1
列傳第八十五西域
Biography 85: The Western Regions
2
《夏書》稱：「西戎即序。」 班固云：「就而序之，非盛威武致其貢物也。」 漢氏初開西域，有三十六國。 其後，分立五十五王，置校尉、都護以撫之。 王莽篡位，西域遂絕。 至於後漢班超所通者五十餘國，西至西海，東西萬里，皆來朝貢。 復置都護、校尉，以相統攝。 其後或絕或通，漢朝以為勞弊中國，其官時置時廢。 暨魏、晉之後，互相吞滅，不可復詳記焉。
The Book of Xia records: "The Western Rong were brought into order." Ban Gu wrote: "To bring them into order by going among them is not to display overwhelming might merely to extract their tribute." When the Han dynasty first opened the Western Regions, there were thirty-six states. Later the region was split among fifty-five rulers, and colonels and protectors-general were appointed to keep them in hand. After Wang Mang seized the throne, ties with the Western Regions were cut off. Under the Later Han, Ban Chao reconnected more than fifty states westward to the Western Sea; for ten thousand li east and west, all sent envoys to pay tribute. Protectors-general and colonels were reinstated to supervise them. Afterward ties were severed and restored by turns; the Han court judged the effort a burden that wore down the empire, and the frontier offices were created and abolished intermittently. From the Wei and Jin periods on, the states devoured one another until they could no longer be traced in any detail.
3
道武初，經營中原，未暇及於四表。 既而西戎之貢不至，有司奏依漢氏故事，請通西域，可以振威德於荒外，又可致奇貨於天府。 帝曰：「漢氏不保境安人，乃遠開西域，使海內虛耗，何利之有？ 今若通之，前弊復加百姓矣！」 遂不從。 曆明元世，竟不招納。
In the early years of Emperor Daowu, he was busy securing the Central Plain and had no time for the outlying regions. When tribute from the western peoples stopped arriving, officials urged reopening the Western Regions along Han lines, arguing that this would extend imperial prestige into distant lands and bring rare goods into the state treasury. The emperor replied: "The Han failed to secure their borders and protect their people, yet opened the Western Regions at vast distance and emptied the empire—what good did that do? If we open them now, the same harms will fall on the people again!" He refused. Through the entire Mingyuan reign the court never sought or accepted their overtures.
4
太延中，魏德益以遠聞，西域龜茲、疏勒、烏孫、悅般、渴槃陀、鄯善、焉耆、車師、粟特諸國王始遣使來獻。 太武以西域漢世雖通，有求則卑辭而來，無欲則驕慢王命，此其自知絕遠，大兵不可至故也。 若報使往來，終無所益，欲不遣使。 有司奏：「九國不憚遐險，遠貢方物，當與其進，安可豫抑後來？」 乃從之。 於是始遣行人王恩生、許綱等西使。 恩生出流沙，為蠕蠕所執，竟不果達。 又遣散騎侍郎董琬、高明等多齎錦帛，出鄯善，招撫九國，厚賜之。 初，琬等受詔：便道之國，可往赴之。 琬過九國，北行至烏孫國。 其王得魏賜，拜受甚悅。 謂琬等曰：「傳聞破洛那、者舌皆思魏德，欲稱臣致貢，但患其路無由耳。 今使君等既到此，可往二國，副其慕仰之誠。」 琬於是自向破洛那，遣明使者舌。 烏孫王為發導譯，達二國，琬等宣詔慰賜之。 已而琬、明東還，烏孫、破洛那之屬遣使與琬俱來貢獻者，十有六國。 自後相繼而來，不間于城，國使亦數十輩矣。
During Taiyan, Wei prestige spread ever farther; kings of Kucha, Kashgar, Wusun, Yueban, Khotan, Shanshan, Karashahr, Cheshi, and Sogdiana in the Western Regions sent their first embassies with tribute. Emperor Taiwu reasoned that in Han times the Western Regions had come with humble words when they wanted something and treated imperial orders with arrogance when they did not—knowing how remote they were and that no great army could reach them. Exchanging envoys would bring no lasting gain, he thought, and he meant to send none. Officials argued: "These nine states braved vast distances to offer tribute; we should meet them halfway—how can we discourage others who may follow?" He agreed. He then sent envoys Wang Ensheng, Xu Gang, and others westward—the court's first such mission. Ensheng crossed the shifting sands but was captured by the Rouran and never completed the journey. The court next sent Attendant Gentleman Dong Wan, Gao Ming, and others laden with silk and brocade through Shanshan to win over the nine states with generous gifts. Wan and his party had orders to call on any state that lay conveniently along their route. Wan passed through the nine states and went north to Wusun. The Wusun king received Wei's gifts with a bow and was delighted. He told Wan's party: "I hear that Bactria and Zheshe both admire Wei and wish to submit and send tribute, but they have no road by which to reach you. Since you have come this far, you might visit those two states and answer their desire to pay court." Wan went on to Bactria himself and sent Ming as envoy to Zheshe. The Wusun king furnished guides and interpreters; reaching both states, Wan and his colleagues announced the imperial edict, offered reassurance, and distributed gifts. When Wan and Ming returned east, envoys from Wusun, Bactria, and related states accompanied them with tribute—sixteen states in all. After that embassies arrived in an unbroken stream at the capital, until foreign missions numbered in the dozens.
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初，太武每遣使西域，常詔河西王沮渠牧犍，令護送。 至姑臧，牧犍恆發使導路，出於流沙。 後使者自西域還至武威，牧犍左右謂使者曰：「我君承蠕蠕吳提妄說，云：'去歲魏天子自來伐我，士馬疫死，大敗而還，我擒其長弟樂平王丕。 '我君大喜，宣言國中。 又聞吳提遣使告西域諸國：'魏已削弱，今天下唯我為強。 若更有魏使，勿復恭奉。 '西域諸國，亦有貳。」 且牧犍事主，稍以慢墮。 使還，具以狀聞。 太武遂議討牧犍。 涼州既平，鄯善國以為辱亡齒寒，自然之道也。 今武威為魏所滅。 次及我矣。 若通其使人，知我國事，取亡必近； 不如絕之，可以支久。 乃斷塞行路，西域貢獻，歷年不入。 後平鄯善，行人復通。
Whenever Emperor Taiwu sent missions westward, he routinely ordered Juqu Mujian, king of Hexi, to provide escort. At Guzang, Mujian always sent guides to lead them out across the shifting sands. When envoys returning from the west reached Wuwei, Mujian's attendants told them: "Our lord has heard the Rouran chief Wuti's boast that last year the Wei emperor marched against him in person, that men and horses died of plague, that Wei was routed, and that he captured the emperor's younger brother, Prince Leiping Pi. Our lord was overjoyed and proclaimed it throughout his realm. We also hear that Wuti has told the Western Regions: "Wei is weakened; I alone am strong under Heaven now. If more Wei envoys come, do not treat them with respect again. Some states in the Western Regions have already turned away." Moreover, Mujian had grown increasingly negligent in his duties toward the throne. The envoys reported everything on their return. Emperor Taiwu then resolved to campaign against Mujian. After Liang province fell, Shanshan judged that when the lips are gone the teeth grow cold—a natural law of survival. Wuwei has now been destroyed by Wei. We will be next. If we let their envoys through and they learn our affairs, our fall will come soon; better to cut them off and hold out longer. They blocked the routes, and Western Region tribute ceased for years. After Shanshan was subdued, envoys could travel the routes again.
6
始，琬等使還京師，具言凡所經見及傳聞傍國，云：西域自漢武時五十餘國，後稍相並，至太延中為十六國。 分其地為四域：自蔥嶺以東，流沙以西為一域； 蔥嶺以西，海曲以東為一域； 者舌以南，月氏以北為一域； 兩海之間，水澤以南為一域。 內諸小渠長，蓋以百數。 其出西域，本有二道，後更為四：出自玉門，度流沙，西行二千里至鄯善，為一道； 自玉門度流沙，北行二千二百里至車師，為一道； 從莎車西行一百里至蔥嶺，蔥嶺西一千三百里至伽倍，為一道； 自莎車西南五百里，蔥嶺西南一千三百里至波路，為一道焉。 自琬所不傳而更有朝貢者，紀其名，不能具國俗也。
On their return to the capital, Wan and his party described everything they had seen and heard abroad: in Han Wudi's day there were more than fifty Western Region states; by the Taiyan era mergers had reduced them to sixteen. They divided the region into four zones: east of the Pamirs and west of the shifting sands formed one zone; west of the Pamirs and east of the sea's bend formed another; south of Zheshe and north of the Yuezhi formed a third; between the two seas, south of the lakes and marshes, formed the fourth. Petty chiefs within these zones numbered roughly a hundred. Routes westward had originally been two, later four: from Yumen Pass across the shifting sands, two thousand li west to Shanshan, was one; from Yumen across the sands, twenty-two hundred li north to Cheshi, was another; from Shache one hundred li west to the Pamirs, then thirteen hundred li west of the Pamirs to Jiabei, was a third; from Shache five hundred li southwest, then thirteen hundred li southwest of the Pamirs to Bolu, was the fourth. States that paid tribute but were not covered in Wan's account are named here, though their customs cannot be described in full.
7
東西魏時，中國方擾，及于齊、周，不聞有事西域，故二代書並不立記錄。
During Eastern and Western Wei China was torn by strife; under Qi and Zhou nothing was heard from the Western Regions, so neither dynasty's history records them.
8
隋開皇、仁壽之間，尚未雲經略。 煬帝時，乃遣侍御史韋節、司隸從事杜行滿使于西籓諸國，至罽賓得瑪瑙杯，王舍城得佛經，史國得十舞女、師子皮、火鼠毛而還。 帝復令聞喜公裴矩于武威、張掖間往來以引致之。 其有君長者四十四國，矩因其使者入朝，啖以厚利，令其轉相諷諭。 大業中，相率而來朝者四十餘國，帝因置西戎校尉以應接之。 尋屬中國大亂，朝貢遂絕。 然事亡失，書所存錄者二十國焉。 魏時所來者，在隋亦有不至，今總而編次，以備前書之《西域傳》云。 至於道路遠近，物產風俗，詳諸前史，或有不同。 斯皆錄其當時，蓋以備其遺闕爾。
Through Sui's Kaihuang and Renshou reigns the court had not yet turned its attention westward. Under Emperor Yang, Wei Jie and Du Xingman were dispatched to the western realms; in Kasmira they acquired an agate cup, at Wangshe Buddhist scriptures, and at Shi ten dancing girls, lion pelts, and fire-rat fur before returning. The emperor also sent Duke Pei Ju to shuttle between Wuwei and Zhangye to entice further embassies. Forty-four states had recognized rulers; Ju lavished gifts on their envoys at court and set them to persuade one another to come. During Daye more than forty states came in succession; the emperor appointed a Colonel of the Western Rong to receive them. Soon civil war engulfed China and tribute missions ceased. Much was lost in the turmoil; only twenty states survive in the written record. States that sent envoys under Wei and some that did not under Sui are here compiled in order, supplementing earlier histories' treatises on the Western Regions. Distances, products, and customs are treated at length in earlier histories, though accounts sometimes differ. What follows records conditions as they were then, to fill gaps left by earlier works.
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鄯善國，都扞泥城，古樓蘭國也。 去代七千六百里。 所都城方一里。 地多沙鹵，少水草，北即白龍堆路。 至太延初，始遣其弟素延耆入侍。 及太武平涼州，沮渠牧犍弟無諱走保敦煌。 無諱後謀渡流沙，遣其弟安周擊鄯善，王比龍恐懼欲降。 會魏使者自天竺、罽賓還，俱會鄯善，勸比龍拒之，遂與連戰。 安周不能克，退保東城。 後比龍懼，率眾西奔且末，其世子乃應安周。
Shanshan, capital at Gannicheng, was the ancient kingdom of Loulan. It lay seven thousand six hundred li from the Wei capital. The capital walls measured one li square. The land was mostly salty desert with little water or pasture; to the north ran the route past the White Dragon Mounds. Early in Taiyan the king sent his younger brother Suyanqi to court. When Emperor Taiwu conquered Liang province, Juqu Mujian's brother Wuhui fled to Dunhuang. Wuhui later planned to cross the sands and sent his brother Anzhou against Shanshan; King Bilong, terrified, was ready to submit. Wei envoys returning from India and Kasmira happened to meet at Shanshan and urged Bilong to resist; fighting followed. Anzhou failed to take the city and withdrew to the eastern quarter. Bilong later fled west to Qiemo with his followers; his heir then submitted to Anzhou.
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鄯善人頗剽劫之，令不得通，太武詔散騎常侍、成周公萬度歸乘傳發涼州兵討之。 度歸到敦煌，留輜重，以輕騎五千度流沙，至其境。 時鄯善人眾布野，度歸敕吏卒不得有所侵掠。 邊守感之，皆望旗稽服。 其王真達面縛出降，度歸釋其縛，留軍屯守，與真達詣京都。 太武大悅，厚待之。 是歲，拜交趾公韓拔為假節、征西將軍、領護西戎校尉、鄯善王以鎮之，賦役其人，比之郡縣。
Shanshan bandits blocked the routes; Emperor Taiwu ordered Attendant Wan Duigui, Duke of Cheng, to rush Liang troops against them. Duigui reached Dunhuang, left the baggage train behind, and crossed the sands with five thousand light cavalry. The Shanshan people were scattered across the countryside; Duigui forbade his men any looting. Frontier peoples were moved and submitted at sight of his banners. King Zhenda came out with bound hands; Duigui freed him, left a garrison, and escorted him to the capital. Emperor Taiwu was delighted and received him with great honor. That year Han Ba was made acting General Who Pacifies the West, Colonel Protecting the Western Rong, and King of Shanshan to hold the region; its people were taxed and levied like subjects of interior commanderies.
