing tests and took daily policy examinations. After passing seven of ten subjects, they received salaries equal to regular-duty officials. After mastering four classics, they were reported to the Department of State Affairs and examined by the Ministry of Personnel. Those who passed received one additional rank in the appointment roster. Those who failed resumed their studies. After three years they were examined again; if they failed three times, they entered the regular appointment rotation.
14
永隆二年，考功員外郎劉思立建言，明經多抄義條，進士唯誦舊策，皆亡實才，而有司以人數充第。 乃詔自今明經試帖粗十得六以上，進士試雜文二篇，通文律者然後試策。
In 681, Vice-Director Liu Sili memorialized that Mingjing candidates mostly copied textbook entries, while Jinshi merely recited old examination answers—neither showed real ability, yet officials passed candidates merely to fill quotas. An edict followed: henceforth Mingjing candidates had to pass text-quotation tests with six of ten slips correct; Jinshi candidates had to pass two literary essays before taking policy examinations.
15
武后之亂，改易舊制頗多。 中宗反正，詔宗室三等以下、五等以上未出身，願宿衛及任國子生，聽之。 其家居業成而堪貢者，宗正寺試，送監舉如常法。 三衛番下日，願入學者，聽附國子學、太學及律館習業。 蕃王及可汗子孫願入學者，附國子學讀書。
During Empress Wu's reign, many longstanding institutions were altered. After Zhongzong's restoration, he decreed that imperial clansmen of the third rank and below and fifth rank and above who had not yet received office might serve in the palace guard or enroll as National University students if they wished. Clansmen who completed their studies at home and were fit for presentation were examined by the Imperial Clan Court and forwarded to the directorate by the usual procedure. When guards of the Three Guards rotated off duty, those who wished to study were permitted to enroll in the National University, Great Academy, or Law School. Sons and grandsons of foreign kings and khans who wished to study were enrolled in the National University.
16
玄宗開元五年，始令鄉貢明經、進士見訖，國子監謁先師，學官開講問義，有司為具食，清資五品以上官及朝集使皆往閱禮焉。 七年，又令弘文、崇文、國子生季一朝參。 及注《老子道德經》成，詔天下家藏其書，貢舉人滅《尚書》、《論語》策，而加試《老子》。 又敕州縣學生年二十五以下、八品子若庶人二十一以下通一經及未通經而聰悟有文辭、史學者，入四門學為俊士。 即諸州貢舉省試不第，願入學者亦聽。
In 717, Xuanzong ordered that after their audience, local-tribute Mingjing and Jinshi candidates visit the Confucian temple at the Directorate of Education, where instructors lectured and discussed the classics. The government provided a feast, and fifth-rank officials and assembly envoys attended to observe the rites. In 719, he also required Hongwen, Chongwen, and National University students to attend court once each season. When Xuanzong finished his commentary on the Laozi, he ordered every household to keep a copy. Examination candidates faced fewer policy questions on the Documents and Analects, and the Laozi was added to the test. He further decreed that prefectural and county students under twenty-five, sons of eighth-rank officials or commoners under twenty-one who had mastered one classic—or who showed literary or historical talent even without completing a classic—could enter the Four Gates Academy as Junshi. Candidates from the provinces who failed the capital examination but wished to continue studying were also permitted to enroll.
17
二十四年，考功員外郎李昂為舉人詆訶，帝以員外郎望輕，遂移貢舉於禮部，以侍郎主之。 禮部選士自此始。
In 736, Vice-Director Li Ang was publicly insulted by candidates. The emperor considered the vice-director's rank too low and transferred the examinations to the Ministry of Rites, to be chaired by a vice-minister. From this point the Ministry of Rites took charge of selecting scholars.
18
二十九年，始置崇玄學，習《老子》、《莊子》、《文子》、《列子》，亦曰道舉。 其生，京、都各百人，諸州無常員。 官秩、廕第同國子，舉送、課試如明經。
In 741, the Chongxuan School was established to study the Laozi, Zhuangzi, Wenzi, and Liezi. It was also known as the Daoist recommendation examination. Enrollment was one hundred each in Chang'an and Luoyang; prefectures had no fixed quotas. Official ranks, hereditary privileges, presentation procedures, and examinations followed the same rules as the National University and Mingjing candidates.
