Volume 74: Appendix on the Four Barbarians 3 - Xi, Tuyuhun, Dada, Tangut, Tujie, Tubo, Huihu, Yutian, Goryeo, Bohai, Silla, Heishui Tungusic tribes, Nanzhao Man, Zhangke, Kunming, Champa

奚吐渾達靼党項突厥吐蕃回鶻于闐高麗渤海新羅黑水靺鞨南詔蠻牂牁昆明占城

Xi, Tuyuhun, Dada, Tangut, Turks, Tibetans, Uyghurs, Khotan, Goryeo, Bohai, Silla, Heishui Mohe, Nanzhao, Zhangke, Kunming, and Champa.

奚，本匈奴之別種。當唐之末，居陰涼川，在營府之西，幽州之西南，皆數百里。有人馬二萬騎。分爲五部：一曰阿薈部，二曰啜米部，三曰粵質部，四曰奴皆部，五曰黑訖支部。後徙居琵琶川，在幽州東北數百里。地多黑羊，馬嵒前蹄堅善走，其登山逐獸，下上如飛。

The Xi were originally a distinct offshoot of the Xiongnu. At the close of the Tang dynasty they lived along the Yinliang River, several hundred li west of Ying Prefecture and southwest of Youzhou. They could field twenty thousand mounted warriors. They were organized in five divisions: the Ahui, Chuomi, Yuezhi, Nujie, and Heiqizhi tribes. They later relocated to the Pipa River region, several hundred li northeast of Youzhou. Black sheep were plentiful there, and their horses had tough forehooves and great speed; in the mountains they chased game up and down slopes as if in flight.

契丹阿保機強盛，室韋、奚、霫皆服屬之。奚人常爲契丹守界上，而苦其苛虐，奚王去諸怨叛，以別部西徙媯州，依北山射獵，常采北山麝香、仁參賂劉守光以自托。其族至數千帳，始分爲東、西奚。去諸之族，頗知耕種，歲借邊民荒地種穄，秋熟則來獲，窖之山下，人莫知其處。爨以平底瓦鼎，煮穄爲粥，以寒水解之而飲。

When the Khitan leader Abaoji rose to power, the Shiwei, Xi, and Xi tribes all submitted to his rule. The Xi were often made to guard the frontier for the Khitan and groaned under their harsh rule. King Quzhu of the Xi rebelled in anger, led a splinter group west to Gui Prefecture, and lived by hunting in the northern hills, regularly sending musk and ginseng from those hills to Liu Shouguang as gifts to win his protection. Their people grew to several thousand tents and first split into Eastern and Western Xi. Quzhu's followers learned something of agriculture: each year they borrowed fallow land from border settlers to sow millet, returned in autumn to reap it, and cached the grain in mountain pits whose locations outsiders could not find. They boiled millet into gruel in flat-bottomed earthen pots and drank it diluted with cold water.

去諸卒，子掃剌立。莊宗破劉守光，賜掃剌姓李，更其名紹威。紹威卒，子拽剌立。同光以後，紹威父子數遣使朝貢。初，紹威娶契丹女舍利逐不魯之姊爲妻，後逐不魯叛亡入西奚，紹威納之。晉高祖入立，割幽州雁門以北入於契丹，是時紹威與逐不魯皆已死，耶律德光已立晉北歸，拽剌迎謁馬前，德光曰：「非爾罪也。負我者，掃剌與逐不魯爾。」乃發其墓，粉其骨而揚之。後德光滅晉，拽剌常以兵從。其後不復見於中國。

When Quzhu died, his son Saoci took his place. After Zhuangzong crushed Liu Shouguang, he granted Saoci the surname Li and renamed him Shaowei. When Shaowei died, his son Zhuaili succeeded him. From the Tongguang reign onward, Shaowei and his son sent envoys to court again and again with tribute. Shaowei had first married the sister of the Khitan woman Shelizhu Bulu; when Bulu later rebelled and fled to Western Xi, Shaowei took her as his wife as well. When Gaozu of Later Jin came to power, everything north of Youzhou and Yanmen was ceded to the Khitan. By then Shaowei and Bulu were both dead. Yelü Deguang, having set up Jin, was marching north again; Zhuaili met him at his horse. Deguang said, "This is not your fault. Those who wronged me are Saoci and Bulu. He then had their graves opened, their bones ground to dust, and the dust cast to the winds. Later, when Deguang overthrew Jin, Zhuaili regularly marched with his forces in attendance. After that they disappear from the Chinese record.

自去諸徙媯州，自別爲西奚，而東奚在琵琶川者，亦爲契丹所並，不復能自見云。

Once Quzhu moved to Gui Prefecture and the Western Xi stood apart, the Eastern Xi on the Pipa River were likewise swallowed up by the Khitan and could no longer hold their own, or so it is said.

吐渾，本號吐谷渾，或曰乞伏乾歸之苗裔。自後魏以來，名見中國，居於青海之上。當唐至德中，爲吐蕃所攻，部族分散，其內附者，唐處之河西。其大姓有慕容、拓拔、赫連等族。懿宗時，首領赫連鐸爲陰山府都督，與討龐勳，以功拜大同軍節度使。爲晉王所破，其部族益微，散處蔚州界中。莊宗時，有首領白承福者，依中山北石門爲柵，莊宗爲置寧朔、奉化兩府，以承福爲都督，賜其姓名爲李紹魯。終唐時，常遣使朝貢中國。

The Tuyuhun were originally known as the Tuyühun; some hold that they were descendants of Qifu Gangui. From the Northern Wei period onward they appear in Chinese sources, living around Qinghai. In Tang's Zhide reign they were attacked by Tibet, their tribes scattered, and those who submitted were resettled by the Tang west of the Yellow River. Among their leading clans were the Murong, Tuoba, Helian, and others. Under Emperor Yizong the chieftain Helian Duo served as commissioner of Yinshan Prefecture, helped put down Pang Xun, and was rewarded with the Datong military governorship. Defeated by the Prince of Jin, their people grew weaker still and scattered through the Wei Prefecture frontier. Under Zhuangzong a chieftain named Bai Chengfu fortified himself at Shimen north of Zhongshan. Zhuangzong set up the Ningshuo and Fenghua prefectures, appointed Chengfu commissioner, and gave him the Chinese name Li Shaolu. Throughout the Tang period they regularly sent envoys to court with tribute.

