Volume 31: Chen Sheng and Xiang Yu

陳勝吳廣

Chen Sheng and Wu Guang.

陳勝字涉，陽城人。吳廣，字叔，陽夏人也。勝少時，嘗與人傭耕。輟耕之壟上，悵然甚久，曰：「苟富貴，無相忘！」傭者笑而應曰：「若為傭耕，何富貴也？」勝太息曰：「嗟乎，燕雀安知鴻鵠之志哉！」

Chen Sheng, courtesy name She, came from Yangcheng. Wu Guang, courtesy name Shu, was from Yangxia. In his youth, Chen Sheng worked as a hired farm laborer. One day, while taking a break on the field ridge, he sighed for a long time and said, "If one of us ever rises to wealth and rank, we must not forget each other." The other laborers laughed: "You are a farm hand. How could you ever become rich or noble?" Chen Sheng sighed, "How could little sparrows understand the aspirations of a great swan?"

勝、廣素愛人，士卒多為用。將尉醉，廣故數言欲亡，忿尉，令辱之，以激怒其眾。尉果笞廣。尉劍挺，廣起奪而殺尉。勝佐之，并殺兩尉。召令徒屬曰：「公等遇雨，皆已失期，當斬。藉弟令毋斬，而戍死者固什六七。且壯士不死則已，死則舉大名耳。侯王將相，寧有種乎！」徒屬皆曰：「敬受令。」乃詐稱公子扶蘇、項燕，從民望也。袒右，稱大楚。為壇而盟，祭以尉首。勝自立為將軍，廣為都尉。攻大澤鄉，拔之。收兵而攻鄿，蘄下。乃令符離人葛嬰將兵徇蘄以東，攻銍、酇、苦、柘、譙，皆下之。行收兵，比至陳，兵車六七百乘，騎千餘，卒數萬人。攻陳，陳守令皆不在，獨守丞與戰譙門中。不勝，守丞死。乃入據陳。數日，號召三老豪桀會計事。皆曰：「將軍身被堅執銳，伐無道，誅暴秦，復立楚之社稷，功宜為王。」勝乃立為王，號為張楚。

Chen Sheng and Wu Guang were known for treating others well, so many soldiers followed them readily. When the commandant got drunk, Wu Guang kept talking as if he meant to desert, provoking him into public abuse and whipping so the troops would become enraged. The commandant did whip Wu Guang. When the commandant drew his sword, Wu Guang sprang up, took it from him, and killed him. Chen Sheng joined in, and together they killed both officers. They gathered the penal recruits and said, "You have all been delayed by rain and missed your reporting date. The sentence is death. Even if you escaped immediate execution, six or seven out of ten men sent to frontier garrison die anyway. And if a true man must die, then he should die making a name that will be remembered. Do kings and lords, generals and ministers, come from some separate breed?" The men replied, "We respectfully obey your order." They then proclaimed, falsely, that they were acting in the names of Prince Fusu and Xiang Yan, because that was what the people wanted. They bared their right shoulders in revolt and declared for Great Chu. They raised an altar, swore a covenant, and offered the slain officers' heads in sacrifice. Chen Sheng made himself general and appointed Wu Guang as chief commandant. They attacked Daze Township and captured it. After gathering more troops, they attacked Qi and took it. He then sent Ge Ying of Fuli eastward from Qi; he captured Zhi, Zan, Ku, Zhe, and Qiao in succession. As they marched and recruited, by the time they reached Chen they had six to seven hundred chariots, over a thousand horsemen, and many tens of thousands of foot soldiers. They attacked Chen. Its top officials were absent, and only the deputy defended the city, fighting at Qiao Gate. He was beaten and killed. The rebels then entered and held Chen. A few days later, they called together village elders and local strongmen to discuss next steps. They all said, "You have armored yourself and taken up arms against tyranny, struck down brutal Qin, and restored Chu's state. By merit, you should be king." So Chen Sheng declared himself king and named his regime Zhangchu.

於是諸郡縣苦秦吏暴，皆殺其長吏，將以應勝。乃以廣為假王，監諸將以西擊滎陽。令陳人武臣、張耳、陳餘徇趙，汝陰人鄧宗徇九江郡。當此時，楚兵數千人為聚者不可勝數。

At this, counties and commanderies oppressed by Qin officials rose up, killed their superiors, and moved to join Chen Sheng. He appointed Wu Guang acting king and sent him west to oversee the attack on Xingyang. He dispatched Chen natives Wuchen, Zhang Er, and Chen Yu to rally Zhao, and Deng Zong of Ruyin to rally Jiujiang. By then, rebel Chu forces were springing up everywhere in groups of several thousand, too many to count.