19
天寶九載，置廣文館于國學，以領生徒為進士者。 舉人舊重兩監，後世祿者以京兆、同、華為榮，而不入學。 十二載，乃敕天下罷鄉貢，舉人不由國子及郡、縣學者，勿舉送。 是歲，道舉停《老子》，加《周易》。 十四載，復鄉貢。
In 750, the Guangwen Academy was established within the National University to supervise students preparing for the Jinshi examination. Candidates had once prized enrollment in the two directorates of education; by later times, those seeking office took pride in qualifying through Jingzhao, Tongzhou, or Huazhou and no longer entered the schools at all. In 753, an edict abolished local tribute examinations empire-wide; candidates who had not passed through the National University or prefectural and county schools were not to be forwarded for examination. That same year the Daoist recommendation examination dropped the Laozi and added the Book of Changes. In 755, local tribute examinations were restored.
20
代宗廣德二年，詔曰：「古者設太學，教胄子，雖年穀不登，兵革或動，而俎豆之事不廢。 頃年戎車屢駕，諸生輟講，宜追學生在館習業，度支給廚米。」 是歲，賈至為侍郎，建言歲方艱歉，舉人赴省者，兩都試之。 兩都試人自此始。
In 764, Emperor Daizong issued an edict: "In antiquity the Imperial Academy was founded to instruct the sons of officials. Though harvests failed or armies took the field, sacrificial rites were never abandoned. In recent years war has repeatedly broken out and students have ceased their studies. Students in residence should be recalled to continue their coursework, and the Department of Public Works should supply grain for their kitchens." That year Jia Zhi served as vice-minister of rites and proposed that, given the year's hardship and scarcity, candidates traveling to the capital should be examined in both capitals instead. Dual-capital examinations began from this time.
21
貞元二年，詔習《開元禮》者舉同一經例，明經習律以代《爾雅》。 是時弘文、崇文生未補者，務取員闕以補，速於登第，而用廕乖實，至有假市門資、變易昭穆及假人試藝者。 六年，詔宜據式考試，假代者論如法。 初，禮部侍郎親故移試考功，謂之別頭。 十六年，中書舍人高郢奏罷，議者是之。
In 786, an edict required candidates in the Kaiyuan Rites examination to follow the same rules as single-classic Mingjing candidates, and Mingjing candidates to study law codes in place of the Erya. At that time Hongwen and Chongwen students awaiting appointment scrambled to fill vacant posts and pass examinations as quickly as possible. Hereditary privilege was widely abused: some forged market-gate credentials, altered their ancestral lineages, or hired substitutes to take the skill examinations for them. In 790, an edict required examinations to follow the prescribed regulations, and proxy candidates were to be punished according to law. Originally, relatives and associates of the vice-minister of rites were transferred to the Directorate of Personnel for examination—a separate track known as bietou, "separate head." In 800, Secretariat drafter Gao Ying memorialized to abolish the practice, and policy critics agreed.
22
元和二年，置東都監生一百員。 然自天寶後，學校益廢，生徒流散。 永泰中，雖置西監生，而館無定員。 於是始定生員：西京國子館生八十人，太學七十人，四門三百人，廣文六十人，律館二十人，書、算館各十人； 東都國子館十人，太學十五人，四門五十人，廣文十人，律館十人，書館三人，算館二人而已。 明經停口義，復試墨義十條。 五經取通五，明經通六。 其嘗坐法及為州縣小吏，雖藝文可采，勿舉。 十三年，權知禮部侍郎庾承宣奏復考功別頭試。
In 807, one hundred student places were established at the Eastern Capital directorate. Yet after the Tianbao era schools fell increasingly into disuse and students scattered. During the Yongtai era, although Western Capital directorate students were established, the academies had no fixed enrollment. Student quotas were then fixed for the first time. At Chang'an: eighty National University hostel students, seventy Imperial University students, three hundred Four Gates students, sixty Guangwen students, twenty law-school students, and ten each in the writing and mathematics schools; at Luoyang: ten National University hostel students, fifteen Imperial University students, fifty Four Gates students, ten Guangwen students, ten law-school students, three writing-school students, and two mathematics-school students—and no more. The Mingjing examination discontinued oral exposition and restored ten written ink-meaning questions. Five Classics candidates had to pass five questions; Mingjing candidates had to pass six. Those who had been convicted under law or had served as petty prefectural and county clerks were not to be recommended, however talented their literary work. In 818, acting vice-minister of rites Yu Chengxuan memorialized to restore the separate-head examination at the Directorate of Personnel.