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且末國，都且末城，在鄯善四，去代八千三百二十里。 真君三年，鄯善王比龍避沮渠安周之難，率國人之半奔且末。 後役屬鄯善。 且末西北有流沙數百里，夏日有熱風，為行旅之患。 風之所至，唯老駝預知之，即嗔而聚立，埋其口鼻于沙中。 人每以為候，亦即將氈擁蔽鼻口。 其風迅駃，斯須過盡，若不防者，必至危斃。
Qiemo, capital at Qiemo city, lay four days' travel from Shanshan and eight thousand three hundred twenty li from the Wei capital. In Zhenjun 3, King Bilong of Shanshan fled Juqu Anzhou's attack with half his people to Qiemo. It later became a dependency of Shanshan. Several hundred li northwest of Qiemo lay shifting sands where summer hot winds were a deadly hazard to travelers. Only veteran camels sensed the wind's approach; they would snort, cluster together, and bury their muzzles in the sand. Travelers took this as their signal and wrapped felt over nose and mouth. The wind struck swiftly and passed in moments; anyone unprepared faced certain death.
12
大統八年，其兄鄯善米率眾內附。
In Datong 8, his elder brother Mi of Shanshan led his people to submit to the court.
13
于闐國，在且末西北，蔥嶺之北二百餘里。 東去鄯善千五百里，南去女國三千里，去硃俱波千里，北去龜茲千四百里，去代九千八百里。 其地方亙千里，連山相次，所都城方八九里。 部內有大城五，小城數十。 于闐城東三十里有首拔河，中出玉石。 土宜五穀並桑、麻。 山多美玉。 有好馬、駝、騾。 其刑法，殺人者死，餘罪各隨輕重懲罰之。 自外風俗物產，與龜茲略同。 俗重佛法，寺塔、僧尼甚眾。 王尤信尚，每設齋日，必親自灑掃饋食焉。 城南五十里有贊摩寺，即昔羅漢比丘盧旃為其王造覆盆浮圖之所。 石上有辟支佛跣處，雙跡猶存。 于闐西五百里有比摩寺，雲是老子化胡成佛之所。 俗無禮義，多盜賊淫縱。 自高昌以西諸國人等，深目高鼻，唯此一國，貌不甚胡，頗類華夏。 城東二十里有大水北流，號樹枝水，即黃河也，一名計式水。 城西十五里亦有大水名達利水，與樹枝水會，俱北流。
Khotan lay northwest of Qiemo, more than two hundred li north of the Pamirs. It was fifteen hundred li east of Shanshan, three thousand li south of the Women's Kingdom, a thousand li from Zhujubo, fourteen hundred li north of Kucha, and nine thousand eight hundred li from the Wei capital. Its territory stretched a thousand li on a side, with ranges of mountains in succession; the capital walls measured eight or nine li square. Within its domain were five large cities and several dozen smaller ones. Thirty li east of Khotan stood the Shouba River, which yielded jade and stone. The soil supported the five grains as well as mulberry and hemp. The mountains abounded in fine jade. It had fine horses, camels, and mules. Under its penal code, murder was punishable by death; lesser offenses were penalized according to their severity. Otherwise, its customs and products closely resembled those of Kucha. The people held Buddhism in high regard; temples, pagodas, monks, and nuns were exceedingly numerous. The king was especially devout; on each fasting day he personally swept the grounds and provided offerings of food. Fifty li south of the city stood Zanmo Temple, where the arhat Lu Zhan had once built an inverted-bowl pagoda for the king. On the stone was a spot where a pratyekabuddha had walked barefoot; the twin footprints could still be seen. Five hundred li west of Khotan lay Bimo Temple, said to mark the spot where Laozi transformed himself into the Buddha among the barbarians. The people observed little ritual or propriety; thievery and licentious behavior were common. West of Gaochang the peoples of the various states typically had deep-set eyes and high noses; Khotan alone was not notably foreign in appearance and resembled China in many respects. Twenty li east of the city a great river flowed northward, known as Branch Water—the Yellow River, also called Jishi Water. Fifteen li west of the city another great river, the Dali, joined the Branch Water, and both flowed north together.
14
真君中，太武詔高涼王那擊吐谷渾慕利延，慕利延懼，驅其部落渡流沙。 那進軍急追之，慕利延遂西入于闐，殺其王，死者甚眾。 獻文末，蠕蠕寇于闐。 于闐患之，遣使素目伽上表曰：「西方諸國，今皆已屬蠕蠕。 奴世奉大國，至今無異。 今蠕蠕軍馬到城下，奴聚兵自固，故遣使奉獻，遙望救援。」 帝詔公卿議之。 公卿奏曰：「于闐去京師幾萬里，蠕蠕之性，唯習野掠，不能攻城。 若為害，當時已旋矣，雖欲遣師，勢無所及。」 帝以公卿議示其使者，亦以為然。 於是詔之曰：「朕承天理物，欲令萬方各安其所，應敕諸軍，以拯汝難。 但去汝遐阻，政復遣援，不救當時之急，是以停師不行，汝宜知之。 朕今練甲養卒，一二歲間，當躬率猛將，為汝除患。 汝其謹敬候，以待大舉。」 先是，朝廷遣使者韓羊皮使波斯，波斯王遣使獻馴象及珍物。 經于闐，于闐中于王秋仁輒留之，假言慮有寇不達。 羊皮言狀，帝怒，又遣羊皮奉詔責讓之。 自後每使朝貢。
During the Zhenjun reign, Emperor Taiwu commanded Prince Na of Gaoliang to strike Tuyuhun Muli; fearing defeat, Muli drove his tribes across the desert sands. Na pressed the pursuit hard; Muli fled west into Khotan, slew its king, and left great numbers dead. Near the end of Emperor Xianwen's reign, the Rouran attacked Khotan. Distressed, Khotan sent the envoy Sumoga with a memorial stating, "The western states have all now fallen under Rouran control. We have served the great empire for generations and remain loyal to this day. Now Rouran forces have reached our walls; we have mustered troops to defend ourselves and send this envoy with tribute, hoping from afar for relief. The emperor ordered his ministers to deliberate. The ministers replied, "Khotan lies many thousands of li from the capital; the Rouran are accustomed only to wild raiding and cannot take walled cities. If they meant real harm, they would already have withdrawn; even if we sent troops, we could not arrive in time. The emperor showed the deliberation to the envoy, who agreed. He then issued an edict: "We bear Heaven's mandate and govern all things, wishing every realm peace; we ought to command our armies to deliver you from peril. But you are too distant and the routes too difficult; even if we sent aid, it could not meet your immediate need. We therefore halt our armies and do not march. You should understand this. We are now training troops; within a year or two we shall personally lead brave generals to eliminate your enemies. Remain vigilant and await our grand campaign. Earlier the court had dispatched Han Yangpi as envoy to Persia; the Persian king sent envoys with tame elephants and rare goods. Passing through Khotan, Vice-King Qiuren detained them, claiming he feared bandits and that they could not pass safely. Yangpi reported what had happened; the emperor was furious and again sent him with an edict of rebuke. Thereafter they sent tribute with every envoy mission.
15
周建德三年，其王遣使獻名馬。
In Jiande 3 of Northern Zhou, its king sent envoys with prized horses.
16
隋大業中，頻使朝貢。 其王姓王，字早示門。 練錦帽，金鼠冠，妻戴金花。 其王發不令人見，俗言若見王發，其年必儉云。
During the Sui Daye reign, envoys came frequently with tribute. The king's surname was Wang; his courtesy name was Zaoshimen. He wore a brocade cap and a golden mouse crown; his queen wore golden flowers in her hair. No one was permitted to see the king's hair; the people believed that whoever saw it would bring famine upon the land that year.
17
蒲山國，故皮山國也。 居皮城，在于闐南，去代一萬二千里。 其國西南三里有凍淩山。 後役屬于闐。
Pishan was formerly known as the state of Pishan (Mount Pi). Its seat was Pishan city, south of Khotan, twelve thousand li from the Wei capital. Three li southwest of the state stood Mount Dongling. Later it became a dependency of Khotan.
18
悉居半國，故西夜國也，一名子合。 其王號子。 治呼犍。 在于闐西，去代萬二千九百七十里。 太延初，遣使來獻，自後貢使不絕。
Xijuban was formerly Xiye, also known as Zihe. Its ruler bore the title Zi. Its capital was Hujian. It lay west of Khotan, twelve thousand nine hundred seventy li from the Wei capital. Early in the Taiyan reign it sent tribute envoys; thereafter tribute missions continued without interruption.
19
權于摩國，故烏秅國也。 其王居烏秅城。 在悉居半西南，去代一萬二千九百七十里。
Quyusa was formerly the state of Wuno. Its king resided at Wuno city. It lay southwest of Xijuban, twelve thousand nine hundred seventy li from the Wei capital.
20
渠莎國，居故莎車城，在子合西北，去代一萬二千九百八十里。
Qusha occupied old Shache city, northwest of Zihe, twelve thousand nine hundred eighty li from the Wei capital.
21
車師國，一名前部，其王居交河城。 去代萬五十里。 其地北接蠕蠕，本通使交易。 太武初，始遣使朝獻，詔行人王恩生、許綱等出使。 恩生等始度流沙，為蠕蠕所執。 恩生見蠕蠕吳提，持魏節不為之屈。 後太武切讓吳提，吳提懼，乃遣恩生等歸。 許綱到敦煌病死，朝廷壯其節，賜諡曰貞。
Cheshi, also known as the Front Kingdom, had its seat at Jiaohe. It was ten thousand and fifty li from the Wei capital. Its territory bordered the Rouran on the north; it had long exchanged envoys and conducted trade. Early in Taiwu's reign it first sent tribute envoys; the emperor dispatched Wang Ensheng, Xu Gang, and others as envoys. Ensheng and his party had scarcely crossed the desert when the Rouran captured them. Brought before the Rouran khan Wuti, Ensheng held the Wei envoy's staff and refused to submit. Later Emperor Taiwu sternly rebuked Wuti; fearing consequences, Wuti released Ensheng and his companions. Xu Gang died of illness at Dunhuang; the court honored his steadfastness and granted him the posthumous name Zhen.
22
初，沮渠無諱兄弟之渡流沙也，鳩集遺人，破車師國。 真君十一年，車師王車夷落遣使琢進薛直上書曰：「臣亡父僻處塞外，仰慕天子威德，遣使奉獻，不空於歲。 天子降念，賜遣甚厚。 及臣繼立，亦不闕常貢，天子垂矜，亦不異前世。 敢緣至恩，輒陳私懇。 臣國自無諱所攻擊，經今八歲，人民饑荒，無以存活。 賊今攻臣甚急，臣不能自全，遂舍國東奔，三分免一。 即日已到焉耆東界，思歸天闕，幸垂賑救。」 於是下詔撫慰之，開焉耆倉給之。 正平初，遣子入侍，自後每使朝貢不絕。
When Juqu Wuhui and his brothers first crossed the desert, they gathered survivors and overthrew Cheshi. In Zhenjun 11, King Che Yiluo of Cheshi sent Zhuo Jinxue with a memorial: "My late father, dwelling far beyond the frontier, admired the Son of Heaven's majesty and sent tribute envoys every year without fail. The Son of Heaven graciously received him and sent rich gifts in return. When I succeeded him, I continued the regular tribute; the Son of Heaven showed the same favor as before. Presuming on this great kindness, I venture to state a personal plea. Since Wuhui's attack eight years ago, my people have suffered famine and cannot survive. The enemy presses hard; unable to defend my realm, I fled eastward—only one in three of my people escaped. We have now reached the eastern border of Yanqi; longing to return to the imperial court, we beg for your aid. The emperor then issued an edict of consolation and opened the Yanqi granaries to provide for them. Early in the Zhengping reign he sent his son as hostage; thereafter tribute missions continued without interruption.
23
高昌者，車師前王之故地，漢之前部地也。 東西二百里，南北五百里，四面多大山。 或云：昔漢武遣兵西討，師旅頓弊，其中尤困者因住焉。 地勢高敞，人庶昌盛，因名高昌。 亦云：其地有漢時高昌壘，故以為國號。 東去長安四千九百里。 漢西域長史及戊巳校尉並居於此。 晉以其地為高昌郡。 張軌、呂光、沮渠蒙遜據河西，皆置太守以統之。 敦煌十三日行。
Gaochang occupied the former territory of the Cheshi Front Kingdom, the Han-era Former Kingdom. It measured two hundred li east to west and five hundred li north to south, with great mountains on every side. Some say that when Emperor Wu of Han marched west, his army grew exhausted, and the most weary soldiers simply remained there. The land was elevated and open, its population thriving—hence the name Gaochang, "Lofty and Flourishing." Others say it took its name from a Han-era Gaochang garrison fortress on the site. It lay four thousand nine hundred li east of Chang'an. The Han Western Regions Chief Commandant and the Wuji Colonel had both been stationed there. The Jin dynasty organized the region as Gaochang commandery. When Zhang Gui, Lü Guang, and Juqu Mengxun held the Hexi region, each appointed governors to administer Gaochang. It was thirteen days' journey from Dunhuang.
24
國有八城，皆有華人。 地多石磧，氣候溫暖，厥土良沃，穀麥一歲再熟，宜蠶，多五果，又饒漆。 有草名羊刺，其上生蜜。 而味甚佳。 引水溉田。 出赤鹽，其味甚美，復有白鹽，其形如玉，高昌人取以為枕，貢之中國。 多蒲桃酒。 俗事天神，兼信佛法。 國中羊、馬，牧在隱僻處以避寇，非貴人不知其處。 北有赤石山，山北七十里有貪汗山，夏有積雪。 此山北，鐵勒界也。
The kingdom had eight cities, all with Chinese inhabitants. Much of the land was stony desert, but the climate was mild and the soil fertile; grain ripened twice yearly, silkworms thrived, fruit trees flourished, and lacquer was plentiful. A plant called sheep-thorn bore honey on its stalks. Its flavor was exceptionally fine. Irrigation channels watered the fields. It produced red salt of excellent flavor and white salt shaped like jade; the people of Gaochang fashioned the latter into pillows and sent them as tribute to China. Grape wine was abundant. The people worshipped heaven and also practiced Buddhism. Sheep and horses were grazed in hidden pastures to escape raiders; only nobles knew where they were kept. To the north stood Red Stone Mountain; seventy li beyond it rose Mount Gehan, which retained snow even in summer. North of that mountain lay Tiele territory.