葛嬰至東城，立襄彊為楚王。後聞勝已立，因殺襄彊，還報。至陳，勝殺嬰，令魏人周市北徇魏地。廣圍滎陽。李由為三川守守滎陽，廣不能下。勝徵國之豪桀與計，以上蔡人房君蔡賜為上柱國。

When Ge Ying reached Dongcheng, he installed Xiang Qiang as king of Chu. Later, learning Chen Sheng had already declared kingship, Ge Ying killed Xiang Qiang and returned to report. When Ge Ying returned to Chen, Chen Sheng executed him and sent Wei native Zhou Shi north to secure Wei territory. Wu Guang laid siege to Xingyang. Li You, governor of Sanchuan, held Xingyang, and Wu Guang could not capture it. Chen Sheng called in notable men for strategy and appointed Cai Ci of Shangcai, Lord Fang, as Supreme Pillar of State.

周文，陳賢人也，嘗為項燕軍視日，事春申君，自言習兵。勝與之將軍印，西擊秦。行收兵至關，車千乘，卒十萬，至戲，軍焉。秦令少府章邯免驪山徒、人奴產子，悉發以擊楚軍，大敗之。周文走出關，止屯曹陽。二月餘，章邯追敗之，復走黽池。十餘日，章邯擊，大破之。周文自剄，軍遂不戰。

Zhou Wen, a respected man from Chen, had served in Xiang Yan's army and at Lord Chunshen's court, and claimed military expertise. Chen Sheng gave him the general's seal and sent him west against Qin. Recruiting as he advanced, Zhou Wen reached the passes with a thousand chariots and one hundred thousand men, then encamped at Xi. Qin appointed Zhang Han of the Lesser Treasury, amnestied Lishan convicts and bondservants who had borne children, and threw them into battle; they crushed the Chu army. Zhou Wen retreated out of the passes and stopped at Caoyang. After over two months, Zhang Han caught and beat him again, forcing another retreat to Mianchi. Ten-odd days later, Zhang Han attacked once more and routed him completely. Zhou Wen killed himself, and his army collapsed.

武臣至邯鄲，自立為趙王，陳餘為大將軍，張耳、召騷為左右丞相。勝怒，捕繫武臣等家室，欲誅之。柱國曰：「秦未亡而誅趙王將相家屬，此生一秦，不如因立之。」勝乃遣使者賀趙，而徙繫武臣等家屬宮中。而封張耳子敖為成都君，趣趙兵亟入關。趙王將相相與謀曰：「王王趙，非楚意也。楚已誅秦，必加兵於趙。計莫如毋西兵，使使北徇燕地以自廣。趙南據大河，北有燕代，楚雖勝秦，不敢制趙，若不勝秦，必重趙。趙承秦楚之敝，可以得志於天下。」趙王以為然，因不西兵，而遣故上谷卒史韓廣將兵北徇燕。

At Handan, Wuchen declared himself king of Zhao. Chen Yu became grand general, with Zhang Er and Shao Sao as left and right chancellors. Chen Sheng was furious and seized the families of Wuchen and his associates, intending to execute them. A senior minister warned, "Qin is not yet dead. If you kill the families of Zhao's king and ministers, you will only create a second Qin. Better to recognize them." So Chen Sheng sent envoys to congratulate Zhao and moved those detained families into palace custody. He also enfeoffed Zhang Er's son Ao as Lord of Chengdu and pressed Zhao to send troops quickly through the passes. Zhao's king and ministers conferred: "Our founding of a Zhao kingship was never Chu's intent. After Chu defeats Qin, it will certainly turn its armies on Zhao. Our best course is to avoid sending troops west; instead we should campaign north in Yan and enlarge our base. If Zhao controls the Yellow River in the south and has Yan and Dai in the north, then even a victorious Chu will hesitate to dominate us; if Chu fails against Qin, it will need us even more. With Qin and Chu both worn down, Zhao can seize its chance to prevail in the empire." The Zhao king agreed, withheld western troops, and sent former Shanggu military clerk Han Guang north to rally Yan.

燕地貴人豪桀謂韓廣曰：「楚趙皆已立王。燕雖小，亦萬乘之國也，願將軍立為王。」韓廣曰：「廣母在趙，不可。」燕人曰：「趙方西憂秦，南憂楚，其力不能禁我。且以楚之強，不敢害趙王將相之家，今趙又安敢害將軍之家乎？」韓廣以為然，乃自立為燕王。居數月，趙奉燕王母家屬歸之。

Yan nobles and strongmen said to Han Guang, "Chu and Zhao have each set up kings. Though Yan is small, it is still a major realm. We ask you, General, to make yourself king." Han Guang said, "My mother is in Zhao. I cannot do that." The Yan men replied, "Zhao is preoccupied, fearing Qin in the west and Chu in the south. It has no strength to stop us. Besides, even mighty Chu dared not harm the families of Zhao's rulers and ministers. Why would Zhao dare harm yours?" Han Guang accepted this argument and declared himself king of Yan. After a few months, Zhao returned Han Guang's mother and relatives to Yan.