23
初，開元中，禮部考試畢，送中書門下詳覆，其後中廢。 是歲，侍郎錢徽所舉送，覆試多不中選，由是貶官，而舉人雜文復送中書門下。 長慶三年，侍郎王起言：「故事，禮部已放榜，而中書門下始詳覆。 今請先詳覆，而後放榜。」 議者以起雖避嫌，然失貢職矣。 諫議大夫殷侑言：「《三史》為書，勸善懲惡，亞於《六經》。 比來史學都廢，至有身處班列，而朝廷舊章莫能知者。」 於是立史科及三傳科。 大和三年，高鍇為考功員外郎，取士有不當，監察御史姚中立又奏停考功別頭試。 六年，侍郎賈餗又奏復之。 八年，宰相王涯以為「禮部取士，乃先以榜示中書，非至公之道。 自今一委有司，以所試雜文、鄉貫、三代名諱送中書門下」。
Under Kaiyuan, after the Ministry of Rites completed its examinations, results were sent to the Secretariat for detailed review; later this practice was suspended. That year most candidates presented by Vice-Minister Qian Hui failed the re-examination; he was demoted as a result, and candidates' literary compositions were once again forwarded to the Secretariat. In 823, Vice-Minister Wang Qi said: "By precedent the Ministry of Rites posted examination results before the Secretariat conducted its detailed review. I request that the Secretariat review candidates first and only then post the results." Critics replied that although Wang Qi was avoiding suspicion, he had neglected his proper duties as presenting officer. Remonstrance officer Yin You said: "The Three Histories encourage virtue and condemn vice; they rank just below the Six Classics. Yet historical studies have been neglected until officials standing in court ranks no longer know the dynasty's own institutional precedents." Thereupon the history examination and the Three Commentaries examination were established. In 829, Gao Xi served as vice-director of the Directorate of Personnel and selected candidates improperly; investigating censor Yao Zhongli again memorialized to abolish the separate-head examination at the Directorate. In 832, Vice-Minister Jia Su memorialized to restore it. In 834, Chief Minister Wang Ya argued that "when the Ministry of Rites selects scholars, showing the results list to the Secretariat first is not the path of perfect fairness. Henceforth the responsible offices alone should forward candidates' examination compositions, native-place records, and three generations of names and taboo names to the Secretariat."
24
大抵眾科之目，進士尤為貴，其得人亦最為盛焉。 方其取以辭章，類若浮文而少實； 及其臨事設施，奮其事業，隱然為國名臣者，不可勝數，遂使時君篤意，以謂莫此之尚。 及其後世，俗益媮薄，上下交疑，因以謂按其聲病，可以為有司之責，舍是則汗漫而無所守，遂不復能易。 嗚呼，乃知三代鄉里德行之舉，非至治之隆莫能行也。 太宗時，冀州進士張昌齡、王公謹有名于當時，考功員外郎王師旦不署以第。 太宗問其故，對曰：「二人者，皆文采浮華，擢之將誘後生而弊風俗。」 其後，二人者卒不能有立。
Among all examination categories, the Jinshi degree was especially prized and produced the greatest number of outstanding men. When judged by literary composition alone, the degree seemed to reward flashy writing with little substance; yet when they took office and applied themselves, countless Jinshi graduates quietly became the state's most celebrated ministers—so that successive emperors devoted themselves to the degree, believing nothing surpassed it. In later generations customs grew lax and suspicious, and officials concluded that enforcing tonal and parallelism rules was responsibility enough; without them, standards dissolved entirely—so the system could no longer be reformed. Alas—thus one sees that the Three Dynasties' selection of men by village virtue and conduct could flourish only under the most perfect governance. Under Taizong, Jinshi candidates Zhang Changling and Wang Gongjin of Jizhou were celebrated in their day, but Vice-Director Wang Shidan refused to pass them. Taizong asked why. He replied: "Both men write in a flashy, ornate style. Promoting them would mislead later students and corrupt public morals." In the end, neither man ever achieved lasting distinction.