晉高祖立，割雁門以北入於契丹，於是吐渾爲契丹役屬，而苦其苛暴。是時，安重榮鎮成德，有異志，陰遣人招吐渾入塞，承福等乃自五台入處中國。契丹耶律德光大怒，遣使者責誚高祖，高祖恐懼，遣供奉官張澄率兵搜索並、鎮、忻、代等州山谷中吐渾驅出之。然晉亦苦契丹，思得吐渾爲緩急之用，陰遣劉知遠鎮太原慰撫之。終高祖時，承福數遣使者朝貢。後出帝與契丹絕盟，召承福入朝，拜大同軍節度使，待之甚厚。契丹與晉相距於河，承福以其兵從出帝禦虜。是歲大熱，吐渾多疾死，乃遣承福歸太原，居之嵐、石之間。劉知遠稍侵辱之，承福謀復亡出塞，知遠以兵圍其族，殺承福及其大姓赫連海龍、白可久、白鐵匱等，其羊馬貲財巨萬計，皆籍沒之，其餘衆以其別部王義宗主之。吐渾遂微，不復見。

When Gaozu of Later Jin came to power and ceded everything north of Yanmen to the Khitan, the Tuyuhun fell under Khitan domination and chafed at their brutal rule. An Chongrong, then military governor of Chengde, nursed rebellious ambitions and secretly invited the Tuyuhun across the border; Chengfu and his people entered Chinese territory by way of Wutai. Yelü Deguang flew into a rage and sent envoys to reproach Gaozu, who in fear dispatched the palace attendant Zhang Cheng with troops to scour the valleys of Bing, Zhen, Xin, Dai, and neighboring prefectures and drive the Tuyuhun back out. Jin, too, was weary of the Khitan and hoped to keep the Tuyuhun as a reserve in crisis, so they quietly posted Liu Zhiyuan at Taiyuan to win them over. For the rest of Gaozu's reign Chengfu sent tribute missions again and again. Later, when Emperor Chudi renounced the Khitan alliance, he summoned Chengfu to court, made him military governor of Datong, and treated him with exceptional favor. When Khitan and Jin faced off along the Yellow River, Chengfu marched with his men to aid Chudi against the invaders. That summer was fiercely hot and disease killed many Tuyuhun, so Chudi sent Chengfu back to Taiyuan to settle his people between Lan and Shi prefectures. Liu Zhiyuan gradually bullied them until Chengfu planned to flee beyond the frontier again. Zhiyuan surrounded the tribe with troops, killed Chengfu and leading clansmen including Helian Hailong, Bai Kejiu, and Bai Tiegui, confiscated tens of thousands of head of livestock and vast stores of goods, and left the survivors under Wang Yizong of a collateral line. The Tuyuhun thereafter faded from view.

初，唐以承福之族爲熟吐渾。長興中，又有生吐渾杜每兒來朝貢。每兒，不知其國地、部族。至漢乾祐二年，又有吐渾何戛剌來朝貢，不知爲生、熟吐渾，蓋皆微，不足考錄。

Tang had first classified Chengfu's people as the "settled" Tuyuhun. During Changxing a "wild" Tuyuhun named Du Mei'er also came to court with tribute. Nothing is known of Mei'er's homeland or tribal affiliation. In the second year of Qianyou of Later Han another Tuyuhun, He Gela, came with tribute; whether he represented the wild or settled branch is unclear. By then they were all too insignificant to warrant detailed notice.

達靼，靺鞨之遺種，本在奚、契丹之東北，後爲契丹所攻，而部族分散，或屬契丹，或屬渤海，別部散居陰山者，自號達靼。當唐末，以名見中國。有每相溫、于越相溫，咸通中，從硃邪赤心討龐勳。其後李國昌、克用父子爲赫連鐸等所敗，嘗亡入達靼。後從克用入關破黃巢，由是居雲、代之間。其俗善騎射，畜多駝、馬。其君長、部族名字，不可究見，惟其嘗通於中國者可見云。

The Dada were descendants of the Mohe who originally lived northeast of the Xi and Khitan. After Khitan attacks scattered them, some bands submitted to the Khitan and others to Bohai, while a separate group in the Yinshan region took the name Dada. By the late Tang their name appears in Chinese records. Leaders named Meixiangwen and Yuyuexiangwen marched with Zhuye Chixin against Pang Xun in the Xiantong period. Later, when Li Guochang and his son Li Keyong were beaten by Helian Duo and others, they took refuge among the Dada. They later followed Keyong east through the passes to crush Huang Chao and thereafter settled between Yun and Dai prefectures. They excelled at mounted archery and kept chiefly camels and horses. The names of their chiefs and tribal divisions cannot all be recovered; only those who had contact with China are recorded.

同光中，都督折文逋數自河西來貢駝、馬。明宗討王都於定州，都誘契丹入寇，明宗詔達靼入契丹界，以張軍勢，遣宿州刺史薛敬忠以所獲契丹團牌二百五十及弓箭數百賜雲州生界達靼，蓋唐常役屬之。長興三年，首領頡哥率其族四百餘人來附。訖于顯德，常來不絕。

During Tongguang the commissioner Zhe Wenpu repeatedly arrived from the Hexi region with camels and horses as tribute. When Mingzong attacked Wang Du at Dingzhou, Du drew the Khitan into the war. Mingzong ordered the Dada to raid Khitan territory to magnify his army's presence and sent Suzhou prefect Xue Jingzhong to reward the frontier Dada of Yunzhou with 250 captured Khitan round shields and hundreds of bows and arrows—Tang had long used them as auxiliaries. In the third year of Changxing the chieftain Xiege brought more than four hundred of his people to submit. Through the Xiande reign their visits never stopped.

党項，西羌之遺種。其國在《禹貢》析支之地，東至松州，西接葉護，南界春桑，北鄰吐渾，有地三千餘里。無城邑而有室屋，以毛罽覆之。其人喜盜竊而多壽，往往百五六十歲。其大姓有細封氏、費聽氏、折氏、野利氏，拓拔氏爲最強。唐德宗時，党項諸部相率內附，居慶州者號東山部落，居夏州者號平夏部落。部有大姓而無君長，不相統一，散處邠寧、鄜延、靈武、河西，東至麟、府之間。自同光以後，大姓之強者各自來朝貢。

The Tangut were descendants of the Western Qiang. Their homeland lay in the Zhizhi region described in the Yugong: east to Song Prefecture, west to Yehu, south to Chunsang, north to Tuyuhun—more than three thousand li across. They built no walled towns but lived in felt-covered dwellings. They were prone to raiding yet remarkably long-lived, often reaching one hundred fifty or sixty years. Their leading clans were the Xifeng, Feiting, Zhe, and Yeli, with the Tuoba the most powerful. Under Emperor Dezong the Tangut tribes submitted in succession: those in Qing Prefecture were called the Eastern Mountain tribes, those in Xia Prefecture the Pingxia tribes. Each tribe had its great clans but no single ruler; they were not united, and ranged from Binning, Fuyan, Lingwu, and the Hexi corridor east to Lin and Fu prefectures. After Tongguang the strongest clans each sent their own tribute missions to court.