25
太武時有闞爽者，自為高昌太守。 太延中，遣散騎侍郎王恩生等使高昌，為蠕蠕所執。 真君中，爽為沮渠無諱所襲，奪據之。 無諱死，弟安周代立。 和平元年，為蠕蠕所並。 蠕蠕以闞伯周為高昌王，其稱王自此始也。
During Emperor Taiwu's reign, Kan Shuang proclaimed himself governor of Gaochang. During the Taiyan reign, Wang Ensheng and others were dispatched as envoys to Gaochang but were captured by the Rouran. During the Zhenjun reign, Juqu Wuhui attacked Shuang and seized Gaochang. After Wuhui's death, his brother Anzhou succeeded him. In Heping 1, Rouran annexed the state. The Rouran installed Kan Bozhou as king of Gaochang—the first time the region had a king of its own.
26
太和初，伯周死，子義成立。 歲餘，為從兄首歸所殺，自立為高昌王。 五年，高車王阿至羅殺首歸兄弟，以敦煌人張孟明為王。 後為國人所殺，立馬儒為王，以鞏顧禮、麴嘉為左右長史。 二十一年，遣司馬王體玄奉表朝貢，請師逆接，求舉國內徙。 孝文納之，遣明威將軍韓安保率騎千餘赴之，割伊吾五百里，以儒居之。 至羊榛水，儒遣嘉、禮率步騎一千五百迎安保。 去高昌四百里而安保不至。 禮等還高昌，安保亦還伊吾。 安保遣使韓興安等十二人使高昌，儒復遣顧禮將其世子義舒迎安保。 至白棘城，去高昌百六十里。 而高昌舊人情戀本土，不願東遷，相與殺儒而立麴嘉為王。
Early in the Taihe reign, Bozhou died and his son Yicheng succeeded him. A little over a year later, his cousin Shougui killed him and proclaimed himself king of Gaochang. In the fifth year, the Gaoche king Azheluo killed Shougui and his brothers and installed Zhang Mengming of Dunhuang as king. Later the people of the state killed him and made Ma Ru king, appointing Gong Guli and Qu Jia as his left and right chief secretaries. In the twenty-first year, Ma Ru sent Marshal Wang TiXuan with a memorial and tribute to court, requesting an army to meet and escort him and asking to relocate the entire kingdom into Wei territory. Emperor Xiaowen agreed and sent General of Manifest Might Han Anbao with more than a thousand cavalry to meet him, allotting five hundred li of Yiwu for Ma Ru to settle. When he reached Yangzhen Water, Ma Ru sent Qu Jia and Guli with fifteen hundred foot and horse to welcome Han Anbao. They were four hundred li from Gaochang, but Han Anbao never came. Guli and his party returned to Gaochang, and Han Anbao went back to Yiwu. Han Anbao sent twelve envoys led by Han Xing'an to Gaochang, and Ma Ru again dispatched Guli with his heir Yishu to welcome him. They reached Bojie City, one hundred sixty li from Gaochang. But Gaochang's old families clung to their homeland and refused to move east; they joined together, killed Ma Ru, and made Qu Jia king.
27
嘉字靈鳳，金城榆中人。 既立，又臣於蠕蠕那蓋。 顧禮與義舒隨安保至洛陽。 及蠕蠕主伏圖為高車所殺，嘉又臣高車。 初，前部胡人悉為高車所徙，入於焉耆，又為嚈噠所破滅，國人分散，眾不自立，請主於嘉。 嘉遣第二子為焉耆王以主之。 永平元年，嘉遣兄子私署左衛將軍、田地太守孝亮朝京師，仍求內徙，乞軍迎援。 於是遣龍驤將軍孟威發涼州兵三千人迎之，至伊吾，失期而反。 于後十餘遣使獻珠像、白黑貂裘、名馬、鹽枕等，款誠備至。 唯賜優旨，卒不重迎。 三年，嘉遣使朝貢，宣武又遣孟威使詔勞之。 延昌中，以嘉為持節、平西將軍、瓜州刺史、泰臨縣開國伯，私署王如故。 熙平初，遣使朝獻。 詔曰：「卿地隔關山，境接荒漠，頻請朝援，徙國內遷。 雖來誠可嘉，即於理未帖。 何者？ 彼之颧庶，是漢、魏遺黎，自晉氏不綱，因難播越，成家立國，世積已久。 惡徙重遷，人懷戀舊。 今若動之，恐異同之變，爰在肘腋，不得便如來表也。」 神龜元年冬，孝亮復表求援內徙，朝廷不許。 正光元年，明帝遺假員外將軍趙義等使於嘉。 嘉朝貢不絕，又遣使奉表，自以邊遐，不習典誥，求借《五經》、諸史，並請國子助教劉燮以為博士，明帝許之。 嘉死，贈鎮西將軍、涼州刺史。
Qu Jia, courtesy name Lingfeng, was a native of Yuzhong in Jincheng. Once enthroned, he again submitted to the Rouran khan Nagai. Guli and Yishu accompanied Han Anbao to Luoyang. After the Rouran ruler Futu was killed by the Gaoche, Qu Jia submitted to the Gaoche in turn. Earlier, the Gaoche had moved all the Hu of the Former Kingdom into Yanqi; the Hephthalites then destroyed them, scattering the people until they could no longer sustain themselves and asked Qu Jia to rule them. Qu Jia sent his second son to reign as king of Yanqi and govern them. In Yongping 1, Qu Jia sent his nephew Xiaoliang—who had taken the titles Left Guard General and Governor of Tiandi—to the capital, again asking to move inward and begging for troops to escort them. The court then sent Dragon Cavalry General Meng Wei with three thousand Liang troops to meet them, but he reached only Yiwu, missed the rendezvous, and turned back. For more than ten years afterward he sent envoys bearing pearl images, white and black sable coats, prized horses, salt pillows, and the like, with unwavering sincerity. The court replied only with gracious edicts and never again sent troops to receive them. In the third year Qu Jia sent tribute envoys, and Emperor Xuanwu again dispatched Meng Wei with an edict of consolation. During Yanchang, Qu Jia was appointed Holder of the Staff, Pacifier of the West General, Governor of Guazhou, and founding Baron of Tailin County, while retaining his self-assumed royal title. Early in the Xiping era he sent envoys with tribute. An edict said: "Your land lies beyond the passes, your border touches the desert, and you have repeatedly asked for imperial aid to move your kingdom inward. Your loyalty is admirable, but the request itself is impracticable. Why? Your people are descendants of Han and Wei who, after the Jin lost control, fled hardship, settled there, and built a kingdom that has stood for generations. They hate uprooting and cherish their old home. If we forced them to move now, rebellion might erupt at our very side; we cannot do as your memorial asks. In the winter of Shengui 1, Xiaoliang again petitioned for aid to move inward, and the court refused. In Zhenguang 1, Emperor Ming sent Acting Exterior Affairs General Zhao Yi and others as envoys to Qu Jia. Qu Jia's tribute never ceased; he sent another memorial saying that, remote on the frontier, he was unversed in court ritual and asked to borrow the Five Classics and standard histories, and also requested National University assistant instructor Liu Xie as his Erudite. Emperor Ming agreed. When Qu Jia died, he was posthumously made General Who Pacifies the West and Governor of Liang Province.
28
其國，周時，城有一十六。 後至隋時，城有十八。 其都城周回一千八百四十步，於坐室畫魯哀公問政於孔子之像。 官有令尹一人，比中夏相國； 次有公二人，皆王子也，一為交河公，一為田地公； 次有左右衛； 次有八長史，曰吏部、祠部、庫部、倉部、主客、禮部、戶部、兵部等長史也； 次有五將軍，曰建武、威遠、陵江、殿中、伏波等將軍也； 次有八司馬，長史之副也； 次有侍郎、校郎、主簿、從事，階位相次，分掌諸事。 次有省事，專掌導引。 其大事決之于王，小事則世子及二公隨狀斷決。 評章錄記，事訖即除，籍書之外，無久掌文案。 官人雖有列位，並無曹府，唯有每早集於牙門，評議眾事。 諸城各有戶曹、水曹、田曹。 城遣司馬、侍郎相監檢校，名為令。 服飾，丈夫從胡法，婦人裙襦，頭上作髻。 其風俗政令，與華夏略同，兵器有弓、刀、箭、楯、甲、槊。 文字亦同華夏，兼用胡書。 有《毛詩》、《論語》、《孝經》，置學官弟子，以相教授。 雖習讀之，而皆為胡語。 賦稅則計田輸銀錢，無者輸麻布。 其刑法、風俗、昏姻、喪葬與華夏小異而大同。 自敦煌向其國，多沙磧，茫然無有蹊徑，欲往者，尋其人畜骸骨而去。 路中或聞歌哭聲，行人尋之，多致亡失，蓋魑魅魍魎也。 故商客往來，多取伊吾路。
In Zhou times the kingdom had sixteen cities. By Sui times there were eighteen. The capital measured eighteen hundred forty paces around its walls; in the hall they painted Duke Ai of Lu asking Confucius about government. There was one Chief Minister, equivalent to a Chancellor of State in China; next two dukes, both royal princes—the Duke of Jiaohe and the Duke of Tiandi; then the Left and Right Guards; then eight chief secretaries—for Personnel, Sacrificial Affairs, Treasury, Granary, Reception of Guests, Rites, Households, and Military Affairs; then five generals—Establishing Martial Prowess, Awesome Reach, River-towering, Palace Guard, and Wave-quelling; then eight marshals, deputies to the chief secretaries; then Attendants, Reviewing Clerks, Chief Clerks, and Staff Officers in descending rank, each handling assigned duties. Next came attendants-in-service who handled ushering and protocol. Major matters were decided by the king; minor ones were judged as circumstances required by the heir apparent and the two dukes. Cases were reviewed, recorded, and the record discarded once finished; apart from the registers, no documents were kept on file. Officials held rank but had no separate offices; each morning they gathered at the court gate to discuss business. Each city had bureaus for households, water, and fields. Each city sent a marshal and an attendant to supervise and inspect together, styled "Magistrate." In dress, men followed steppe custom; women wore skirts and jackets with their hair bound in topknots. Customs and government resembled Huaxia; weapons included bows, swords, arrows, shields, armor, and spears. Writing followed Huaxia norms as well, though Hu script was also used. They possessed the Mao Odes, Analects, and Classic of Filial Piety, with academicians and disciples teaching one another. Although they studied them, they read them all in the local tongue. Taxes were assessed by field and paid in silver; those without silver paid in hemp cloth. Penal law, customs, marriage, and burial differed slightly from Huaxia but were largely the same. From Dunhuang to Gaochang the route crossed mostly desert with no clear track; travelers had to follow the bones of men and beasts to find their way. Travelers sometimes heard singing and weeping along the way; those who went to investigate often vanished—work, it was said, of demons and goblins. Merchants therefore usually took the Yiwu route instead.
29
開皇十年，突厥破其四城，有二千人來歸中國。
In Kaihuang 10 the Turks captured four of its cities, and two thousand people fled to China.
30
堅死，子伯雅立。 其大母本突厥可汗女，其父死，突厥令依其俗。 伯雅不從者久之。 突厥逼之，不得已而從。 煬帝即位，引致諸蕃。
When Qu Jian died, his son Boya succeeded him. His grandmother had been a Turk khan's daughter; when his father died, the Turks ordered Boya to observe their levirate custom. Boya refused for a long time. The Turks pressed him until he had no choice but to comply. When Emperor Yang took the throne, he summoned the frontier states to court.
31
大業四年，遣使貢獻，帝待其使甚厚。 明年伯雅來朝，因從擊高麗。 還，尚宗室女華容公主。 八年冬，歸蕃，下令國中曰：「先者，以國處邊荒境，被髮左衽。 今大隋統御，宇宙平一。 孤既沐浴和風，庶均大化。 其庶人以上，皆宜解辮削衽。」 帝聞而善之，下詔曰：「光祿大夫、弁國公、高昌王伯雅，本自諸華，世祚西壤，昔因多難，翦為胡服。 自我皇隋，平一宇宙，伯雅逾沙忘阻，奉貢來庭，削衽曳裾，變夷從夏，可賜衣冠，仍班製造之式。」 然伯雅先臣鐵勒，恆遣重臣在高昌國，有商胡往來者則稅之，送於鐵勒。 雖有此令取悅中華，然竟畏鐵勒，不敢改也。 自是歲令貢方物。
In Daye 4 he sent tribute envoys, and the emperor treated them with great generosity. The next year Boya came to court and joined the campaign against Goguryeo. On his return he married Princess Huarong, a clanswoman of the imperial house. In the winter of the eighth year, back in his kingdom, he issued a proclamation: "Formerly, because our state lay in a remote borderland, we wore our hair loose and buttoned our coats to the left. Now Great Sui rules all under Heaven and the realm is united. I have bathed in its civilizing breeze and wish to share fully in its great transformation. All commoners and above should undo their braids and cut their lapels to the right. The emperor approved and issued an edict: "Grand Master of Splendid Merit, Duke of Bianguo, King of Gaochang Boya is descended from the Chinese lineages that have long held the western frontier; through many hardships he was reduced to barbarian dress. Since our Sui united the realm, Boya has crossed the desert, forgotten its barriers, come to court with tribute, cut his lapel, and trailed his robe in Chinese fashion—changing from barbarian ways to follow Xia. Let caps and gowns be granted him, together with patterns for their manufacture. Yet Boya had long submitted to the Tiele and kept senior ministers in Gaochang to tax passing merchant caravans and send the proceeds to the Tiele. Although he issued this order to please China, he still feared the Tiele and did not dare actually change. From then on he sent regional tribute every year.
32
且彌國，都天山東于大谷，在車師北，去代一萬五百七十里。 本役屬車師。
Qiemi, capital east of the Tianshan in Dayu valley, north of Cheshi, lay ten thousand five hundred seventy li from the Wei capital. It had originally been subject to Cheshi.