25
寶應二年，禮部侍郎楊綰上疏言：「進士科起于隋大業中，是時猶試策。 高宗朝，劉思立加進士雜文，明經填帖，故為進士者皆誦當代之文，而不通經史，明經者但記帖括。 又投牒自舉，非古先哲王側席待賢之道。 請依古察孝廉，其鄉閭孝友、信義、廉恥而通經者，縣薦之州，州試其所通之學，送於省。 自縣至省，皆勿自投牒，其到狀、保辨、識牒皆停。 而所習經，取大義，聽通諸家之學。 每問經十條，對策三道，皆通，為上第，吏部官之； 經義通八，策通二，為中第，與出身； 下第，罷歸。 《論語》、《孝經》、《孟子》兼為一經，其明經、進士及道舉並停。」
In 763, Vice-Minister Yang Wan submitted a memorial: "The Jinshi examination originated in the Sui Daye era, when candidates were still tested on policy questions. Under Gaozong, Liu Sili added literary compositions to the Jinshi examination and fill-in passages to Mingjing; Jinshi candidates thereafter memorized contemporary essays without mastering the classics or histories, while Mingjing candidates merely memorized passage extracts. Candidates also submit their own credentials—unlike the ancient sage-kings who cleared their seats to await worthy men. I propose reviving the ancient investigation of Filial and Incorrupt men: those known in their villages for filial piety, friendship, faithfulness, righteousness, integrity, and shame at wrongdoing who have mastered the classics should be recommended by the county to the prefecture, tested on their learning by the prefecture, and sent to the capital. From county to capital, candidates should not submit credentials on their own; arrival documents, guarantor verification, and identification papers should all be abolished. Examinations should test broad mastery of the classics' meaning and permit knowledge drawn from all scholarly traditions. Ten questions on the classics and three policy responses—passing all earned top grade and appointment by the Ministry of Personnel; passing eight classic questions and two policy questions earned middle grade and initial qualification; failure meant dismissal and return home. The Analects, Classic of Filial Piety, and Mencius together would count as one classic; the Mingjing, Jinshi, and Daoist recommendation examinations should all be abolished."
26
詔給事中李棲筠、李廙、尚書左丞賈至、京兆尹兼御史大夫嚴武議。 棲筠等議曰：
The emperor ordered palace attendants Li Qiyun and Li Yi, left assistant minister Jia Zhi, and Jingzhao intendant and concurrent censor-in-chief Yan Wu to deliberate. Li Qiyun and the others replied:
27
「夏之政忠，商之政敬，周之政文，然則文與忠敬皆統人行。 且諡號述行，莫美于文，文興則忠敬存焉。 故前代以文取士，本文行也，由辭觀行，則及辭焉。 宣父稱顏子「不遷怒，不貳過」，謂之「好學」。 今試學者以帖字為精通，不窮旨義，豈能知遷怒、貳過之道乎？ 考文者以聲病為是非，豈能知移風易俗化天下乎？ 是以上失其源，下襲其流，先王之道莫能行也。 夫先王之道消，則小人之道長，亂臣賊子由是生焉！ 今取士試之小道，而不以遠大，是猶以蝸蚓之餌垂海，而望吞舟之魚，不亦難乎？ 所以食垂餌者皆小魚，就科目者皆小藝。 且夏有天下四百載，禹之道喪而商始興； 商有天下六百祀，湯之法棄而周始興； 周有天下八百年，文、武之政廢而秦始並焉。 三代之選士任賢，皆考實行，是以風俗淳一，運祚長遠。 漢興，監其然，尊儒術，尚名節，雖近戚竊位，強臣擅權，弱主外立，母后專政，而亦能終彼四百，豈非學行之效邪？ 魏、晉以來，專尚浮侈，德義不修，故子孫速顛，享國不永也。 今綰所請，實為正論。 然自晉室之亂，南北分裂，人多僑處，必欲復古鄉舉裏選，竊恐未盡。 請兼廣學校，以明訓誘。 雖京師州縣皆有小學，兵革之後，生徒流離，儒臣、師氏，祿廩無向。 請增博士員，厚其稟稍，選通儒碩生，間居其職。 十道大郡，置太學館，遣博士出外，兼領郡官，以教生徒。 保桑梓者，鄉里舉焉； 在流寓者，庠序推焉。 朝而行之，夕見其利。」
"Xia government was marked by sincerity, Shang by reverence, Zhou by culture—yet culture, sincerity, and reverence alike govern human conduct. Posthumous titles describe a person's conduct, and none is finer than "Cultured"; when culture flourishes, sincerity and reverence endure. Earlier dynasties selected officials by literary accomplishment because writing reveals character; to judge conduct through writing is to reach the writing itself. Confucius praised Yan Hui for "never transferring