明宗時，詔沿邊置場市馬，諸夷皆入市中國，而回鶻、党項馬最多。明宗招懷遠人，馬來無駑壯皆售，而所售常過直，往來館給，道路倍費。其每至京師，明宗爲御殿見之，勞以酒食，既醉，連袂歌呼，道其土風以爲樂，去又厚以賜賚，歲耗百萬計。唐大臣皆患之，數以爲言。乃詔吏就邊場售馬給直，止其來朝，而党項利其所得，來不可止。其在靈、慶之間者，數犯邊爲盜。自河西回鶻朝貢中國，道其部落，輒邀劫之，執其使者，賣之他族，以易牛馬。明宗遣靈武康福、邠州藥彥稠等出兵討之。福等擊破阿埋韋悉褒勒強賴埋廝骨尾及其大首領連香李八薩王、都統悉那埋摩、侍御乞埋嵬悉逋等族，殺數千人，獲其牛羊巨萬計，及其所劫外國寶玉等，悉以賜軍士。由是党項之患稍息。

Mingzong ordered horse markets set up along the frontier; tribesmen of every kind traded in China, but Uyghur and Tangut horses predominated. Mingzong courted distant peoples generously: every horse offered was purchased, sound or sorry, usually above market price, with lodging and rations on the road doubling the cost. Whenever they reached the capital Mingzong received them in the main hall with wine and food. Once drunk they would link arms, sing, and boast of their homelands for his amusement, then depart laden with gifts—costing more than a million a year. Tang ministers protested again and again at the expense. An edict ordered officials to buy horses only at the border markets at fair prices and to end court visits, but the Tangut found the trade too profitable and kept coming anyway. Those between Lingwu and Qingzhou raided the frontier repeatedly. Whenever Hexi Uyghur tribute missions passed through their lands they ambushed them, seized the envoys, sold them to other tribes, and traded the proceeds for cattle and horses. Mingzong dispatched Kang Fu of Lingwu, Yao Yanchou of Bin Prefecture, and others to campaign against them. Fu's forces crushed the tribes of Amai, Weixi, Baole, Qianglaimai, Siguwei, and chiefs including Lianxiang, Li Basawang, Commander Xinamaimo, and Attendant Qimai Weixibu, killing thousands. Tens of thousands of sheep and cattle were seized, along with foreign gems they had plundered, and all were distributed to the troops. After that the Tangut raids eased somewhat.

至周太祖時，府州党項尼也六泥香王子、拓拔山等皆來朝貢。廣順三年，慶州刺史郭彥欽貪其羊馬，侵擾諸部，獨野雞族強不可近，乃誣其族犯邊。太祖遣使招慰之。野雞族苦彥欽，不肯聽命，太祖遣邠州折從阮、甯州刺史張建武等討之。建武勇於立功，不能通夷情，馳軍擊野雞族，殺數百人。而喜玉、折思、殺牛三族聞建武擊破野雞族，各以牛酒犒軍，軍士利其物，反劫掠之。三族共誘建武軍至包山，度險，三族共擊之，軍投崖谷，死傷甚衆。太祖怒，罪建武等，選良吏爲慶州刺史以招撫之。

Under Zhou Taizu the Fuzhou Tangut leaders Niyeliuni Xiangwangzi, Tuobashan, and others came to court with tribute. In the third year of Guangshun Qingzhou prefect Guo Yanqin, greedy for their livestock, bullied the tribes. Only the Yaji clan was too strong to intimidate, so he falsely accused them of raiding the border. Taizu sent envoys to reassure them. The Yaji, harried by Yanqin, refused to comply, so Taizu sent Zhe Congruan of Bin Prefecture, Ningzhou prefect Zhang Jianwu, and others against them. Jianwu was bold in pursuit of glory but knew nothing of tribal ways; he charged the Yaji and killed several hundred. When the Xiyu, Zhesi, and Shaniu clans heard that Jianwu had beaten the Yaji, they brought cattle and wine to feast the troops—but the soldiers coveted their goods and looted them instead. The three clans lured Jianwu's army to Baoshan and, once he was on treacherous ground, attacked together. Many soldiers were driven over cliffs and ravines, and casualties were severe. Taizu was furious, punished Jianwu and his officers, and appointed capable men as Qingzhou prefect to pacify the tribes by diplomacy.

其他諸族，散處尚邊界上者甚衆，然其無國地、君長，故莫得而紀次云。

Countless other tribes still dotted the frontier, but without fixed homelands or paramount rulers they cannot be set down in order.

突厥，國地、君世、部族、名號、物俗，見於唐著矣。至唐之末。爲諸夷所侵，部族微散。五代之際，嘗來朝貢。同光三年，渾解樓來。天成二年，首領張慕晉來。長興二年，首領杜阿熟來。天福六年，遣使者薛同海等來。凡四至，其後不復來。然突厥于時最微，又來不數，故其君長史皆失不能紀。

The Turks' lands, royal lines, tribes, titles, and customs are already fully described in Tang histories. By the end of the Tang dynasty. Other peoples pressed in on them until their tribes dwindled and scattered. During the Five Dynasties they still sent tribute missions to court. In the third year of Tongguang Hun Jielou arrived. In the second year of Tiancheng the chieftain Zhang Mujin came. In the second year of Changxing the chieftain Du Ashu came. In the sixth year of Tianfu they sent envoys led by Xue Tonghai. They came four times in all and never returned. By then the Turks were at their weakest and visited only rarely, so the names of their rulers have been lost beyond recovery.

吐蕃，國地、君世、部族、名號、物俗，見於唐著矣。當唐之盛時，河西、隴右三十三州，涼州最大，土沃物繁而人富樂。其地宜馬，唐置八監，牧馬三十萬匹。以安西都護府羈縻西域三十六國。唐之軍、鎮、監、務，三百餘城，常以中國兵更戍，而涼州置使節度之。安祿山之亂，肅宗起靈武，悉召河西兵赴難，而吐蕃乘虛攻陷河西、隴右，華人百萬皆陷於虜。文宗時，嘗遣使者至西域，見甘、涼、瓜、沙等州城邑如故，而陷虜之人見唐使者，夾道迎呼，涕泣曰：「皇帝猶念陷蕃人民否？」其人皆天寶時陷虜者子孫，其語言稍變，而衣服猶不改。

Tibet's lands, royal lines, tribes, titles, and customs are already fully described in Tang histories. At the height of Tang power the thirty-three prefectures of Hexi and Longyou flourished, Liangzhou foremost among them, with rich soil, abundant goods, and a prosperous people. The region was ideal for horses; Tang maintained eight stud farms there with three hundred thousand head. Through the Protectorate General of Anxi the Tang held the thirty-six states of the Western Regions in loose allegiance. More than three hundred Tang garrisons, posts, stud farms, and offices dotted the region, manned by rotating Chinese troops under a military commissioner based at Liangzhou. During the An Lushan rebellion Emperor Suzong rallied at Lingwu and called every Hexi soldier to the cause. Tibet struck while the frontier was bare, overran Hexi and Longyou, and a million Chinese subjects fell under Tibetan rule. Under Emperor Wenzong envoys reached the Western Regions and found the cities of Gan, Liang, Gua, Sha, and the rest still standing—but Chinese who had fallen under Tibetan rule lined the roads to greet them in tears, crying, "Does the Emperor still remember those of us lost to Tibet? They were all descendants of people lost to the invaders in the Tianbao reign; their speech had shifted somewhat, but they still dressed as before.