33
焉耆國，在車師南都員渠城，白山南七十里，漢時舊國也，去代一萬二百里。 其王姓龍，名鳩屍畢那，即前涼張軌所討龍熙之胤。 所都城方二里。 國內凡有九城。 國小人貧，無綱紀法令。 兵有弓、刀、甲、槊。 婚姻略同華夏。 死亡者，皆焚而後葬，其服制滿七日則除之。 丈夫並翦發以為首飾。 文字與婆羅門同。 俗事天神，並崇信佛法也。 尤重二月八日、四月八日。 是日也，其國咸依釋教，齋戒行道焉。 氣候寒，土田良沃，穀有稻、粟、菽、麥，畜有駝、馬。 養蠶，不以為絲，唯充綿纊。 俗尚蒲桃酒，兼愛音樂。 南去海十餘里，有魚鹽蒲葦之饒。 東去高昌九百里，西去龜茲九百里，皆沙磧。 東南去瓜州二千二百里。
The state of Yanqi lay at Yuanqu, the southern capital of Cheshi, seventy li south of White Mountain; an old Han-era kingdom, it was ten thousand two hundred li from Dai. Its king, surname Long and personal name Jushibina, was a descendant of Long Xi, whom Zhang Gui of Former Liang had campaigned against. The capital city was two li square. Within the kingdom there were nine cities in all. The state was small and poor and had no formal laws or regulations. Its arms included bows, swords, armor, and spears. Marriage customs resembled those of Huaxia. The dead were cremated before burial, and mourning dress was cast off after seven days. Men all cut their hair short as a form of adornment. Writing followed the Brahmin script. They worshipped the Heavenly Spirit and also devoutly followed Buddhism. They especially observed the eighth day of the second month and the eighth day of the fourth month. On those days the whole kingdom observed Buddhist rites, fasting and performing religious devotions. The climate was cold and the soil fertile; grains included rice, millet, beans, and wheat, and livestock included camels and horses. They raised silkworms but did not reel silk, using the cocoons only for padding. Grape wine was favored and music widely loved. A little more than ten li to the south lay a sea rich in fish, salt, rushes, and reeds. It was nine hundred li east to Gaochang and nine hundred li west to Kucha, all desert. It was twenty-two hundred li southeast of Guazhou.
34
恃地多險，頗剽劫中國使。 太武怒之，詔成周公萬度歸討之，約齎輕糧，取食路次。 度歸入焉耆東界，擊其邊守左回、尉犁二城，拔之，進軍圍員渠。 鳩屍畢那以四五萬人出城，守險以距。 度歸募壯勇，短兵直往沖，鳩屍畢那眾大潰，盡虜之，單騎走入山中。 度歸進屠其城，四鄙諸戎皆降服。 焉耆為國，鬥絕一隅，不亂日久，獲其珍奇異玩，殊方譎詭難識之物，橐駝、馬、牛、雜畜巨萬。 時太武幸陰山北宮，度歸破焉耆露板至，帝省訖，賜司徒崔浩書曰：「萬度歸以五千騎，經萬餘里，拔焉耆三城，獲其珍奇異物及諸委積不可勝數。 自古帝王，雖云即序西戎，有如指注，不能控引也。 朕今手把而有之，如何？」 浩上書稱美。 遂命度歸鎮撫其人。 初，鳩屍畢那走山中，猶覬城不拔，得還其國。 既見盡為度歸所克，乃奔龜茲。 龜茲以其婿，厚待之。
Trusting in its rugged terrain, it frequently robbed Chinese envoys. Emperor Taiwu was furious and ordered Prince of Chengdu Wanduigui to attack them, telling him to travel light and live off the land. Wanduigui entered Yanqi's eastern frontier, took the border towns of Zuohui and Yuli, and advanced to besiege Yuanqu. Jushibina marched out with forty or fifty thousand men and held the defiles to block them. Duigui rallied picked warriors and charged straight in at close quarters; Jushibina's force broke completely and was taken captive, while he alone escaped on horseback into the mountains. Duigui advanced, sacked the city, and all the frontier tribes submitted. Yanqi had long stood apart in peace; the victors seized rare treasures and exotic curios from distant lands, together with tens of thousands of camels, horses, cattle, and other livestock. Emperor Taiwu was then at the Northern Palace on Mount Yinshan. When Duigui's victory report on Yanqi arrived, the emperor read it through and wrote to Minister of State Cui Hao: "Wan Duigui, with five thousand horsemen, crossed more than ten thousand li, took three Yanqi cities, and seized rare treasures and stored goods beyond numbering. Since antiquity, even when emperors spoke of bringing the Western Rong into order, it was like pointing at them from afar—they could not truly control them. I now hold them in my hand—what do you think of that?" Cui Hao submitted a memorial in praise. The emperor then ordered Duigui to pacify and govern the people. At first Jushibina fled into the mountains, still hoping the city would hold and he could return home. When he saw that Duigui had taken everything, he fled to Kucha. Kucha welcomed him warmly as a son-in-law.
35
周保定四年，其王遣使獻名焉。
In Zhou Baoding 4, its king sent envoys with tribute.
36
隋大業中，其王龍突騎支遣使貢方物。 是時，其國勝兵千餘人而已。
During the Sui Daye era, its king Long Tuqizhi sent envoys with regional tribute. At that time it could field only about a thousand soldiers.
37
龜茲國，在尉犁西北，白山之南一百七十里，都延城，漢時舊國也，去代一萬二百八十里。 其王姓白，即後涼呂光所立白震之後。 其王頭系彩帶，垂之於後，坐金師子床。 所居城方五六里。 其刑法，殺人者死，劫賊則斷其一臂，並刖一足。 賦稅，准地征租，無田者則稅銀。 風俗、婚姻、喪葬、物產與焉耆略同，唯氣候少溫為異。 又出細氈、燒銅、鐵、鉛、麖皮、氍毹、鐃沙、鹽綠、雌黃、胡粉、安息香、良馬、犎牛等。 東有輪台，即漢貳師將軍李廣利所屠者。 其南三百里，有大河東流，號計戍水，即黃河也。 東去焉耆九百里，南去于闐一千四百里，西去疏勒一千五百里，北去突厥牙六百餘里，東南去瓜州三千一百里。 其東關城戍，寇竊非一，太武詔萬度歸率騎一千以擊之。 龜茲遣烏羯目提等領兵三千距戰，度歸擊走之，斬二百餘級，大獲駝馬而還。 俗性多淫，置女市，收男子錢以入官。 土多孔雀，群飛山谷間，人取而食之，孳乳如雞鶩，其王家恆有千餘隻云。 其國西北大山中有如膏者，流出成川，行數里入地，狀如饣弟糊，甚臭。 服之，發齒已落者，能令更生，癘人服之，皆愈。 自後每使朝貢。
Kucha lay northwest of Yuli, one hundred seventy li south of White Mountain, with its capital at Yancheng; an old Han-era kingdom, it was ten thousand two hundred eighty li from Dai. Its king, surname Bai, was a descendant of Bai Zhen, whom Lü Guang of Later Liang had installed. The king wore a colored sash tied about his head, trailing behind him, and sat on a golden lion throne. The royal city was five or six li square. Under its penal code, murderers were executed; robbers had one arm severed and one foot cut off. Taxes were assessed by land; those without fields paid in silver. Its customs, marriage, funerals, and products closely resembled those of Yanqi, except that the climate was somewhat warmer. It also exported fine felt, refined copper, iron, lead, musk-deer hides, carpets, sal ammoniac, vitriol, orpiment, lead white, benzoin, fine horses, zebu cattle, and the like. To the east lay Luntai, the city Han General of the Second Division Li Guangli had destroyed. Three hundred li to the south was a great river flowing east, called Jishui—the text identifies it as the Yellow River. It was nine hundred li east of Yanqi, fourteen hundred li south of Khotan, fifteen hundred li west of Kashgar, more than six hundred li north of the Turk headquarters, and thirty-one hundred li southeast of Guazhou. Its eastern border forts had raided repeatedly; Emperor Taiwu ordered Wan Duigui to strike them with a thousand horsemen. Kucha sent Wujiemuti and others with three thousand men to resist; Duigui drove them off, took more than two hundred heads, and returned with a great haul of camels and horses. The people were licentious by custom; they maintained a women's market and collected men's payments for the state. Peacocks were abundant, flocking through the valleys; people caught and ate them, and they bred like chickens and ducks—the royal house, it is said, always kept more than a thousand. In the great mountains northwest of the kingdom flowed a greasy substance that formed a stream, ran several li, then sank into the earth; it looked like porridge paste and smelled foul. Taken internally, it could restore hair and teeth that had fallen out; lepers who consumed it were all cured. Thereafter it sent tribute envoys every year.
38
周保定元年，其王遣使來獻。
In Zhou Baoding 1, its king sent envoys with tribute.
39
隋大業中，其王白蘇尼栎巫遣使朝，貢方物。 是時，其國勝兵可數千人。
During the Sui Daye era, its king Bai Sunilüwu sent envoys to court with regional tribute. At that time it could field several thousand soldiers.
40
姑默國，居南城，在龜茲西，去代一萬五百里。 役屬龜茲。
Gumo, seat at Nancheng, west of Kucha, lay ten thousand five hundred li from Dai. It was subject to Kucha.
41
溫宿國，居溫宿城，在姑默西北，去代一萬五百五十里。 役屬龜茲。
Wensu, capital at Wensu city, northwest of Gumo, lay ten thousand five hundred fifty li from Dai. It was subject to Kucha.
42
尉頭國，居尉頭城，在溫宿北，去代一萬六百五十里。 役屬龜茲。
Weitou, capital at Weitou city, north of Wensu, lay ten thousand six hundred fifty li from Dai. It was subject to Kucha.
43
烏孫國，居赤穀城，在龜茲西北，去代一萬八十里。 其國數為蠕蠕所侵，西徙蔥嶺山中。 無城郭，隨畜牧逐水草。
Wusun, capital at Chigu city, northwest of Kucha, lay ten thousand eighty li from Dai. The state was repeatedly invaded by the Rouran and moved west into the Pamirs. It had no walled cities and lived by herding, moving after pasture and water.
44
太延三年，遣使者董琬等使其國，後每使朝貢。
In Taiyan 3, the court sent envoys led by Dong Wan to their state; thereafter it sent tribute every year.
45
疏勒國，在姑默西，白山南百餘里，漢時舊國也。 去代一萬一千二百五十里。 文成末，其王遣使送釋迦牟尼佛袈裟一，長二丈餘。 帝以審是佛衣，應有靈異，遂燒之以驗虛實，置於猛火之上，經日不然，觀者莫不悚駭，心形俱肅。 其王戴金師子冠。 土多稻、粟、麻、麥、銅、鐵、錫、雌黃，每歲常供送於突厥。 其都城方五里。 國內有大城十二，小城數十。 人手足皆六指，產子非六指者即不育。 勝兵者二千人。 南有黃河，西帶蔥嶺，東去龜茲千五百里，西去吲汗國千里，南去硃俱波八九百里，東北至突厥牙千餘里，東南去瓜州四千六百里。
Kashgar lay west of Gumo, south of White Mountain by more than a hundred li; it was an old Han-era kingdom. It lay eleven thousand two hundred fifty li from Dai. Near the end of Emperor Wencheng's reign, its king sent envoys with a kāṣāya said to belong to Śākyamuni Buddha, more than two zhang in length. Convinced it was the Buddha's robe and ought to show miraculous power, the emperor burned it to test its authenticity; though placed in fierce flames for a full day, it did not burn, and every onlooker was awestruck into reverent silence. Its king wore a golden lion crown. The land produced rice, millet, hemp, wheat, copper, iron, tin, and orpiment, which it sent annually to the Turks. Its capital was five li square. Within the kingdom were twelve great cities and several dozen smaller ones. People's hands and feet all had six fingers; infants born without six fingers were not kept. It could field two thousand soldiers. The Yellow River lay to the south and the Pamirs to the west; it was fifteen hundred li east of Kucha, a thousand li west of Yinghan, eight or nine hundred li south of Zhujubo, more than a thousand li northeast of the Turk headquarters, and forty-six hundred li southeast of Guazhou.
46
悅般國，在烏孫西北，去代一萬九百三十里。 其先，匈奴北單于之部落也。 為漢車騎將軍竇憲所逐，北單于度金微山西走康居，其羸弱不能去者，住龜茲北。 地方數千里，眾可二十餘萬，涼州人猶謂之單于王。 其風俗言語與高車同，而其人清潔于胡。 俗翦發齊眉，以饣弟糊塗之，昱昱然光澤。 日三澡漱，然後飲食。 其國南界有火山，山傍石皆燋鎔，流地數十里乃凝堅，人取以為藥，即石流黃也。
Yueban, northwest of Wusun, lay ten thousand nine hundred thirty li from Dai. Its people were originally a tribe of the Xiongnu Northern Chanyu. When Han General of the Chariots and Cavalry Dou Xian drove them out, the Northern Chanyu fled west of Mount Jinwei into Kangju; those too weak to follow remained north of Kucha. Their territory covered several thousand li; their population reached more than two hundred thousand; people of Liang province still called them the Chanyu kings. Their customs and language matched those of the Gaoche, but the people were cleaner than other Hu. By custom they cut their hair level with their eyebrows and coated it with porridge paste until it shone. They washed and rinsed their mouths three times daily before eating. On the southern border stood a volcano whose stones were scorched and melted; the molten rock ran for several tens of li before hardening, and people collected it as medicine—native sulfur.
47
與蠕蠕結好，其王嘗將數千人入蠕蠕國，欲與大檀相見。 入其界百餘里，見其部人不浣衣，不絆發，不洗手，婦人口舐器物。 王謂其從臣曰：「汝曹誑我，將我入此狗國中。」 乃馳還。 大檀遣騎追之，不及。 自是相仇讎，數相征討。
They were allied with the Rouran; their king once led several thousand men into Rouran lands to meet Datan. A hundred li inside their border he saw tribesmen who did not wash clothes, bind their hair, or wash their hands, and women who licked vessels with their mouths. The king told his attendants, "You lied to me and led me into this dog country." Then he galloped away. Datan sent horsemen in pursuit but failed to catch him. Thereafter they became bitter enemies and raided one another repeatedly.