anger, never repeating a fault," and called this true love of learning. Today we test students on fill-in passages as if that were mastery, without probing deeper meaning—how can they grasp the way of not transferring anger or repeating faults? Examiners judge compositions by tonal patterns—how can they know how to transform customs and civilize the realm? Thus those above have lost the source and those below merely follow the current—the way of the ancient kings can no longer be practiced. When the way of the ancient kings fades, the way of petty men flourishes—and rebellious ministers and wicked sons arise from it! To select officials by petty tests rather than great purpose is like dangling worm bait over the sea and hoping to catch a leviathan—is it not futile? Only small fish take dangling bait; only petty skills win examination degrees. Xia ruled for four hundred years before Yu's way was lost and Shang rose; Shang ruled for six hundred years before Tang's laws were abandoned and Zhou rose; Zhou ruled for eight hundred years before the government of King Wen and King Wu was abandoned and Qin united the realm. The Three Dynasties selected officials by examining actual conduct; customs remained pure and their rule endured. When Han arose, it observed this pattern, honored Confucian learning, and prized integrity. Though kinsmen seized office, powerful ministers monopolized authority, weak rulers were installed from outside, and empress dowagers dominated government, Han still endured four hundred years—is this not the fruit of learning and conduct? From Wei and Jin onward, rulers prized superficial luxury and neglected virtue and righteousness; their dynasties fell swiftly and did not endure. Yang Wan's proposal is fundamentally sound. Yet since the Jin collapse and the north-south division, many people have lived far from their native places; a full restoration of ancient village recommendation and district selection may not yet be practicable. I propose instead expanding the schools to spread instruction and moral guidance. Although the capital and prefectures all maintained elementary schools, after the wars students scattered and Confucian teachers had no reliable salaries. Increase the number of erudites, raise their stipends, and appoint broadly learned eminent scholars to these posts. In the major prefectures of the ten circuits, establish Imperial University hostels, dispatch erudites to serve concurrently as prefectural officials, and charge them with instructing students. Those who remain in their native districts should be recommended by village and township; those living abroad should be nominated by local schools. Adopt this in the morning and see its benefit by evening."
28
而大臣以為舉人循習，難於速變，請自來歲始。 帝以問翰林學士，對曰：「舉進士久矣，廢之恐失其業。」 乃詔明經、進士與孝廉兼行。
The chief ministers argued that candidates were accustomed to the existing system and rapid change would be difficult; they asked that reform begin the following year. The emperor consulted Hanlin academicians, who replied: "Candidates have pursued the Jinshi degree for generations; abolishing it overnight would destroy their livelihoods." An edict was issued ordering Mingjing, Jinshi, and Filial and Incorrupt examinations to continue side by side.