至五代時，吐蕃已微弱，回鶻、党項諸羌夷分侵其地，而不有其人民。值中國衰亂，不能撫有，惟甘、涼、瓜、沙四州常自通於中國。甘州爲回鶻牙，而涼、瓜、沙三州將吏，猶稱唐官，數來請命。自梁太祖時，嘗以靈武節度使兼領河西節度，而觀察甘、肅、威等州。然雖有其名，而涼州自立守將。唐長興四年，涼州留後孫超遣大將拓拔承謙及僧、道士、耆老楊通信等至京師求旌節，明宗問孫超等世家，承謙曰：「吐蕃陷涼州，張掖人張義朝募兵擊走吐蕃，唐因以義朝爲節度使，發鄆州兵二千五百人戍之。唐亡，天下亂，涼州以東爲突厥、党項所隔，鄆兵遂留不得返。今涼州漢人，皆其戍人子孫也。」明宗乃拜孫超節度使。清泰元年，留後李文謙來請命。後數年，涼州人逐出文謙，靈武馮暉遣牙將吳繼勳代文謙爲留後，是時天福七年。明年，晉高祖遣涇州押牙陳延暉齎詔書安撫涼州，涼州人共劫留延暉，立以爲刺史。至漢隱帝時，涼州留後折逋嘉施來請命，漢即以爲節度使。嘉施，土豪也。周廣順二年，嘉施遣人市馬京師，因來請命帥。是時，樞密使王峻用事。峻故人申師厚者，少起盜賊，爲兗州牙將，與峻相友善，後峻貴，師厚敝衣蓬首，日候峻出，拜馬前，訴以饑寒，峻未有以發。而嘉施等來請帥，峻即建言：「涼州深入夷狄，中國未嘗命吏，請募率府率、供奉官能往者。」月餘，無應募者，乃奏起師厚爲左衛將軍，已而拜河西節度使。師厚至涼州，奏薦押衙副使崔虎心、陽妃谷首領沈念般等及中國留人子孫王廷翰、溫崇樂、劉少英爲將吏。又自安國鎮至涼州，立三州以控扼諸羌，用其酋豪爲刺史。然涼州夷夏雜處，師厚小人，不能撫有。至世宗時，師厚留其子而逃歸，涼州遂絕於中國。獨瓜、沙二州，終五代常來。沙州，梁開平中有節度使張奉，自號「金山白衣天子」。至唐莊宗時，回鶻來朝，沙州留後曹義金亦遣使附回鶻以來，莊宗拜義金爲歸義軍節度使、瓜沙等州觀察處置等使。晉天福五年，義金卒，子元德立。至七年，沙州曹元忠、瓜州曹元深皆遣使來。周世宗時，又以元忠爲歸義軍節度使，元恭爲瓜州團練使。其所貢：硇砂、羚羊角、波斯錦、安西白灊、金星礬、胡桐律、大鵬砂、毦褐、玉團。皆因其來者以名見，而其卒立、世次，史皆失其紀。

By the Five Dynasties Tibet had grown feeble; Uyghurs, Tangut, and other Qiang peoples carved up its territory but did not rule its population. With China in turmoil and unable to govern the region, only Gan, Liang, Gua, and Sha prefectures kept up regular contact on their own. Ganzhou served as the Uyghur capital, but officials in Liang, Gua, and Sha still styled themselves Tang appointees and repeatedly sought imperial commissions. From Liang Taizu onward the Lingwu military governor sometimes doubled as Hexi military governor, with oversight of Gan, Su, Wei, and neighboring prefectures. The title existed in name only; Liangzhou kept its own local commander. In Tang's fourth year of Changxing, acting governor Sun Chao of Liangzhou sent General Tuoba Chengqian, monks, Daoists, and elder Yang Tongxin to the capital for an imperial commission. When Mingzong asked about their origins, Chengqian explained: "After Tibet seized Liangzhou, Zhang Yichao of Zhangye raised troops and drove them out. Tang appointed Yichao military governor and sent twenty-five hundred men from Yanzhou to garrison the city. After Tang's collapse the realm fell into chaos; Turks and Tangut blocked the route east from Liangzhou, and the Yanzhou garrison was stranded. Today's Han population in Liangzhou are all descendants of that garrison. Mingzong then appointed Sun Chao military governor of Liangzhou. In the first year of Qingtai acting governor Li Wenqian came to court for a commission. A few years later the people of Liangzhou drove out Wenqian. Feng Hui of Lingwu sent officer Wu Jixun to replace him as acting governor, in the seventh year of Tianfu. The following year Gaozu of Later Jin sent Jingzhou officer Chen Yanhui with an edict to reassure Liangzhou, but the locals seized him and made him their prefect. Under Later Han's Emperor Yin, acting governor Zhebo Jiashi of Liangzhou came to court for a commission and was promptly appointed military governor. Jiashi was a local magnate. In Zhou's second year of Guangshun, Jiashi sent men to trade horses in the capital and used the occasion to request appointment as military governor. At that time Wang Jun, commissioner of military affairs, dominated the court. Jun's old friend Shen Shihou had begun as a bandit and become an officer in Yanzhou; the two were close. Once Jun grew powerful, Shihou in rags and with matted hair waited daily at his gate, bowed before his horse, and begged relief from hunger and cold, but Jun had nothing to give him. When Jiashi and others petitioned for a governor, Jun proposed at once: "Liangzhou lies deep in barbarian country and China has never posted officials there. Let us recruit a director of the directorate or palace attendants willing to go. After a month without volunteers he had Shihou recalled as a Left Guard general and soon appointed him Hexi military governor. At Liangzhou Shihou recommended deputy escort commander Cui Huxin, Yangfeigu chieftain Shen Nianban, and descendants of Chinese settlers Wang Tinghan, Wen Chongle, and Liu Shaoying for military posts. Between Anguo and Liangzhou he set up three prefectures to control the Qiang tribes, naming tribal chiefs as prefects. Liangzhou was a mixed frontier of barbarians and Chinese, and the petty Shihou could not govern it. Under Shizong, Shihou abandoned his son and fled home, and Liangzhou was lost to China. Only Gua and Sha prefectures maintained contact throughout the Five Dynasties. At Sha Prefecture, during Liang's Kaiping reign, military governor Zhang Feng styled himself the White-Robed Son of Heaven of Golden Mountain. Under Zhuangzong the Uyghur came to court, and Sha's acting governor Cao Yijin sent envoys with their mission. Zhuangzong appointed Yijin military governor of the Guiyi Army and commissioner over Gua, Sha, and neighboring prefectures. In Jin's fifth year of Tianfu, Yijin died and his son Yuande succeeded him. By the seventh year Cao Yuanzhong of Sha and Cao Yuanshen of Gua both sent envoys to court. Under Zhou Shizong, Yuanzhong was again appointed military governor of the Guiyi Army and Yuangong regimental commissioner of Gua. Their tribute included sal ammoniac, antelope horn, Persian brocade, Anxi white felt, golden-star alum, poplar products, mineral pigments, felt rugs, and jade ornaments. We know them only through the names of visiting envoys; their successions and genealogies have been lost.