48
真君九年，遣使朝獻。 並送幻人，稱能割人喉脈令斷，擊人頭令骨陷，皆血出或數升或盈鬥，以草藥內其口中，令嚼咽之，須臾血止，養瘡一月復常，又無痕瘢。 世疑其虛，乃取死罪囚試之，皆驗。 雲中國諸名山皆有此草，乃使人受其術而厚遇之。 又言：其國有大術者，蠕蠕來抄掠，術人能作霖雨、盲風、大雪及行潦，蠕蠕凍死漂亡者十二三。 是歲，再遣使朝貢，求與官軍東西齊契討蠕蠕。 太武嘉其意，命中外諸軍戒嚴，以淮南王佗為前鋒，襲蠕蠕。 仍詔有司，以其鼓舞之節，施於樂府。 自後每使朝貢。
In Zhenjun 9 they sent tribute envoys. They also sent illusionists who claimed to sever the throat and pulse, or strike the skull until it sank and blood poured out by the sheng or filled a bushel; then, putting herbs in the victim's mouth to chew, they stopped the bleeding within moments, and after a month of healing the man was whole again, without a scar. Skeptics tested the act on condemned prisoners—and each time it worked. They said the famous mountains of Yunzhong held the same herb, so the court sent men to learn the technique and treated the visitors generously. They also claimed a great adept in their land who, when the Rouran raided, could raise torrential rain, blinding storms, heavy snow, and floods until one or two tenths of the Rouran froze or drowned. That year they sent tribute again, asking for a coordinated campaign with imperial forces against the Rouran from east and west. Emperor Taiwu welcomed the proposal, put all armies on alert, and sent Prince of Huainan Tuo as vanguard against the Rouran. He also ordered the court to adopt their drum-and-dance rhythms for the Music Bureau. Thereafter they sent tribute envoys every year.
49
者至拔國，都者至拔城，在疏勒西，去代一萬一千六百二十里。 其國東有潘賀那山，出美鐵及師子。
Jizhibo, capital at Jizhibo city, west of Kashgar, lay eleven thousand six hundred twenty li from Dai. East of the kingdom stood Mount Panhena, source of fine iron and lions.
50
迷密國，都迷密城，在者至拔西，去代一萬二千一百里。 正平元年，遣使獻一峰黑橐駝。 其國東有山名郁悉滿山，出金、玉，亦多鐵。
Mimi, capital at Mimi city, west of Jizhibo, lay twelve thousand one hundred li from Dai. In Zhengping 1 they sent envoys with a single-humped black camel. East of the kingdom stood Mount Yuximan, yielding gold, jade, and abundant iron.
51
悉萬斤國，都悉萬斤城，在迷密西，去代一萬二千七百二十里。 其國南有山名伽色那山，出師子。 每使朝貢。
Samarkand, capital at Samarkand city, west of Mimi, lay twelve thousand seven hundred twenty li from Dai. South of the kingdom stood Mount Gaseina, home to lions. It sent tribute envoys every year.
52
忸密國，都忸密城，在悉萬斤西，去代二萬二千八百二十八里。
Wumi, capital at Wumi city, west of Samarkand, lay twenty-two thousand eight hundred twenty-eight li from Dai.
53
破洛那國，故大宛國也。 都貴山城，在疏勒西北，去代萬四千四百五十里。
Bactria was the old kingdom of Dayuan. Its capital was Guishan city, northwest of Kashgar, fourteen thousand four hundred fifty li from Dai.
54
太和三年，遣使獻汗血馬，自此每使朝貢。
In Taihe 3 they sent envoys with blood-sweating horses; thereafter they sent tribute every year.
55
粟特國，在蔥嶺之西，古之奄蔡，一名溫那沙，居於大澤，在康居西北，去代一萬六千里。 先是，匈奴殺其王而有其國，至王忽倪，已三世矣。 其國商人先多詣涼土販貨，及魏克姑臧，悉見虜。 文成初，粟特王遣使請贖之，詔聽焉。 自後無使朝獻。
Sogdiana lay west of the Pamirs; ancient Yancai, also called Wunasha, it dwelt in a great marsh northwest of Kangju, sixteen thousand li from Dai. Earlier the Xiongnu had killed its king and taken the kingdom; by the reign of King Huní, this had already lasted three generations. Its merchants had long traded in Liang territory, and when Wei captured Guzang they were all taken captive. Early in Emperor Wencheng's reign, the Sogdian king sent envoys to ransom them, and the court agreed. After that no tribute envoys came.
56
周保定四年，其王遣使貢方物。
In Zhou Baoding 4 its king sent envoys with regional tribute.
57
波斯國，都宿利城，在忸密西，古條支國也。 去代二萬四千二百二十八里。 城方十里，戶十餘萬，河經其城中南流。 土地平正，出金、銀、钅俞石、珊瑚、琥珀、車渠、馬腦，多大真珠、頗梨、琉璃、水精、瑟瑟、金剛、火齊、鑌鐵、銅、錫、硃砂、水銀、綾、錦、疊、毼、氍毹、毾◄、赤麞皮、及薰六、郁金、蘇合、青木等香，胡椒、蓽撥、石蜜、千年棗、香附子、訶梨勒、無食子、鹽綠、雌黃等物。 氣候暑熱，家自藏冰。 地多沙磧，引水溉灌。 其五穀及鳥獸等與中夏略同，唯無稻及黍、稷。 土出名馬、大驢及駝，往往有一日能行七百里者，富室至有數千頭。 又出白象、師子、大鳥卵。 有鳥形如橐駝，有兩翼，飛而不能高，食草與肉，亦能栎敢火。 其王姓波氏名斯，坐金羊床，戴金花冠，衣錦袍、織成帔，飾以真珠寶物。 其俗：丈夫翦發，戴白皮帽，貫頭衫，兩箱近下開之，亦有巾帔，緣以織成； 婦女服大衫，披大帔，其發前為髻，後披之，飾以金銀花，仍貫五色珠，絡之於膊。 王於其國內別有小牙十餘所，猶中國之離宮也。 每年四月出遊處之，十月仍還。 王即位以後，擇諸子內賢者，密書其名，封之于庫，諸子及大臣莫之知也。 王死，眾乃共發書視之，其封內有名者，即立以為王。 余子出各就邊任，兄弟更不相見也。 國人號王曰醫栎贊，妃曰防步率，王之諸子曰殺野。 大官有摸胡壇，掌國內獄訟； 泥忽汗，掌庫藏、關禁； 地卑，掌文書及眾務。 次有遏羅訶地，掌王之內事； 薛波勃，掌四方兵馬，其下皆有屬官，分統其事。 兵有甲、槊、圓排、劍、弩、弓、箭。 戰兼乘象，百人隨之。
Persia, capital at Suli city, west of Wumi, was the ancient kingdom of Taoxi. It lay twenty-four thousand two hundred twenty-eight li from Dai. The capital measured ten li square and held over one hundred thousand households; a river ran through it southward. Level ground yielded gold, silver, coral, amber, pearls, glass, lapis, crystal, sapphires, diamonds, wootz steel, copper, tin, cinnabar, mercury, silks, brocades, rugs, hides, and spices from asafetida and pepper to myrobalan and orpiment—goods almost without number. The climate was fiercely hot; families stored their own ice. Much of the soil was gravelly; irrigation depended on diverted water. Its grains and wildlife resembled those of the Middle Kingdom, though it lacked rice, glutinous millet, and millet. It bred famed horses, great donkeys, and camels—some covering seven hundred li in a day; rich households might own thousands. It also had white elephants, lions, and ostrich eggs. There was a winged bird shaped like a camel that could fly only low, ate plants and meat, and was not afraid even of fire. The king, surnamed Bo and named Si, sat on a golden ram throne, wore a golden floral crown, brocade robes and woven mantles, and was decked in pearls and jewels. Custom: men cropped their hair, wore white felt caps and pull-over tunics slit low at the sides; some also wore scarves edged with woven trim; Women wore long gowns and great mantles, hair looped before and loose behind, adorned with gold and silver flowers and strings of five-colored beads on the arms. The king kept more than ten minor palaces within the realm, like the detached palaces of China. Each year in the fourth month he toured them, returning in the tenth month. After accession the king secretly wrote the name of the worthiest son, sealed it in the treasury, and kept princes and ministers alike in ignorance. When the king died the seal was opened, and whoever was named inside became king at once. The other sons were posted to the frontiers and never met again. The people called the king Yilizan, the queen Fangbulü, and the princes Shaye. High officials included Mokhutan, who oversaw lawsuits and punishments within the realm; Nihouhan managed treasuries and frontier passes; Dibei managed documents and general affairs. Next came Elagandi, overseer of the king's inner household; Xuebopo commanded armies in the four directions, with subordinate officials under each to divide the work. Their forces used armor, spears, round shields, swords, crossbows, bows, and arrows. In battle they also fought from elephants, each attended by a hundred men.
58
其刑法：重罪懸諸竿上，射殺之； 次則系獄，新王立，乃釋之； 輕罪則劓、刖若髡，或翦半鬢及系牌于項，以為恥辱； 犯強盜，系之終身； 奸貴人妻者，男子流，婦人割其耳鼻。 賦稅，則准地輸銀錢。 俗事火神天神。 文字與胡書異。 多以姊妹為妻妾，自餘婚合，亦不擇尊卑，諸夷之中最為醜穢矣。 百姓女年十歲以上有姿貌者，王收養之，有功勳人，即以分賜。 死者，多棄屍於山，一月著服。 城外有人別居，唯知喪葬之事，號為不淨人。 若入城市，搖鈴自別。 以六月為歲首，尤重七月七日、十二月一日。 其日，人庶以上，各相命召，設會作樂，以極歡娛。 又每年正月二十日，各祭其先死者。
Penal law: for grave crimes the offender was hung on a pole and shot dead; lesser offenders were imprisoned and released when a new king acceded; light crimes brought nose-cutting, foot-cutting, head-shaving, clipping half the side-whiskers, or a placard hung on the neck as disgrace; robbers were bound for life; a man who seduced a noblewoman's wife was exiled, and the woman had her nose and ears cut off. Taxes were paid in silver according to land. They worshipped the fire god and the heavenly god. Their script differed from the writing of the northern peoples. Men often married their sisters; other unions ignored rank as well—the most revolting custom among the western peoples. Comely common girls over ten were raised in the royal household and bestowed on men of merit. The dead were usually left on the mountains, and mourners wore funeral dress for one month. Outside the walls lived people set apart for funerals alone—they were called the Unclean. When they entered the city they rang bells to distinguish themselves. They began the year in the sixth month and especially observed the seventh day of the seventh month and the first day of the twelfth month. On those days nobles and commoners summoned one another to feasts and music, reveling to the utmost. Each year on the twentieth day of the first month they sacrificed to their ancestors.
59
神龜中，其國遣使上書貢物，云：「大國天子，天之所生，願日出處常為漢中天子。 波斯國王居和多千萬敬拜。」 朝廷嘉納之。 自此，每使朝獻。 恭帝二年，其王又遣使獻方物。
In the Shengui era the kingdom sent envoys with tribute and a letter saying, "Son of Heaven of the great state, born of Heaven—we pray that he where the sun rises may forever be Son of Heaven of Han China. The king of Persia, Jvheduo Qianwan, pays reverent homage. The court graciously accepted the tribute. Thereafter tribute envoys came every year. In Emperor Gong 2 its king again sent envoys with regional tribute.
60
隋煬帝時，遣雲騎尉李昱使通波斯。 尋使隨昱貢方物。
Under Emperor Yang of Sui, Cloud Cavalry Commandant Li Yu was dispatched to Persia. Persian envoys soon followed Yu with regional tribute.
61
伏盧尼國，都伏盧尼城，在波斯國北，去代二萬七千三百二十里。 累石為城，東有大河南流，中有鳥，其形似人，亦有如橐駝、馬者，皆有翼，常居水中，出水便死。 城北有雲尼山，出銀、珊瑚、琥珀，多師子。
Volunni, capital at Volunni city, north of Persia, lay twenty-seven thousand three hundred twenty li from Dai. Its walls were piled stone; east of it a great river flowed south. In the river were winged birds shaped like men, camels, and horses that lived in the water and died once they left it. North of the city stood Mount Yunni, source of silver, coral, and amber and home to many lions.
62
色知顯國，都色知顯城，在悉萬斤西北，去代一萬二千九百四十里。 土平，多五果。
Sezhixian, capital at Sezhixian city, northwest of Samarkand, lay twelve thousand nine hundred forty li from Dai. The land was level and rich in fruit.
63
伽色尼國，都伽色尼城，在悉萬斤南，去代一萬二千九百里。 土出赤鹽，多五果。
Gaseini, capital at Gaseini city, south of Samarkand, lay twelve thousand nine hundred li from Dai. The soil yielded red salt and abundant fruit.
64
薄知國，都薄知城，在伽色尼國南，去代一萬三千三百二十里。 多五果。
Bozhi, capital at Bozhi city, south of Gaseini, lay thirteen thousand three hundred twenty li from Dai. It had abundant fruit.
65
牟知國，都牟知城，在忸密西南，去代二萬二千九百二十里。 土平，禽獸草木類中國。
Mouzhi, capital at Mouzhi city, southwest of Wumi, lay twenty-two thousand nine hundred twenty li from Dai. The land was level; birds, beasts, and plants resembled those of China.
66
阿弗太汗國，都阿弗太汗城，在忸密西，去代二萬三千七百二十里。 土平，多五果。
Afutaihan, capital at Afutaihan city, west of Wumi, lay twenty-three thousand seven hundred twenty li from Dai. The land was level and rich in fruit.
67
呼似密國，都呼似密城，在阿弗太汗西，去代二萬四千七百里。 土平，出銀、琥珀，有師子，多五果。
Husimi, capital at Husimi city, west of Afutaihan, lay twenty-four thousand seven hundred li from Dai. The land was level, yielding silver and amber; it had lions and abundant fruit.
68
諾色波羅國，都波羅城，在忸密南，去代二萬三千四百二十八里。 土平，宜稻、麥，多五果。
Nuoseboluo, capital at Boluo city, south of Wumi, lay twenty-three thousand four hundred twenty-eight li from Dai. The land was level, suited to rice and wheat, and rich in fruit.
69
早伽至國，都早伽至成，在忸密西，去代二萬三千七百二十八里。 土平，少田殖，取稻、麥於鄰國，有五果。
Zaogazhi, capital at Zaogazhi Cheng, west of Wumi, lay twenty-three thousand seven hundred twenty-eight li from Dai. The land was level but poorly cultivated; rice and wheat came from neighboring states, and it had five kinds of fruit.
70
伽不單國，都伽不單城，在悉萬斤西北，去代一萬二千七百八十里。 土平，宜稻、麥，有五果。
Jiabudan, capital at Jiabudan city, northwest of Samarkand, lay twelve thousand seven hundred eighty li from Dai. The land was level, suited to rice and wheat, and had five kinds of fruit.
71
者舌國，故康居國，在破洛那西北，去代一萬五千四百五十里。 太延三年，遣使朝貢，不絕。
Zheshe, the old kingdom of Kangju, northwest of Bactria, lay fifteen thousand four hundred fifty li from Dai. In Taiyan 3 envoys came with tribute, and the missions did not cease.