29
先是，進士試詩、賦及時務策五道，明經策三道。 建中二年，中書舍人趙贊權知貢舉，乃以箴、論、表、贊代詩、賦，而皆試策三道。 大和八年，禮部復罷進士議論，而試詩、賦。 文宗從內出題以試進士，謂侍臣曰：「吾患文格浮薄，昨自出題，所試差勝。」 乃詔禮部歲取登第者三十人，苟無其人，不必充其數。 是時，文宗好學嗜古，鄭覃以經術位宰相，深嫉進士浮薄，屢請罷之。 文宗曰：「敦厚浮薄，色色有之，進士科取人二百年矣，不可遽廢。」 因得不罷。
Previously, Jinshi candidates were tested on poetry, rhapsody, and five current-affairs policy questions; Mingjing candidates on three policy questions. In 781, acting examination supervisor Zhao Zan replaced poetry and rhapsody with admonitions, discourses, memorials, and eulogies, and required all candidates to answer three policy questions. In 834, the Ministry of Rites again abolished Jinshi discursive essays and restored poetry and rhapsody examinations. Emperor Wenzong set the examination topics himself and told his ministers: "I worry that literary standards have grown shallow; the compositions from yesterday's examination, for which I set the topics myself, were somewhat better." He ordered the Ministry of Rites to pass thirty candidates each year—but not to fill the quota if no worthy candidates were found. Wenzong loved learning and antiquity; Zheng Tan, a classicist who had risen to chief minister, deeply resented the Jinshi degree's superficiality and repeatedly petitioned to abolish it. Wenzong replied: "Solid worth and superficiality exist in every walk of life. The Jinshi examination has selected officials for two hundred years—it cannot be abolished overnight." The degree was therefore preserved.
30
武宗即位，宰相李德裕尤惡進士。 初，舉人既及第，綴行通名，詣主司第謝。 其制，序立西階下，北上東向； 主人席東階下。 西向； 諸生拜，主司答拜； 乃敘齒，謝恩，遂升階，與公卿觀者皆坐； 酒數行，乃赴期集。 又有曲江會、題名席。 至是，德裕奏：「國家設科取士，而附黨背公，自為門生。 自今一見有司而止，其期集、參謁、曲江題名皆罷。」 德裕嘗論公卿子弟艱于科舉，武宗曰：「向聞楊虞卿兄弟朋比貴勢，妨平進之路。 昨黜楊知至、鄭樸等，抑其太甚耳。 有司不識朕意，不放子弟，即過矣，但取實藝可也。」 德裕曰：「鄭肅、封敖子弟皆有才，不敢應舉。 臣無名第，不當非進士。 然臣祖天寶末以仕進無他岐，勉強隨計，一舉登第。 自後家不置《文選》，蓋惡其不根藝實。 然朝廷顯官，須公卿子弟為之。 何者？ 少習其業，目熟朝廷事，台閣之儀，不教而自成。 寒士縱有出人之才，固不能閑習也。 則子弟未易可輕。」 德裕之論，偏異蓋如此。 然進士科當唐之晚節，尤為浮薄，世所共患也。
When Wuzong ascended the throne, Chief Minister Li Deyu especially despised Jinshi degree-holders. After passing the examination, candidates would line up in procession, announce their names, and visit the chief examiner's residence to give thanks. By regulation they formed ranks below the western steps, proceeding northward and facing east; the examiner was seated below the eastern steps. facing west; the candidates bowed and the examiner returned the bow; then, in order of seniority, they expressed their gratitude, ascended the steps, and sat with the observing officials; after several rounds of wine they proceeded to the scheduled banquet. There were also the Qujiang gathering and the inscription banquet. At this point Li Deyu memorialized: "The state established examinations to select officials, yet candidates form factions, betray the public interest, and style themselves the examiner's personal disciples. Henceforth candidates would pay their respects to the examining officials once and no more; the scheduled gatherings, courtesy visits, and Qujiang inscription banquets were all abolished. Li Deyu once argued that sons of high ministers struggled in the civil examinations. Wuzong replied: "I have heard that the Yang Yuqing brothers formed factions with the powerful and blocked the path of fair advancement. When I demoted Yang Zhizhi, Zheng Pu, and the others yesterday, I was only reining in excesses that had gone too far. The examining officials failed to grasp my meaning. Refusing to admit officials' sons would itself be excessive; they need only select candidates with genuine ability. Li Deyu said: "The sons of Zheng Su and Feng Ao are all talented, yet they dare not sit for the examinations. I hold no examination degree myself and should not disparage the Jinshi examination. Yet my grandfather, at the end of the Tianbao era, had no other path to office and reluctantly sat for the examinations, passing on his first attempt. Afterward our family kept no copy of the Wenxuan, for we despised its lack of grounding in genuine learning. Yet prominent offices at court ought to be filled by sons of high ministers. Why? From youth they practice statecraft, grow familiar with court affairs, and learn the etiquette of the secretariat and chancellery without formal instruction. Poor scholars, however gifted, cannot acquire such familiarity in their spare time. Thus the sons of officials are not to be lightly dismissed. Li Deyu's argument was partial and eccentric in roughly this fashion. Yet in the late Tang the Jinshi examination had grown especially frivolous and shallow—a malady universally lamented.