而吐蕃不見於梁世。唐天成三年，回鶻王仁喻來朝，吐蕃亦遣使附以來，自此數至中國。明宗嘗禦端明殿見其使者，問其牙帳所居，曰：「西去涇州二千里。」明宗賜以虎皮，人一張，皆披以拜，委身宛轉，落其氈帽，亂髮如蓬，明宗及左右皆大笑。至漢隱帝時猶來朝，後遂不復至，史亦失其君世云。

Tibet does not appear in the records of the Liang dynasty. In Tang's third year of Tiancheng the Uyghur king Renyu came to court, and Tibet sent envoys with his mission. After that they visited China repeatedly. Mingzong once received their envoys in the Duanming Hall and asked where their capital stood. They replied, "Two thousand li west of Jing Prefecture. Mingzong gave each man a tiger skin. They draped the skins to bow, prostrating and writhing until their felt hats fell off and their hair spilled out like tangled rushes. Mingzong and his attendants roared with laughter. They still came under Later Han's Emperor Yin, but never returned afterward, and the succession of their rulers has been lost.

回鶻，爲唐患尤甚。其國地、君世、物俗，見於唐著矣。唐嘗以女妻之，故其世以中國爲舅。其國本在娑陵水上、後爲黠戛斯所侵，徙天德、振武之間，又爲石雄、張仲武所破，其餘衆西徙，役屬吐蕃。是時吐蕃已陷河西、隴右，乃以回鶻散處之。

Of all Tang's frontier troubles, the Uyghur were among the gravest. Their lands, rulers, and customs are already fully described in Tang histories. Tang had married princesses to their khans, so for generations they called China their uncle-by-marriage. They had originally lived on the Solon River, but Kirghiz attacks drove them between Tiande and Zhenwu. Defeated by Shi Xiong and Zhang Zhongwu, the survivors moved west and fell under Tibetan domination. Tibet had already seized Hexi and Longyou and dispersed the Uyghur among those lands.

當五代之際，有居甘州、西州者嘗見中國，而甘州回鶻數至，猶呼中國爲舅，中國答以詔書亦呼爲甥。梁乾化元年，遣都督周易言等來，而史不見其君長名號，梁拜易言等官爵，遣左監門衛上將軍楊沼押領還蕃。至唐莊宗時，王仁美遣使者來，貢玉、馬，自稱「權知可汗」，莊宗遣司農卿鄭續持節冊仁美爲英義可汗。是歲，仁美卒，其弟狄銀立，遣都督安千想等來。同光四年，狄銀卒，阿咄欲立。天成二年，權知國事王仁裕遣李阿山等來朝，明宗遣使者冊仁裕爲順化可汗。晉高祖時又冊爲奉化可汗。阿咄欲，不知其爲狄銀親疏，亦不知其立卒；而仁裕訖五代常來朝貢，史亦失其紀。其地出玉、犛、綠野馬、獨峰駝、白貂鼠、羚羊角、硇砂、膃肭臍、金剛鑽、紅鹽、罽氎、騊駼之革。其地宜白麥、青騑麥、黃麻、蔥韭、胡荽，以橐駝耕而種。其可汗常樓居，妻號天公主，其國相號媚祿都督。見可汗，則去帽被髮而入以爲禮。婦人總發爲髻，高五六寸，以紅絹囊之；既嫁，則加氈帽。又有別族號龍家，其俗與回紇小異。長興四年，回鶻來獻白鶻一聯，明宗命解緤放之。自明宗時，常以馬市中國，其所齎寶玉皆屬縣官，而民犯禁爲市者輒罪之。周太祖時除其禁，民得與回鶻私市，玉價由此倍賤。顯德中，來獻玉，世宗曰：「玉雖寶而無益。」卻之。

During the Five Dynasties Uyghur in Ganzhou and Xizhou still had contact with China. The Ganzhou Uyghur visited often, still calling China uncle, and Chinese edicts addressed them as nephew in return. In Liang's first year of Qianhua they sent Commissioner Zhou Yiyan and others, though the histories do not record their khan's name. Liang granted them titles and sent Senior General Yang Zhao of the Left Gate Guard to escort them home. Under Zhuangzong, Wang Renmei sent envoys with jade and horses, styling himself acting khan. Zhuangzong dispatched Minister of Agriculture Zheng Xu to invest him as Yingyi Khan. That year Renmei died and his brother Diyin succeeded, sending Commissioner An Qianxiang and others to court. In the fourth year of Tongguang Diyin died and Adouyu took the throne. In the second year of Tiancheng acting ruler Wang Renyu sent Li Ashan and others to court, and Mingzong invested him as Shunhua Khan. Under Gaozu of Later Jin he was invested again as Fenghua Khan. Nothing is known of Adouyu's relation to Diyin, or of his rise and fall; but Renyu sent tribute throughout the Five Dynasties, and his genealogy, too, has been lost. Their country yielded jade, yaks, green wild horses, Bactrian camels, white sable, antelope horn, sal ammoniac, musk, diamonds, red salt, felt rugs, and taotu leather. The soil suited white and blue wheat, yellow hemp, scallions, leeks, and coriander, which they planted using camels to plow. Their khan usually lived in a tower house; his wife was called Heavenly Princess, and his chief minister Meilu Commissioner. To approach the khan one removed one's hat, unbound one's hair, and entered bareheaded—that was the custom. Women bound their hair in a topknot five or six inches high and wrapped it in red silk; after marriage they added a felt hat. A separate people called the Long clan lived among them, with customs slightly different from the Uyghur. In the fourth year of Changxing the Uyghur presented a pair of white swans, and Mingzong ordered them unbound and set free. From Mingzong's reign they traded horses regularly in China; jade and gems they brought were reserved for the state, and private trading was punished. Zhou Taizu lifted the ban, allowing private trade with the Uyghur, and jade prices fell sharply. During Xiande they brought jade as tribute. Shizong said, "Jade may be precious, but it is of no practical use. He refused the gift.