72
伽倍國，故休密翕侯，都和墨城，在莎車西，去代一萬三千里。 人居山谷間。
Jiabei, the old Xiumi xihou, capital at Hemocheng west of Yarkand, lay thirteen thousand li from Dai. Its people lived in mountain valleys.
73
折薛莫孫國，故雙靡翕侯，都雙靡城，在伽倍西，去代一萬三千五百里。 居山谷間。
Zhexiesun, the old Shuangmi xihou, capital at Shuangmi city west of Jiabei, lay thirteen thousand five hundred li from Dai. They lived in mountain valleys.
74
鉗敦國，故貴霜翕侯，都護澡城，在折薛莫孫西，去代一萬三千五百六十里，居山谷間。
Qiandun, the old Guishuang xihou, capital at Huzao city west of Zhexiesun, thirteen thousand five hundred sixty li from Dai, lived in mountain valleys.
75
弗敵沙國，故肹頓翕侯，都薄茅城，在鉗敦西，去代一萬三千六百六十里。 居山谷間。
Fudisha, the old Xidun xihou, capital at Baomao city west of Qiandun, lay thirteen thousand six hundred sixty li from Dai. They lived in mountain valleys.
76
閻浮謁國，故高附翕侯，都高附城，在弗敵沙南，去代一萬三千七百六十里。 居山谷間。
Yanfuye, the old Gaofu xihou, capital at Gaofu city south of Fudisha, lay thirteen thousand seven hundred sixty li from Dai. They lived in mountain valleys.
77
大月氏國，都剩鹽氏城，在弗敵沙西，去代一萬四千五百里。 北與蠕蠕接，數為所侵，遂西徙都薄羅城，去弗敵沙二千一百里。 其王寄多羅勇武，遂興師越大山，南侵北天竺。 自乾陀羅以北五國，盡役屬之。 太武時，其國人商販京師，自雲能鑄石為五色琉璃。 於是採礦山中，于京師鑄之，既成，光澤乃美於西方來者。 乃詔為行殿，容百餘人，光色映徹，觀者見之，莫不驚駭，以為神明所作。 自此，國中琉璃遂賤，人不復珍之。
The Great Yuezhi, capital at Shengyanshi city west of Fudisha, lay fourteen thousand five hundred li from Dai. Bordering the Rouran on the north, it was repeatedly invaded and moved west to Boluo city, two thousand one hundred li from Fudisha. King Jiduoluo, brave and martial, marched over the great mountains and invaded northern India. From Gandhara northward, five states were wholly subjugated. In Emperor Taiwu's reign, its merchants at the capital claimed they could cast stone into five-colored glass. Ore was mined in the mountains and cast at the capital; the finished glass outshone western imports. An edict had it made into a traveling hall for more than a hundred men; light streamed through it, and onlookers were awestruck, deeming it divine work. Thereafter glass in the realm grew cheap and was no longer prized.
78
安息國，在蔥嶺西，都蔚搜城。 北與康居，西與波斯相接，在大月氏西北，去代二萬一千五百里。
Parthia lay west of the Pamirs, capital at Weisou city. Bordering Kangju on the north and Persia on the west, northwest of the Great Yuezhi, it lay twenty-one thousand five hundred li from Dai.
79
周天和二年，其王遣使朝獻。
In Zhou Tianhe 2 its king sent envoys with tribute.
80
條支國，在安息西，去代二萬九千四百里。
Taoxi lay west of Parthia, twenty-nine thousand four hundred li from Dai.
81
大秦國，一名黎軒，都安都城，從條支西渡海曲一萬里，去代三萬九千四百里。 其海滂出，猶渤海也，而東西與渤海相望，蓋自然之理。 地方六千里，居兩海之間。 其地平正，人居星布。 其王都城分為五城，各方五里，周六十里。 王居中城，城置八臣，以主四方。 而王城亦置八臣，分主四城。 若謀國事及四方有不決者，則四城之臣，集議王所，王自聽之，然後施行。 王三年一出觀風化。 人有冤枉詣王訴訟者，當方之臣，小則讓責，大則黜退，令其舉賢人以代之。 其人端正長大，衣服、車旗，擬儀中國，故外域謂之大秦。 其土宜五穀、桑、麻，人務蠶、田。 多璆琳、琅玕、神龜、白馬硃鬣、明珠、夜光璧。 東南通交趾，又水道通益州永昌郡。 多出異物。
Daqin, also called Lixuan, capital at Andu city, lay ten thousand li west across the sea's bend from Taoxi, thirty-nine thousand four hundred li from Dai. Its sea swelled outward like the Bohai, yet faced the Bohai east and west—as though by nature's design. Its territory measured six thousand li square, between two seas. The land was level and settlements were scattered like stars. The royal capital was divided into five cities, each five li square, sixty li around. The king lived in the central city, with eight ministers placed there to govern the four directions. The royal city also had eight ministers, each governing one outer city. When state affairs or matters in the four directions were unresolved, ministers of the four cities met at court; the king heard them and then acted. Every three years the king went out to observe the people's customs. If anyone wronged came to the king to sue, the local officials, for lesser faults were reprimanded, for greater ones removed and told to recommend able men to take their place. Their people were tall and well-formed; their dress, chariots, and banners mirrored Chinese ceremonial—and so the outer lands called them Daqin. The land suited grain, mulberry, and hemp; the people worked at silkworms and farming. It produced fine jades, coral, sacred tortoises, white horses with crimson manes, luminous pearls, and night-shining jade disks. Southeast it connected with Jiaozhi; by waterways it also reached Yongchang commandery in Yizhou. Many exotic goods came from there.
82
大秦西海水之西有河，河西南流。 河西有南北山，山西有赤水，西有白玉山，玉山西有西王母山，玉為堂室云。 從安息西界循海曲，亦至大秦，回萬餘里。 于彼國觀日月星辰，無異中國，而前史云：條支西行百里，日入處，失之遠矣。
West of Daqin's Western Sea lay a river flowing southwest. West of the river stood north and south mountains; beyond them lay the Red River, then White Jade Mountain, and beyond that Queen Mother of the West Mountain—where, it is said, jade formed halls and chambers. From Parthia's western frontier, following the sea's curve, one could also reach Daqin—a journey of more than ten thousand li round trip. Observed from that land, sun, moon, and stars were no different from China—yet earlier histories placed the sunset a hundred li west of Taoxi, far off the mark.
83
阿鉤羌國，在莎車西南，去代一萬三千里。 國西南有縣度山，其間四百里，中往往有棧道，下臨不測之深，人行以繩索相持而度，因以名之。 土有五穀、諸果。 市用錢為貨。 居止立宮室。 有兵器，土出金珠。
Agou Qiang lay southwest of Shache, thirteen thousand li from Dai. Southwest of the state stood Mount Xiandu; across four hundred li between them plank roads often overhung unfathomable depths, and travelers crossed holding one another by rope—hence the name. The land yielded grain and many kinds of fruit. Markets used coin as currency. They lived in built houses and palaces. They had weapons; the land produced gold and pearls.
84
波路國，在阿鉤羌西北，去代一萬三千九百里。 其地濕熱，有蜀馬。 土平，物產國俗與阿鉤羌同類焉。
Bolu lay northwest of Agou Qiang, thirteen thousand nine hundred li from Dai. The land was humid and hot; it had Shu horses. The terrain was level; products and customs resembled those of Agou Qiang.
85
小月氏國，都富樓沙城，其王本大月氏王寄多羅子也。 寄多羅為匈奴所逐，西徙。 後令其子守此城，因號小月氏焉。 在波路西南，去代一萬六千六百里。 先居西平、張掖之間，被服頗與羌同。 其俗以金銀錢為貨，隨畜牧移徙，亦類匈奴。 其城東十里有佛塔，周三百五十步，高八十丈。 自佛塔初建計至武定八年，八百四十二年，年謂百丈佛圖也。
The Lesser Yuezhi, capital at Fulusha, was ruled by a king who was originally the son of the Great Yuezhi king Jiduoluo. Jiduoluo was driven out by the Xiongnu and moved west. He later left his son to hold this city, and so they came to be called the Lesser Yuezhi. It lay southwest of Bolu, sixteen thousand six hundred li from Dai. They had once lived between Xiping and Zhangye; their dress was much like the Qiang. They used gold and silver coin as currency and moved with their herds, much like the Xiongnu. Ten li east of the city stood a Buddhist pagoda three hundred fifty paces around and eighty zhang high. From its first building to Wuding 8 was eight hundred forty-two years—they called it the hundred-zhang pagoda.
86
罽賓國，都善見城，在波路西南，去代一萬四千二百里。 居在四山中，其地東西八百里，南北三百里。 地平，溫和，有苜蓿、雜草、奇木、檀、槐、梓、竹。 種五穀。 糞園。 田地下濕，生稻。 冬食生菜。 其人工巧，雕文刻鏤，織罽。 有金、銀、銅、錫，以為器物。 市用錢。 他畜與諸國同。 每使朝獻。
Jibin, capital at Shanjian, lay southwest of Bolu, fourteen thousand two hundred li from Dai. It sat among four mountains; its lands stretched eight hundred li east to west and three hundred li north to south. The terrain was level and mild, with alfalfa, mixed grasses, rare trees, sandalwood, locust, catalpa, and bamboo. They cultivated grain. They fertilized their gardens. The fields were low and wet; rice grew there. In winter they ate fresh greens. The people were clever with their hands, carving inlaid designs and weaving carpets. Gold, silver, copper, and tin were worked into utensils. Markets used coin. Other livestock resembled that of neighboring states. It sent tribute envoys regularly.
87
吐呼羅國，去代一萬二千里。 東至范陽國，西至悉萬斤國，中間相去二千里； 南至連山，不知名，北至波斯國，中間相去一萬里。 薄提城周匝六十里，城南有西流大水，名漢樓河。 土宜五穀，有好馬、駝、騾。 其王曾遣使朝貢。
Tuhuoluo lay twelve thousand li from Dai. East to Fanyang, west to Xiwansijin, two thousand li apart; south to unnamed mountain ranges, north to Persia, ten thousand li apart. Boti city ran sixty li around; south of it flowed a great river westward, the Hanlou River. The land suited grain; it had fine horses, camels, and mules. Its king once sent tribute envoys.
88
副貨國，去代一萬七千里。 東至阿富使且國，西至沒誰國，中間相去一千里； 南有連山，不知名，北至奇沙國，相去一干五百里。 國中有副貨城，周匝七十里。 宜五穀、蒲桃，唯有馬、駝、騾。 國王有黃金殿，殿下有金駝七頭，各高三尺。 其王遣使朝貢。
Fuhe lay seventeen thousand li from Dai. East to Afushiqie, west to Meishui, one thousand li apart; south lay unnamed mountain ranges, north to Qisha, fifteen hundred li apart. Its capital, Fuhe city, ran seventy li around. The land suited grain and grapes; livestock was limited to horses, camels, and mules. The king had a golden hall with seven golden camels beneath it, each three chi high. Its king sent tribute envoys.
89
南天竺國，去代三萬一千五百里。 有伏醜城，周匝十里。 城中出摩尼珠、珊瑚。 城東三百里有拔賴城，城中出黃金、白真檀、石蜜、蒲桃。 土宜五穀。
South India lay thirty-one thousand five hundred li from Dai. It had Fuchou city, ten li around. The city produced mani pearls and coral. Three hundred li east stood Balai city, producing gold, white sandalwood, rock honey, and grapes. The land suited grain.
90
宣武時，其國王婆羅化遣使獻駿馬、金、銀。 自此，每使朝貢。
Under Emperor Xuanwu, King Poluohua sent envoys with fine horses, gold, and silver. From then on tribute envoys came regularly.
91
疊伏羅國，去代三萬一千里。 國中有勿悉城，城北有鹽奇水，西流。 有白象。 並有阿末黎木，皮中織作布。 土宜五穀。
Diefuluo lay thirty-one thousand li from Dai. It had Wuxi city; north of the city the Yanqi River flowed west. It had white elephants. It also had amoli trees; cloth was woven from the bark. The land suited grain.
92
宣武時，其國王伏陀末多遣使獻方物。 自是，每使朝貢。
Under Emperor Xuanwu, King Fotuomoduo sent envoys with regional goods. Thereafter tribute envoys came regularly.
93
拔豆國，去代五萬一千里。 東至多勿當國，西至旃那國，中間相去七百五十里； 南至罽陵伽國，北至弗那伏且國，中間相去九百里。 國中出金、銀、雜寶、白象、水牛、犛牛、蒲桃、五果，土宜五穀。
Badou lay fifty-one thousand li from Dai. East to Duowudang, west to Zhana, seven hundred fifty li apart; south to Jilingjia, north to Funafuqie, nine hundred li apart. It produced gold, silver, assorted treasures, white elephants, water buffalo, yaks, grapes, and many fruits; the land also suited grain.
94
嚈噠國，大月氏之種類也，亦曰高車之別種。 其原出於塞北。 自金山而南，在于闐之西，都烏滸水南二百餘里，去長安一萬一百里。 其王都拔底延城，蓋王舍城也。 其城方十里餘，多寺塔，皆飾以金。 風俗與突厥略同。 其俗，兄弟共一妻，夫無兄弟者，妻戴一角帽，若有兄弟者，依其多少之數更加帽角焉。 衣服類加以纓絡，頭皆翦發。 其語與蠕蠕、高車及諸胡不同。 眾可有十萬，無城邑，依隨水草，以氈為屋，夏遷涼土，冬逐暖處，分其諸妻，各在別所，相去或二百、三百里。 其王巡曆而行，每月一處。 冬寒之時，三月不徙。 王位不必傳子，子弟堪者，死便受之。 其國無車，有輿，多駝、馬。 用刑嚴急，偷盜無多少，皆腰斬，盜一責十。 死者，富家累石為藏，貧者掘地而埋，隨身諸物，皆置塚內。 其人凶悍，能鬥戰，西域康居、于闐、沙勒、安息及諸小國三十許，皆役屬之，號為大國。 與蠕蠕婚姻。
The Yeda were kin to the Great Yuezhi, also reckoned a separate branch of the Gaoche. They originated north of the frontier passes. South from Jin Mountain, west of Khotan, their capital lay two hundred-odd li south of the Wuhu River, ten thousand one hundred li from Chang'an. The royal seat was Badiyan city—probably the old Wangshe (Rajagriha). The city was a little over ten li square, with many temples and pagodas all gilded. Customs roughly matched those of the Turks. Brothers shared one wife; a wife whose husband had no brothers wore a one-horned cap, and for each brother an additional horn was added. Garments were trimmed with tassels and cords; hair was cut short. Their language differed from Rouran, Gaoche, and the other Hu peoples. They numbered perhaps one hundred thousand, with no walled towns; they followed pasture and water, lived in felt tents, moved to cool lands in summer and warm ones in winter, and kept their wives at separate camps sometimes two or three hundred li apart. The king moved in circuit, one camp each month. In the depth of winter they did not move for three months. The throne did not have to pass to a son; when the ruler died, whichever kinsman was fit took it. They had no chariots, only litters, and many camels and horses. Justice was severe: any theft, however small, meant execution by cutting at the waist; steal one, repay ten. The wealthy piled stone tombs; the poor dug earth graves; all belongings went into the mound with the dead. They were fierce fighters; Kangju, Khotan, Shule, Parthia, and some thirty small Western Region states all served them—their realm was reckoned a great power. They intermarried with the Rouran.