31
所謂制舉者，其來遠矣。 自漢以來，天子常稱制詔道其所欲問而親策之。 唐興，世崇儒學，雖其時君賢愚好惡不同，而樂善求賢之意未始少怠，故自京師外至州縣，有司常選之士，以時而舉。 而天子又自詔四方德行、才能、文學之士，或高蹈幽隱與其不能自達者，下至軍謀將略、翹關拔山、絕藝奇伎莫不兼取。 其為名目，隨其人主臨時所欲，而列為定科者，如賢良方正、直言極諫、博通墳典達於教化、軍謀宏遠堪任將率、詳明政術可以理人之類，其名最著。 而天子巡狩、行幸、封禪太山梁父，往往會見行在，其所以待之之禮甚優，而宏材偉論非常之人亦時出於其間，不為無得也。
The decree examination, as it was called, had ancient roots. Since Han times, emperors often issued edicts in their own name stating the topics they wished to examine and personally tested candidates on them. When the Tang arose, the empire honored Confucian learning. Although individual rulers differed in wisdom and taste, the desire to seek worthy men never slackened. From the capital to prefectures and counties, officials regularly selected scholars and presented them at the proper seasons. The emperor also personally summoned from all directions men of virtue, talent, and literary accomplishment—including recluses who could not advance on their own—and extended his search to military strategists, strongmen, and masters of exceptional skills: none were excluded. Designations varied with each ruler's wishes. Those established as regular categories included Worthy and Good, Straightforward Remonstrance, Broad Mastery of the Classics, Grand Military Strategy, and Clear Mastery of Government—these were the most prominent names. When the emperor toured the realm, traveled, or performed the feng and shan sacrifices on Mount Tai and Liangfu, candidates often met him at his traveling court and were treated with exceptional courtesy. Great talents and extraordinary men sometimes emerged from these occasions, and the system was not without benefit.
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其外，又有武舉，蓋其起于武后之時。 長安二年，始置武舉。 其制，有長垛、馬射、步射、平射、筒射，又有馬槍、翹關、負重、身材之選。 翹關，長丈七尺，徑三寸半，凡十舉後，手持關距，出處無過一尺； 負重者，負米五斛，行二十步：皆為中第，亦以鄉飲酒禮送兵部。 其選用之法不足道，故不復書。
Beyond these, there was also the military examination, which originated in the time of Empress Wu. In 702, the military examination was first established. The regulations included long-range target shooting, mounted archery, foot archery, level shooting, and tube shooting, as well as lance work from horseback, gate-lifting, weight-bearing, and physique assessment. For gate-lifting, the bar was one zhang seven chi long and three and a half cun in diameter. After ten lifts, the bar's rise and fall at the grip could not exceed one chi; for weight-bearing, carrying five hu of rice for twenty paces. All counted as a passing grade and were forwarded to the Ministry of War with the district drinking ceremony. The methods of selection and appointment are not worth recounting here, and so they are not recorded further.