于闐，國地、君世、物俗見於唐。五代亂世，中國多故，不能撫來四夷。其嘗自通於中國者僅以名見，其君世、終始，皆不可知。而于闐尤遠，去京師萬里外。其國西南近蔥嶺，與婆羅門爲鄰國，而相去猶三千餘里，南接吐蕃，西北至疏勒二千餘里。

Khotan's lands, rulers, and customs are described in Tang histories. In the turmoil of the Five Dynasties China was preoccupied with internal crises and could not court the frontier peoples. Those who reached China are known only by name; their rulers' lines and histories are beyond recovery. Khotan was the most distant of all, more than ten thousand li from the capital. Southwest it lay near the Onion Mountains and bordered India, though still three thousand li away; south it met Tibet, and northwest Shule lay more than two thousand li distant.

晉天福三年，于闐國王李聖天遣使者馬繼榮來貢紅鹽、郁金、氂牛尾、玉灊等，晉遣供奉官張匡鄴假鴻臚卿，彰武軍節度判官高居誨爲判官，冊聖天爲大寶于闐國王。是歲冬十二月，匡鄴等自靈州行二歲至于闐，至七年冬乃還。而居誨頗記其往復所見山川諸國，而不能道聖天世次也。

In Jin's third year of Tianfu, King Li Shengtian of Khotan sent Ma Jirong with red salt, turmeric, yak tails, jade felt, and other goods. Jin dispatched palace attendant Zhang Kuangye as acting Director of Ceremonial and Zhangwu circuit aide Gao Juhui as vice commissioner to invest Shengtian as King of Great Treasure Khotan. That winter, in the twelfth month, Kuangye's party left Ling Prefecture. Two years later they reached Khotan and did not return until the winter of the seventh year. Gao Juhui left a detailed account of the lands and peoples he saw on the journey, but could not trace Shengtian's royal line.

居誨記曰：「自靈州過黃河，行三十里，始涉沙入党項界，曰細腰沙、神點沙。至三公沙，宿月支都督帳。自此沙行四百餘里，至黑堡沙，沙尤廣，遂登沙嶺。沙嶺，党項牙也，其酋曰撚崖天子。渡白亭河至涼州，自涼州西行五百里至甘州。甘州，回鶻牙也。其南，山百餘里，漢小月支之故地也，有別族號鹿角山沙陀，雲硃耶氏之遺族也。自甘州西，始涉磧。磧無水，載水以行。甘州人教晉使者作馬蹄木澀，木澀四竅，馬蹄亦鑿四竅而綴之，駝蹄則包以氂皮乃可行。西北五百里至肅州，渡金河，西百里出天門關，又西百里出玉門關，經吐蕃界。吐蕃男子冠中國帽，婦人辮髪，戴瑟瑟珠，雲珠之好者，一珠易一良馬。西至瓜州、沙州，二州多中國人，聞晉使者來，其刺史曹元深等郊迎，問使者天子起居。瓜州南十里鳴沙山，雲冬夏殷殷有聲如雷，雲《禹貢》流沙也。又東南十里三危山，雲三苗之所竄也。其西，渡都鄉河曰陽關。沙州西曰仲雲，其牙帳居胡盧磧。雲仲雲者，小月支之遺種也，其人勇而好戰，瓜、沙之人皆憚之。胡盧磧，漢明帝時征匈奴，屯田于吾盧，蓋其地也。地無水而嘗寒多雪，每天暖雪銷，乃得水。匡鄴等西行入仲雲界，至大屯城，仲雲遣宰相四人、都督三十七人候晉使者，匡鄴等以詔書慰諭之，皆東向拜。自仲雲界西，始涉𨢑磧，無水，掘地得濕沙，人置之胸以止渴。又西，渡陷河，伐檉置水中乃渡，不然則陷。又西，至紺州。紺州，于闐所置也，在沙州西南，雲去京師九千五百里矣。又行二日至安軍州，遂至于闐。聖天衣冠如中國，其殿皆東向，曰金冊殿，有樓曰七鳳樓。以蒲桃爲酒，又有紫酒、青酒，不知其所釀，而味尤美。其食，粳沃以蜜，粟沃以酪。其衣布帛。有園圃花木。俗喜鬼神而好佛。聖天居處，嘗以紫衣僧五十人列侍，其年號同慶二十九年。其國東南曰銀州、盧州、湄州，其南千三百里曰玉州，雲漢張騫所窮河源出于闐，而山多玉者此山也。」其河源所出，至于闐分爲三：東曰白玉河，西曰綠玉河，又西曰烏玉河。三河皆有玉而色異，每歲秋水涸，國王撈玉于河，然後國人得撈玉。

Juhui wrote: "From Ling Prefecture we crossed the Yellow River; after thirty li we entered the sands and Tangut territory—Narrow-Waist Sand and Spirit-Point Sand. At Three-Lord Sand we lodged in the Yuezhi commissioner's camp. From there we crossed more than four hundred li of sand to Black Fort Sand, where the desert widened still further, and climbed Sand Ridge. Sand Ridge was a Tangut headquarters, ruled by a chieftain called Nianya Son of Heaven. We crossed the Baiting River to Liangzhou, then traveled five hundred li west to Ganzhou. Ganzhou was the Uyghur capital. A hundred li south lay the old homeland of the Lesser Yuezhi; there lived a people called the Antler Mountain Shatuo, said to be descendants of the Zhuye clan. West of Ganzhou we entered the desert proper. The desert had no water; we had to carry supplies to survive. Ganzhou locals taught the Jin envoys to make wooden hoof grips with four holes, fitted to horses whose hooves were bored to match; camels' hooves had to be wrapped in felt before they could cross the sands. Five hundred li northwest brought us to Suzhou. We crossed the Golden River, passed Heavenly Gate Pass a hundred li west, then Jade Gate Pass another hundred li west, crossing Tibetan territory. Tibetan men wore Chinese-style caps; women braided their hair and wore sese beads, said to be so fine that one bead could trade for a good horse. Farther west lay Gua and Sha, where many Chinese still lived. Hearing of the Jin mission, prefects including Cao Yuanshen met them outside the walls and inquired after the emperor's health. Ten li south of Gua stood Singing Sand Mountain, which rumbled winter and summer like thunder—identified with the flowing sands of the Yugong. Ten li southeast stood Sanwei Mountain, said to be where the Three Miao took refuge. Westward, crossing the Duxiang River, lay Yang Pass. West of Sha lay the land of Zhongyun, whose headquarters stood in Hulü Desert. The Zhongyun were said to be descendants of the Lesser Yuezhi—fierce warriors whom the people of Gua and Sha all feared. Hulü Desert was probably the site where Emperor Ming of Han garrisoned troops at Wulu during his campaign against the Xiongnu. The land had no standing water and was bitterly cold with heavy snow; water came only when warm weather melted the snow. Kuangye's party traveled west into Zhongyun territory to Datun, where four chancellors and thirty-seven commissioners awaited them. Kuangye read the imperial edict of reassurance, and all bowed toward the east. West of Zhongyun they entered the salt desert, where there was no water. Travelers dug up damp sand and pressed it to their chests to slake their thirst. Farther west they crossed the Sinking River, laying cut tamarisk in the water to bear their weight—without it they would sink through. Still farther west they came to Gan Prefecture. Gan Prefecture, established by Khotan southwest of Sha, was said to lie nine thousand five hundred li from the capital. Two days later they reached Anjun Prefecture and at last arrived in Khotan. Shengtian dressed in Chinese style. His halls faced east—the Golden Book Hall—and he had a tower called the Seven Phoenix Tower. They made wine from grapes, and also purple and green wines of unknown ingredients, all exceptionally fine in flavor. They ate polished rice sweetened with honey and millet mixed with curds. They dressed in cloth and silk. They kept gardens and flowering plants. They venerated spirits and were devoted to Buddhism. At his court Shengtian kept fifty purple-robed monks in attendance. His reign title was Tongqing, in its twenty-ninth year. Southeast lay Yin, Lu, and Mei prefectures; thirteen hundred li south stood Yu Prefecture, said to be the jade-rich mountain where Zhang Qian of Han found the river's source in Khotan. At its source the river splits into three branches in Khotan: the White Jade River to the east, the Green Jade River to the west, and the Black Jade River farther west. All three rivers yielded jade of different colors. Each autumn, when the waters fell, the king gathered jade first; only afterward could the people do so.