95
自太安以後，每遣使朝貢，正光末，遣貢師子一，至高平，遇万俟醜奴反，因留之。 醜奴平，送京師。 永熙以後，朝獻遂絕。
From Tai'an they sent tribute envoys regularly; at the end of Zhenguang they sent a lion as tribute, but at Gaoping it was detained when Moqi Chounu rebelled. After Chounu was subdued, the lion was sent to the capital. After Yongxi, tribute ceased.
96
至大統十二年，遣使獻其方物。 廢帝二年、周明帝二年，並遣使來獻。 後為突厥所破，部落分散，職貢遂絕。 至隋大業中，又遣使朝貢方物。
In Datong 12 they sent envoys with regional goods. In Feidi 2 and Zhou Mingdi 2 they both sent tribute envoys. Later the Turks broke them; the tribes scattered and formal tribute stopped. In the Sui Daye reign they again sent tribute envoys.
97
其國去漕國千五百里，東去瓜州六千五百里。
The realm lay fifteen hundred li from Caoguo and sixty-five hundred li east of Guazhou.
98
初，熙平中，明帝遣剩伏子統宋雲、沙門法力等使西域，訪求佛經，時有沙門慧生者，亦與俱行。 正光中，還。 慧生所經諸國，不能知其本末及山川里數，獸舉其略云。
At first, in the Xiping era, Emperor Ming sent Song Yun, bearer of the shengfu credential, the monk Fali, and others to the Western Regions to seek Buddhist scriptures; the monk Hu Sheng traveled with them. They returned in the Zhenguang era. Hu Sheng could not determine the origins or distances of the lands he crossed; what follows is only a brief account.
99
硃居國，在于闐西。 其人山居，有麥，多林果。 咸事佛，語與于闐相類，役屬嚈噠。
Zhuju lay west of Khotan. The people lived in the mountains; they had wheat and abundant orchard fruit. They all followed Buddhism; their speech resembled Khotan's, and they were subject to the Yeda.
100
渴盤陀國，在蔥嶺東，硃駒波西。 河經其國東北流，有高山，夏積霜雪。 亦事佛道，附於嚈噠。
Kepantuo lay east of the Pamirs, west of Zhujubo. A river ran northeast through their country; high mountains there kept frost and snow even in summer. They too followed Buddhism and were subject to the Yeda.
101
缽和國，在渴盤陀西。 其土尤寒，人畜同居，穴地而處。 又有大雪山，望若銀峰。 其人唯食餅面，飲麥酒，服氈裘。 有二道，一道西行向嚈噠，一道西南趣烏萇。 亦為嚈噠所統。
Bohe lay west of Kepantuo. The land was bitterly cold; people and livestock shared dwellings, living in dug-out chambers. There was also a great snow mountain that appeared like a silver peak. The people ate only flatbread and noodles, drank wheat ale, and wore felt cloaks. Two roads led out: one west toward the Yeda, one southwest toward Wuchang. They too were subject to the Yeda.
102
波知國，在缽和西南。 土狹人貧，依託山谷，其王不能總攝。 有三池，傳云大池有龍，次者有龍婦，小者有龍子，行人經之，設祭乃得過，不祭，多遇風雪之困。
Bozhi lay southwest of Bohe. The land was cramped and the people poor; clinging to mountain valleys, their king could not govern effectively. There were three pools; tradition held that the largest held a dragon, the next a dragon's mate, and the smallest a dragon's son. Travelers who passed made offerings and then could cross; without offerings, they often met wind and snow hardship.
103
賒彌國，在波知之南。 山居，不信佛法，專事諸神。 亦附嚈噠。
Shemi lay south of Bozhi. They lived in the mountains, rejected Buddhism, and served various spirits exclusively. They too were subject to the Yeda.
104
東有缽盧勒國，路險，緣鐵鎖而度，不下見底。 熙平中，宋雲等竟不能達。
To the east lay Bolule; the route was perilous, crossed by iron chains with the depths invisible below. In the Xiping era, Song Yun and his party could not reach it at all.
105
烏萇國，在賒彌南。 北有蔥嶺，南至天竺。 婆羅門胡為其上族。 婆羅門多解天文吉凶之數，其王動則訪決焉。 土多林果，引水灌田，豐稻、麥。 事佛，多諸寺塔，極華麗。 人有爭訴，服之以藥，曲者發狂，直者無恙。 為法不殺，犯死罪唯徙於靈山。 西南有檀特山，山上立寺，以驢數頭運食山下，無人控禦，自知往來也。
Wuchang lay south of Shemi. North lay the Pamirs; south reached India. Brahmin foreigners formed the ruling elite. Many Brahmins understood astronomy and the calculation of fortune and misfortune; when the king acted, he consulted them. The land had many orchard fruits; they irrigated the fields and had abundant rice and wheat. They followed Buddhism; monasteries and pagodas were numerous and exceedingly splendid. In disputes, both parties took medicine: the guilty went mad, the innocent suffered no harm. Their law forbade killing; capital offenders were merely exiled to Spirit Mountain. Southwest stood Mount Tante, with a monastery on its summit; donkeys carried food down the slope with no driver—they moved of their own accord.
106
乾陀國，在烏萇西。 本名業波，為嚈噠所破，因改焉。 其王本是敕勒，臨國已二世矣。 好征戰，與罽賓鬥，三年不罷，人怨苦之。 有鬥象七百頭，十人乘一象，皆執兵仗，象鼻縛刀以戰。 所都城東南七里有佛塔，高七十丈，周三百步，即所謂雀離佛圖也。
Gandhara lay west of Wuchang. Originally called Yabo, it was broken by the Yeda and renamed accordingly. Its king was originally of the Chile people and had already ruled for two generations. He loved warfare and fought Jibin for three years without pause; the people resented and suffered for it. He had seven hundred war elephants; ten men rode each, all armed, with blades bound to the elephants' trunks for combat. Seven li southeast of the capital stood a Buddhist pagoda seventy zhang high and three hundred paces around—the so-called Sparrow-Perch Buddha Stupa.
107
康國者，康居之後也，遷徙無常，不恆故地，自漢以來，相承不絕。 其王本姓溫，月氏人也，舊居祁連山北昭武城，因被匈奴所破，西逾蔥嶺，遂有國。 枝庶各分王，故康國左右諸國並以昭武為姓，示不忘本也。 王字世夫畢，為人寬厚，甚得眾心。 其妻，突厥達度可汗女也。 都于薩寶水上阿祿迪城。 多人居，大臣三人，共掌國事。 其王素冠七寶花，衣綾、羅、錦、繡、白疊。 其妻有發，幪以皁巾。 丈夫翦發，錦袍。 名為強國，西域諸國多歸之。 米國、史國、曹國、何國、安國、小安國、那色波國、烏那曷國、穆國皆歸附之。 有胡律，置於祅祠，將決罰，則取而斷之。 重者族，次罪者死，賊盜截其足。 人皆深目、高鼻、多髯。 善商賈，諸夷交易，多湊其國。 有大小鼓、琵琶、五弦、箜篌。 婚姻喪制與突厥同。 國立祖廟，以六月祭之，諸國皆助祭。 奉佛，為胡書。 氣候溫，宜五穀，勤修園蔬，樹木滋茂。 出馬、駝、驢、犎牛、黃金、硇沙、<貝甘>香、阿薩那香、瑟瑟、麞皮、氍<叟毛>、錦、疊。 多蒲桃酒，富家或致千石，連年不敗。
Kang was the successor to Kangju; they moved without fixed abode and seldom stayed in one place—from Han times the line continued unbroken. The king's original surname was Wen; he was Yuezhi, formerly dwelling at Zhaowu city north of the Qilian Mountains; driven out by the Xiongnu, he crossed west beyond the Pamirs and founded a state. Cadet branches each ruled in turn, so the states around Kang all bore the surname Zhaowu, showing they did not forget their origins. The king, styled Shifubi, was generous and greatly won the people's hearts. His wife was a daughter of the Turkic qaghan Tardu. The capital was Aludi city on the Saba River. The population was large; three great ministers jointly governed state affairs. The king customarily wore a seven-jewel flower crown and robes of gauze, silk, brocade, embroidery, and white layered cloth. His wife wore her hair long and covered it with a black kerchief. Men cut their hair short and wore brocade robes. It was reckoned a powerful state, and many Western Region states submitted to it. Mi, Shi, Cao, He, An, Lesser An, Nashebo, Wunahe, and Mu all submitted to it. They had a Hu legal code kept in the fire temple; when punishments were to be decided, it was taken out and judgment rendered accordingly. Grave offenses brought punishment on the whole clan; lesser crimes brought death; thieves had their feet cut off. The people had deep-set eyes, high noses, and heavy beards. Skilled in commerce, many foreign merchants gathered there to trade. They had large and small drums, pipa, five-string lutes, and konghou harps. Marriage and mourning customs matched those of the Turks. The state maintained an ancestral temple and sacrificed in the sixth month, with all the subject states assisting. They followed Buddhism and wrote in Hu script. The climate was mild; grain thrived; they diligently tended gardens and vegetables, and trees flourished. They produced horses, camels, donkeys, zebu, gold, sal ammoniac, Beigan incense, asana incense, sese, deerskin, soumao, brocade, and layered cloth. Grape wine was plentiful; wealthy households sometimes stored a thousand shi, keeping it for years without spoiling.
108
大業中，始遣使貢方物，後遂絕焉。
In the Daye reign they first sent envoys with regional goods; afterward tribute ceased.
109
安國，漢時安息國也。 王姓昭武氏，與康國王同族，字設力； 妻，康國王女也。 都在那密水南，城有五重，環以流水，宮殿皆平頭。 王坐金駝座，高七八尺，每聽政，與妻相對，大臣三人，評理國事。 風俗同于康居，唯妻其姊妹及母子遞相禽獸，此為異也。
An was the Parthian state known in Han times. The king bore the surname Zhaowu, of the same clan as the king of Kang; his personal name was Sheli; his wife was the king of Kang's daughter. The capital stood south of the Nami River; the city had five enclosures ringed by flowing water, and the palaces all had flat roofs. The king sat on a golden camel throne seven or eight chi high; when he held court he faced his wife, while three great ministers assessed state affairs. Customs resembled those of Kangju, save that they wed their sisters and practiced successive union between mothers and sons like beasts—this was the exceptional feature.
110
隋煬帝即位，遣司隸從事杜行滿使西域，至其國，得五色鹽而返。
When Emperor Yang of Sui ascended the throne, he sent Du Xingman of the Director of Retainers' staff as envoy to the Western Regions; reaching this state, he obtained five-colored salt and returned.
111
國西百餘里有畢國，可千餘家。 其國無君長，安國統之。 大業五年，遣使貢獻。
More than a hundred li west lay Bi, with perhaps a thousand-odd households. That state had no ruler of its own; An governed it. In Daye 5 they sent tribute envoys.
112
石國，居於藥殺水，都城方十餘里。 其王姓石名涅。 國城東南立屋，置座於中。 正月六日，以王父母燒余之骨，金甕盛置床上，巡繞而行，散以花香雜果，王率臣下設祭焉。 禮終，王與夫人出就別帳，臣下以次列坐，享宴而罷。 有粟、麥，多良馬。 其俗善戰。 曾貳於突厥，射匱可汗滅之，令特勤甸職攝其國事。 南去吲汗六百里，東南去瓜州六千里。
Shi dwelt on the Yaosha River; its capital was a little more than ten li square. Its king bore the surname Shi and the personal name Nie. Southeast of the capital they built a hall with a seat placed within. On the first month's sixth day they placed the burnt bones of the king's parents in a golden urn on a couch, walked around scattering flowers and mixed fruits, and the king led his ministers in sacrifice. When the rites ended, the king and his consort withdrew to a separate tent while the ministers sat in order and feasted before dispersing. They had millet and wheat and many fine horses. They were warlike by custom. They had once sided with the Turks; qaghan Shekui destroyed them and had special prince Tegin Dianzhi administer their state affairs. It lay six hundred li south of Yinhan and six thousand li southeast of Guazhou.
113
甸職以隋大業五年遣使朝貢，後不復至。
Dianzhi sent tribute envoys in Sui Daye 5; afterward they came no more.