自靈州渡黃河至于闐，往往見吐蕃族帳，而于闐常與吐蕃相攻劫。匡鄴等至于闐，聖天頗責誚之，以邀誓約。匡鄴等還，聖天又遣都督劉再升獻玉千斤及玉印、降魔杵等。漢乾祐元年，又遣使者王知鐸來。

From Ling Prefecture to Khotan one passed many Tibetan camps, and Khotan was often at war with Tibet, raiding back and forth. When Kuangye's party arrived, Shengtian rebuked them harshly to extract a sworn agreement. After their return Shengtian sent Commissioner Liu Zaisheng with a thousand jin of jade, a jade seal, a demon-subduing pestle, and other gifts. In the first year of Qianyou of Later Han they sent envoy Wang Zhiduo.

高麗，本扶餘人之別種也。其國地、君世見於唐，比他夷狄有姓氏，而其官號略可曉其義。當唐之末，其王姓高氏。同光元年，遣使廣評侍郎韓申一、副使春部少卿樸岩來，而其國王姓名，史失不紀。至長興三年，權知國事王建遣使者來，明宗乃拜建玄菟州都督，充大義軍使，封高麗國王。建，高麗大族也。開運二年，建卒，子武立。乾祐四年，武卒，子昭立。王氏三世，終五代常來朝貢，其立也必請命中國，中國常優答之。其地產銅、銀，周世宗時，遣尚書水部員外郎韓彥卿以帛數千匹市銅於高麗以鑄鐵。六年，昭遣使者貢黃銅五萬斤。高麗俗知文字，喜讀書，昭進《別敘孝經》一卷、《越王新義》八卷、《皇靈孝經》一卷、《孝經雌圖》一卷。《別敘》，敘孔子所生及弟子事蹟；《越王新義》，以「越王」爲問目，若今「正義」；《皇靈》，述延年辟穀；《雌圖》，載日食、星變。皆不經之說。

Goryeo was originally an offshoot of the Fuyu people. Their lands and rulers appear in Tang records. Unlike other frontier peoples they used surnames, and their official titles are roughly intelligible. By the end of Tang their royal house bore the surname Gao. In the first year of Tongguang they sent Broad Review Vice Minister Han Shenyi and Deputy Envoy Pu Yan of the Spring Department, but their king's name is not recorded. In the third year of Changxing acting ruler Wang Jian sent envoys. Mingzong appointed him commissioner of Xuantu, commander of the Dayi Army, and king of Goryeo. Jian came from a leading Goryeo clan. In the second year of Kaiyun Jian died and his son Wu succeeded him. In the fourth year of Qianyou Wu died and his son Zhao succeeded him. Three generations of the Wang house sent tribute throughout the Five Dynasties, always seeking Chinese confirmation on accession, which China granted generously. Their country produced copper and silver. Under Zhou Shizong, Han Yanqing of the Water Department was sent with thousands of bolts of silk to buy Goryeo copper for iron casting. In the sixth year Zhao sent envoys with fifty thousand jin of yellow copper as tribute. The Goryeo were literate and fond of books. Zhao presented the Separate Narrative Classic of Filial Piety, eight juan of the King of Yue's New Meaning, the Imperial Spirit Classic of Filial Piety, and the Yin Chart of the Classic of Filial Piety. The Separate Narrative tells where Confucius was born and what his disciples did; the King of Yue's New Meaning uses "King of Yue" as a framing question, like modern commentaries; the Imperial Spirit describes Yan Nian's fasting regimen; the Yin Chart records eclipses and unusual stars. All were unorthodox works.

渤海，本號靺鞨，高麗之別種也。唐高宗滅高麗，徙其人散處中國，置安東都護府於平壤以統治之。武后時，契丹攻北邊，高麗別種大乞乞仲象與靺鞨酋長乞四比羽走遼東，分王高麗故地，武后遣將擊殺乞四比羽，而乞乞仲象亦病死。仲象子祚榮立，因並有比羽之衆，其衆四十萬人，據挹婁，臣于唐。至中宗時，置忽汗州，以祚榮爲都督，封渤海郡王，其後世遂號渤海。其貴族姓大氏，開平元年，國王大諲撰遣使者來，訖顯德常來朝貢。其國土物產，與高麗同。諲撰世次、立卒，史失其紀。

Bohai were originally known as the Mohe, an offshoot of Goryeo. Emperor Gaozong of Tang conquered Goryeo, resettled its people across China, and established the Andong Protectorate at Pyongyang to govern the region. Under Empress Wu the Khitan raided the north. The Goryeo chieftain Da Qiqi Zhongxiang and Mohe leader Qi Sibi Yu fled to Liaodong and divided the old Goryeo lands. Wu's generals killed Qi Sibi Yu, and Zhongxiang soon died as well. Zhongxiang's son Zuorong succeeded him, absorbed Biyu's people, and commanded four hundred thousand followers in Yilou, submitting to Tang. Under Zhongzong, Hohan Prefecture was established with Zuorong as commissioner and Prince of Bohai; his descendants took Bohai as their state name. Their nobility bore the surname Da. In Kaiping's first year King Da Yinzhuan sent envoys, and through Xiande they regularly paid tribute. Their country's products were the same as Goryeo's. Yinzhuan's line, accession, and death are not recorded.

黑水靺鞨

Heishui Mohe.

黑水靺鞨，本號勿吉。當後魏時見中國。其國，東至海，南界高麗，西接突厥，北鄰室韋，蓋肅慎氏之地也。其衆分爲數十部，而黑水靺鞨最處其北，尤勁悍，無文字之記。其兵，角弓、楛矢。同光二年，黑水兀兒遣使者來，其後常來朝貢，自登州泛海出青州。明年，黑水胡獨鹿亦遣使來。兀兒、胡獨鹿若其兩部酋長，各以使來。而其部族、世次、立卒，史皆失其紀。至長興三年，胡獨鹿卒，子桃李花立，嘗請命中國，後遂不復見云。

The Heishui Mohe were originally known as the Wuji. They appear in Chinese records during the Northern Wei. Their country reached the sea in the east, bordered Goryeo in the south, met the Turks in the west, and neighbored the Shiwei in the north—the old land of the Sushen. They were divided into dozens of tribes; the Heishui Mohe lived farthest north, were especially fierce, and kept no written records. They fought with horn bows and wooden-shafted arrows. In the second year of Tongguang the Heishui leader Wuer sent envoys. Thereafter they came regularly by sea from Deng Prefecture to Qing Prefecture. The following year the Heishui leader Hudulu also sent envoys. Wuer and Hudulu were likely chiefs of two tribes, each sending his own mission. Their tribal divisions, genealogies, and successions are all lost. In the third year of Changxing Hudulu died and his son Taolihua succeeded, once seeking Chinese confirmation, but afterward disappeared from the record.

南詔蠻

Nanzhao.

南詔蠻，見於唐。其國在漢故永昌郡之東、姚州之西。僖宗幸蜀，募能使南詔者，得宗室子李龜年及徐虎、虎侄藹，乃以龜年爲使，虎爲副，藹爲判官，使南詔。南詔所居曰苴絺城，龜年等不至苴絺，至善闡，得其要約與唐爲甥舅。僖宗許以安化公主妻之，南詔大喜，遣人隨龜年求公主。已而黃巢敗，收復長安，僖宗東還，乃止。

Nanzhao appears in Tang histories. Their kingdom lay east of the old Han Yongchang commandery and west of Yao Prefecture. When Emperor Xizong fled to Shu he sought envoys to Nanzhao and found the imperial clansman Li Guinian, Xu Hu, and Hu's nephew Ai. Guinian was made envoy, Hu deputy, and Ai vice commissioner. Nanzhao's capital was Juzhi. Guinian's party did not reach it but stopped at Shanchan, where they secured a pact of uncle-nephew relations with Tang. Xizong promised the Princess of Anhua in marriage. Nanzhao rejoiced and sent men back with Guinian to fetch her. When Huang Chao was defeated and Xizong returned to Chang'an, the marriage was called off.

同光三年，魏王繼岌及郭崇韜等破蜀，得王衍時所俘南詔蠻數十人，又得徐藹，自言嘗使南詔，乃矯詔還其所俘，遣藹等持金帛招撫南詔，諭以威德，南詔不納。至明宗時，巂州山后兩林百蠻都鬼主、右武衛大將軍李卑晚，遣大鬼主傅能何華來朝貢，明宗拜卑晚甯遠將軍，又以大渡河南山前邛州六姓都鬼主懷安郡王勿定摽莎爲定遠將軍。明年遣左金吾衛將軍烏昭遠爲入蠻國信使，昭遠不能達而還。

In the third year of Tongguang Prince Jiji of Wei and Guo Chongtao conquered Shu, recovered dozens of Nanzhao captives taken under Wang Yan, and found Xu Ai, who claimed prior service as envoy. They forged an edict returning the captives and sent Ai with gold and silk to win Nanzhao over—but Nanzhao refused. Under Mingzong, Li Beiwan, paramount lord of the Two Forests tribes behind Xizhou and a Right Martial Guard general, sent the great ghost lord Fu Nenghua with tribute. Mingzong made Beiwan a General Who Pacifies the Distance and appointed Wuding Biaosha of the Six Clans south of the Dadu River a General Who Fixes the Distance. The next year Left Golden Crow Guard general Wu Zhaoyuan was sent as envoy to the barbarian lands but could not get through and returned.

牂牁蠻，在辰州西千五百里，以耕植爲生，而無城郭聚落，有所攻擊，則相屯聚。刻木爲契。其首領姓謝氏，其名見於唐。至天成二年嘗一至，其使者曰清州八郡刺史宋朝化，冠帶如中國，貢草豆蔻二萬個、硃砂五百兩、蠟二百斤。

The Zhangke lived fifteen hundred li west of Chen Prefecture, farming without walled towns; when threatened they gathered for defense. They recorded agreements by carving wood. Their chiefs bore the surname Xie and appear in Tang records. In the second year of Tiancheng they came once. Their envoy, Qingzhou Eight-Districts Prefect Song Chaohua, dressed in Chinese style and brought twenty thousand cardamom pods, five hundred liang of cinnabar, and two hundred jin of wax.

昆明，在黔州西南三千里外，地產羊馬。其人椎髻、跣足、披氈，其首領披虎皮。天成二年，嘗一至，其首領號昆明大鬼主，羅殿王、普露靜王九部落，各遣使者來，使者號若土，附牂牁以來。

Kunming lay three thousand li southwest of Qian Prefecture and produced sheep and horses. They wore topknots, went barefoot, and wrapped themselves in felt; their chiefs wore tiger skins. In the second year of Tiancheng they came once. Their chief styled himself Great Ghost Lord of Kunming; the Luo Hall King, Pulujing King, and nine tribes each sent envoys called Ruotu, arriving with the Zhangke mission.

占城，在西南海上。其地方千里，東至海，西至雲南，南鄰真腦，北抵驩州。其人，俗與大食同。其乘，象、馬；其食，稻米、水兕、山羊。鳥獸之奇，犀、孔雀。自前世未嘗通中國。顯德五年，其國王因德漫遣使者莆訶散來，貢猛火油八十四瓶、薔薇水十五瓶，其表以貝多葉書之，以香木爲函。猛火油以灑物，得水則出火。薔薇水，雲得自西域，以灑衣，雖敝而香不滅。

Champa lay on the southwestern seas. Their realm was a thousand li square, reaching the sea in the east, Yunnan in the west, Champa in the south, and Huan Prefecture in the north. Their customs resembled those of the Arabs. They rode elephants and horses; their food was rice, river rhinoceros, and mountain goat. Among their exotic animals were rhinoceros and peacocks. They had had no contact with China in earlier ages. In the fifth year of Xiande King Yindeman sent envoy Puhesan with eighty-four bottles of Greek fire and fifteen of rose water. The memorial was written on palm leaves in a box of fragrant wood. Greek fire, when sprinkled on objects, ignites on contact with water. Rose water, said to come from the Western Regions, was sprinkled on clothing so that even when threadbare the scent lingered.

五代，四夷見中國者，遠不過于闐、占城。史之所紀，其西北頗詳，而東南尤略，蓋其遠而罕至，且不爲中國利害云。

Among the frontier peoples who reached China in the Five Dynasties, none came from farther than Khotan and Champa. Histories record the northwest in some detail but the southeast only sketchily, because those lands were distant, visitors rare, and of little consequence to China—or so it is said.

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