114
女國，在蔥嶺南。 其國世以女為王，姓蘇毗，字末羯，在位二十年，女王夫號曰金聚，不知政事。 國內丈夫，唯以征伐為務。 山下為城，方五六里，人有萬家。 王居九層之樓，侍女數百人，五日一聽朝，復有小女王共知國政。 其俗婦人輕丈夫，而性不妒忌。 男女皆以彩色塗面，而一日中或數度變改之。 人皆被髮，以皮為鞋。 課稅無常。 氣候多寒，以射獵為業。 出钅俞石、硃砂、麝香、ＢＸ牛、駿馬、蜀馬。 尤多鹽，恆將鹽向天竺興販，其利數倍。 亦數與天竺、党項戰爭。 其女王死，國中厚斂金錢，求死者族中之賢女二人，一為女王，次為小王。 貴人死剝皮，以金屑和骨肉置瓶中，埋之。 經一年，又以其皮納鐵器埋之。 俗事阿修羅神，又有樹神，歲初以人祭，或用獼猴。 祭畢，入山祝之，有一鳥如雌雉，來集掌上，破腹其視之，有眾粟則年豐，沙石則有災，謂之鳥卜。
The Women's State lay south of the Pamirs. That state through the generations had a woman as king; the surname was Subi and the personal name Mojie; she reigned twenty years. The queen's husband was styled Jinjui and did not handle state affairs. Within the state the men devoted themselves only to warfare. Below the mountain stood a city four or five li square, with ten thousand households. The queen lived in a nine-story tower attended by several hundred women; every five days she held court once, and a lesser queen jointly managed state affairs. By custom women looked down on their husbands, yet they were not jealous by nature. Men and women all painted their faces in colors and might change the designs several times in a single day. Everyone wore loose hair and made shoes of hide. Taxation had no fixed rule. The climate was mostly cold; they lived by hunting. They produced lead ore, cinnabar, musk, yaks, fine horses, and Shu horses. Salt was especially abundant; they constantly carried it to trade in India for several times the profit. They also frequently warred with India and the Tangut. When their queen died, the state collected gold heavily and sought two worthy women from the dead queen's clan—one as queen, one as lesser queen. When a noble died they flayed the skin, mixed flesh and bones with gold dust, placed them in a jar, and buried them. After a year they placed the skin in an iron vessel and buried it again. By custom they served the Asura god; they also had a tree god, and at the year's start sacrificed people—or sometimes gibbons. When the sacrifice ended they entered the mountains to pray; a bird like a hen pheasant alighted on the palm; they opened its belly and looked—much millet meant a plentiful year, sand and stones meant disaster; this was called bird divination.
115
隋開皇六年，遣使朝貢，後遂絕。
In Sui Kaihuang 6 they sent tribute envoys; afterward tribute ceased.
116
吲汗國，都蔥嶺之西五百餘里，古渠搜國也。 王姓昭武，字阿利柒。 都城方四里，勝兵數千人。 王坐金羊床，妻戴金花。 俗多硃砂、金、鐵。 東去疏勒千里，西去蘇對沙那國五百里，西北去石國五百里，東北去突厥可汗二千餘里，東去瓜州五千五百里。
Yinhan had its capital more than five hundred li west of the Pamirs; it was the ancient state of Qusou. The king bore the surname Zhaowu; his personal name was Aliqi. The capital was four li square; effective troops numbered several thousand. The king sat on a golden ram throne; his consort wore golden flowers in her hair. The region produced much cinnabar, gold, and iron. It lay a thousand li east of Kashgar, five hundred li west of Sogdiana, five hundred li northwest of Shi, more than two thousand li northeast of the Turk qaghan, and five thousand five hundred li east of Guazhou.
117
隋大業中，遣使貢方物。
During the Sui Daye era, they sent envoys with regional tribute.
118
吐火羅國，都蔥嶺西五百里，與挹怛雜居。 都城方二里，勝兵者十萬人，皆善戰。 其俗奉佛。 兄弟同一妻，迭寢焉，每一人入房，戶外掛其衣以為志，生子屬其長兄。 其山穴中有神馬，每歲牧馬於穴所，必產名駒。 南去漕國千七百里，東去瓜州五千八百里。
Tokhara had its capital five hundred li west of the Pamirs and lived intermixed with the Hephthalites. The capital was two li square; effective troops numbered one hundred thousand, all skilled fighters. They followed Buddhism. Brothers shared one wife and slept with her in turn; when one entered the room he hung his garment outside as a sign, and any child born belonged to the eldest brother. A mountain cave held a divine horse; each year they pastured horses there and always produced famous colts. It lay seventeen hundred li south of Caoguo and fifty-eight hundred li east of Guazhou.
119
大業中，遣使朝貢。
In the Daye reign they sent tribute envoys to court.
120
米國，都那密水西，舊康居之地。 無王，其城主姓昭武，康國王之支庶，字閉拙。 都城方二里，勝兵數百人。 西北去蘇對沙那國五百里，西南去史國二百里，東去瓜州六千四百里。
Mi had its capital west of the Nami River, on the old Kangju lands. It had no king; the city lord bore the surname Zhaowu, a cadet branch of the king of Kang, with the personal name Bizhuo. The capital was two li square; effective troops numbered several hundred. It lay five hundred li northwest of Sogdiana, two hundred li southwest of Shi, and sixty-four hundred li east of Guazhou.
121
大業中，頻貢方物。
In the Daye reign they frequently sent regional tribute.
122
史國，都獨莫水南十里，舊康居之地也。 其王姓照昭武，字狄遮，亦康國王之支庶也。 都城方二里，勝兵千餘人。 俗同康國。 北去康國二百四十里，南吐火羅五百里，西去那色波國二百里，東北去米國二百里，東去瓜州六千五百里。
Shi had its capital ten li south of the Duemo River, on the old Kangju lands. Its king bore the surname Zhaowu; his personal name was Dizhe; he too was a cadet branch of the king of Kang. The capital was two li square; effective troops numbered more than a thousand. Its customs matched those of Kang. It lay two hundred forty li north of Kang, five hundred li south of Tokhara, two hundred li west of Nashebo, two hundred li northeast of Mi, and sixty-five hundred li east of Guazhou.
123
大業中，遣使貢方物。
In the Daye reign they sent envoys with regional tribute.
124
曹國，都那密水南數里，舊是康居之地也。 國無主，康國王令子烏建領之。 都城方三里，勝兵千餘人。 國中有得悉神，自西海以東諸國並敬事之，其神有金人，破羅闊丈有五尺，高下相稱，每日以駝五頭、馬十匹、羊一百口祭之，常有數千人，食之不盡。 東南去康國百里，西去何國百五十里，東去瓜州六千六百里。
Cao had its capital several li south of the Nami River, on the old Kangju lands. The state had no ruler of its own; the king of Kang put his son Wujian in charge. The capital was three li square; effective troops numbered more than a thousand. The state worshipped the god Nana, revered from the Western Sea eastward by every realm. The deity had a golden image a zhang and five chi across, proportionate in height and width; each day they sacrificed five camels, ten horses, and a hundred sheep, and several thousand people feasted—yet the food never ran out. It lay a hundred li southeast of Kang, a hundred fifty li west of He, and sixty-six hundred li east of Guazhou.
125
大業中，遣使貢方物。
In the Daye reign they sent envoys with regional tribute.
126
何國，都那密水南數里，舊是康居地也。 其王姓昭武，亦康國王之族類，字敦。 都城方二里，勝兵者千人。 其王坐金羊座。 東去曹國百五十里，西去小安國三百里，東去瓜州六千七百五十里。
He had its capital several li south of the Nami River, on the old Kangju lands. Its king bore the surname Zhaowu, kin to the king of Kang; his personal name was Dun. The capital was two li square; effective troops numbered a thousand. Its king sat on a golden ram throne. It lay a hundred fifty li east of Cao, three hundred li west of Lesser An, and sixty-seven hundred fifty li east of Guazhou.
127
大業中，遣使貢方物。
In the Daye reign they sent envoys with regional tribute.
128
烏那遏國，都烏滸水西，舊安息之地也。 王姓昭武，亦康國王種類，字佛食。 都城方二里，勝兵數百人。 王坐金羊座。 東北去安國四百里，西北去穆國二百餘里，東去瓜州七千五百里。
Wunahe had its capital west of the Wuhu River, on the old Parthian lands. The king bore the surname Zhaowu, of the same line as the king of Kang; his personal name was Foshi. The capital was two li square; effective troops numbered several hundred. The king sat on a golden ram throne. It lay four hundred li northeast of An, more than two hundred li northwest of Mu, and seventy-five hundred li east of Guazhou.
129
大業中，遣使貢方物。
In the Daye reign they sent envoys with regional tribute.
130
穆國，都烏滸河之西，亦安息之故地，與烏那遏為鄰。 其王姓昭武，亦康國王之種類也，字阿濫密。 都城方三里，勝兵二千人。 東北去安國五百里，東去烏那遏二百餘里，西去波斯國四千餘里，東去瓜州七千七百里。
Mu had its capital west of the Wuhu River, on the old Parthian lands, and bordered Wunahe. Its king bore the surname Zhaowu, of the same line as the king of Kang; his personal name was Alanmi. The capital was three li square; effective troops numbered two thousand. It lay five hundred li northeast of An, more than two hundred li east of Wunahe, more than four thousand li west of Persia, and seventy-seven hundred li east of Guazhou.
131
大業中，遣使貢方物。
In the Daye reign they sent envoys with regional tribute.
132
漕國，在蔥嶺之北，漢時罽賓國也。 其王姓昭武，字順達，康國王之宗族也。 都城方四里，勝兵者萬餘人。 國法嚴，殺人及賊盜皆死。 其俗重淫祠，蔥嶺山有順天神者，儀制極華，金銀鍱為屋，以銀為地，祠者日有千餘人。 祠前有一魚脊骨，有孔，中通馬騎出入。 國王戴金牛頭冠，坐金馬座。 多稻、粟、豆、麥，饒象、馬、犎牛、金、銀、鑌鐵、氍<叟毛>、硃沙、青黛、安息青木等香、石蜜、黑監、阿魏、沒藥、白附子。 去北帆延七百里，東去劫國六百里，東北去瓜州六千六百里。
Caoguo lay north of the Pamirs; it was the Jibin state known in Han times. Its king bore the surname Zhaowu; his personal name was Shunda; he belonged to the king of Kang's clan. The capital was four li square; effective troops numbered more than ten thousand. State law was strict: murderers and thieves were put to death. They favored lavish cults; on a Pamir peak stood the Shun Heaven god, whose rites were magnificently appointed—gold and silver plates roofed the shrine, silver paved the floor, and more than a thousand worshippers came each day. Before the shrine stood a fish spine with a hole through it wide enough for horsemen to ride through. The king wore a golden ox-head crown and sat on a golden horse throne. It produced rice, millet, beans, and wheat in abundance; elephants, horses, zebu, gold, silver, wootz steel, soumao, cinnabar, indigo, Parthian eaglewood and other aromatics, rock sugar, black salt, asafetida, myrrh, and white aconite. It lay seven hundred li north of Fanyan, six hundred li east of Jie, and sixty-six hundred li northeast of Guazhou.
133
大業中，遣使貢方物。
In the Daye reign they sent envoys with regional tribute.
134
論曰：自古開遠夷，通絕域，必因宏放之主，皆起好事之臣。 張騫鑿空于前，班超投筆於後，或結之以重寶，或懾之以利劍，投軀萬死之地，必要一旦之功，皆由主尚來遠之名，臣徇輕生之節。 是知上之所好，不必效焉。 西域雖通于魏氏，于時中原始平，天子方以混一為心，未遑及此。 其信使往來，得羈縻勿絕之道。 及隋煬帝規摹宏侈，掩吞秦、漢，裴矩方進《西域圖記》以蕩其心，故萬乘親出玉門關，置伊吾、且末鎮，而關右暨於流沙，騷然無聊生矣。 若使北狄無虞，東夷告捷，必將修輪台之戍，築烏壘之城，求大秦之明珠，致條支之鳥卵，往來轉輸，將何以堪其弊哉！ 古者哲王之制也，方五千里，務安諸夏，不事要荒。 豈威不能加，德不能被？ 蓋不以四夷勞中國，不以無用害有用也。 是以秦戍五嶺，漢事三邊，或道殣相望，或戶口減半。 隋室恃其強盛，亦狼狽于青海。 此皆一人失其道，故億兆罹其苦。 載思即敘之義，固辭都護之請，返其千里之馬，不求白狼之貢，則七戎九夷，候風重譯，雖無遼東之捷，豈及江都之禍乎！ 案西域開於往漢，年世積久，雖離並多端，見聞殊說，此所以前書後史，踳駁不同，豈其好異，地遠故也。 人之所知，未若其所不知，信矣。 但可取其梗概，夫何是非其間哉？
Commentary: From antiquity, reaching distant peoples and opening cut-off realms has always depended on a magnanimous sovereign—and always summoned officials eager for grand ventures. Zhang Qian opened the blank west; Ban Chao later laid down his brush. Some were won with heavy treasure, others cowed with sharp swords; they threw themselves into lands where death waited at every turn, bent on a single day's triumph—all because the ruler craved the fame of drawing the distant, and the minister sought the glory of throwing his life away. From this we know that what the ruler favors is not necessarily worth imitating. Though the Western Regions had contact with Wei, the Central Plain was not yet pacified; the Son of Heaven had his heart set on unification and had no leisure for distant affairs. Envoy exchanges alone sufficed to keep the ties of loose control from breaking. When Emperor Yang of Sui planned on a vast and extravagant scale, ambition swallowing Qin and Han whole, Pei Ju presented "Records of the Western Regions" to stir his desires; so the ten-thousand-chariot lord went in person beyond Yumen Pass, established garrisons at Yiwu and Qiemo, and from Guanxi west to the shifting sands the people were in turmoil, with nowhere to live in peace. Had the northern barbarians stayed quiet and the eastern Yi brought good news, he would surely have restored the Luntai garrison, built the fortress at Wulei, sought Daqin's bright pearls, and fetched Tiaozhi's birds' eggs—goods shuttling back and forth without end; how could the realm have borne such ruin! The ancient wise kings ruled a domain five thousand li square; they sought to secure the Central States and did not trouble themselves with the distant wastes. Was it that their might could not reach that far, or their virtue could not extend there? Rather, they would not exhaust China for the four barbarians, nor let the useless drain the useful. Hence Qin garrisoned the Five Ridges and Han fought on three frontiers—corpses lined the roads, or households were cut in half. The Sui house, trusting in its strength, also came to grief on the Qinghai frontier. All because one man lost the Way, and the millions suffered for it. Had one borne in mind the principle of immediate order, firmly declined requests for protectors-general, returned the thousand-li horses, and not sought the white wolf's tribute, then the seven Rong and nine Yi would have waited on the wind and sent envoys through many interpreters—without victory in Liaodong, would disaster at Jiangdu ever have come! The Western Regions were opened in former Han; ages piled up; states split and merged in many ways and eyewitness accounts diverged—this is why earlier histories and later records clash. Is it love of novelty? The land is simply far away. What people know is never equal to what they do not know—truly so. One may take only the broad outline—why quibble over right and wrong among these?