是時，諸將徇地者不可勝數。周市北至狄，狄人田儋殺狄令，自立為齊王，反擊周市。市軍散，還至魏地，立魏後故甯陵君咎為魏王。咎在勝所，不得之魏。魏地已定，欲立周市為王，市不肯。使者五反，勝乃立甯陵君為魏王，遣之國。周市為相。

By this point, there were countless commanders seizing territory in every direction. Zhou Shi advanced north to Di, where Tian Dan killed the local magistrate, proclaimed himself king of Qi, and counterattacked Zhou Shi. Zhou Shi's army scattered, so he withdrew to Wei territory and set up Jiu, of Wei's former ruling house and known as Lord Ningling, as king of Wei. But Jiu was still with Chen Sheng and could not return to Wei. After Wei territory was secured, many wanted Zhou Shi to become king, but he refused. Only after five envoys did Chen Sheng finally appoint Lord Ningling king of Wei and send him to his realm. Zhou Shi became Wei's chancellor.

將軍田臧等相與謀曰：「周章軍已破，秦兵且至，我守滎陽城不能下，秦軍至，必大敗。不如少遺兵，足以守滎陽，悉精兵迎秦軍。今假王驕，不知兵權，不可與計，非誅之，事恐敗。」因相與矯陳王令以誅吳廣，獻其首於勝。勝使賜田臧楚令尹印，使為上將。田臧乃使諸將李歸等守滎陽城，自以精兵西迎秦軍於敖倉。與戰，田臧死，軍破。章邯進擊李歸等滎陽下，破之，李歸死。

General Tian Zang and others said, "Zhou Zhang's forces are already broken and Qin troops are coming. We still cannot take Xingyang. Once Qin arrives, we will be badly defeated. Better to leave only enough men to contain Xingyang and take our elite troops to meet Qin head-on. The acting king is proud and does not understand command. We cannot deliberate with him. If we do not remove him, this campaign may fail." So they forged an order in King Chen's name, killed Wu Guang, and sent his head to Chen Sheng. Chen Sheng then granted Tian Zang the seal of Chu commandant-in-chief and appointed him supreme commander. Tian Zang left Li Gui and others to hold Xingyang, then personally led elite troops west to engage Qin at Aocang. In the fighting Tian Zang was killed and his army collapsed. Zhang Han then pushed on to Xingyang, defeated Li Gui's force, and killed Li Gui.

陽城人鄧說將兵居郯，章邯別將擊破之，鄧說走陳。銍人五逢將兵居許，章邯擊破之。五逢亦走陳。勝誅鄧說。

Deng Yue of Yangcheng held Tan with his troops, but one of Zhang Han's detachments defeated him and drove him back to Chen. Wu Feng of Zhi held Xu with his troops, and Zhang Han defeated him there. Wu Feng also fled back to Chen. Chen Sheng executed Deng Yue.

勝初立時，淩人秦嘉、銍人董惞、符離人朱雞石、取慮人鄭布、徐人丁疾等皆特起，將兵圍東海守於郯。勝聞，乃使武平君畔為將軍，監郯下軍。秦嘉自立為大司馬，惡屬人，告軍吏曰：「武平君年少，不知兵事，勿聽。」因矯以王命殺武平君畔。

When Chen Sheng first rose, Qin Jia of Ling, Dong Xin of Zhi, Zhu Jishi of Fuli, Zheng Bu of Qulu, Ding Ji of Xu, and others raised forces on their own and besieged the governor of Donghai at Tan. When Chen Sheng heard this, he sent Lord Wuping, Pan, as general to oversee the forces at Tan. Qin Jia made himself grand marshal and resented being subordinate, so he told the officers, "Lord Wuping is young and knows nothing of war. Do not listen to him." He then forged a royal command and killed Lord Wuping Pan.

章邯已破五逢，擊陳，柱國房君死。章邯又進擊陳西張賀軍。勝出臨戰，軍破，張賀死。

After defeating Wu Feng, Zhang Han attacked Chen, where Lord Fang, a pillar of state, was killed. Zhang Han advanced further and struck Zhang He's force west of Chen. Chen Sheng personally took the field, but his army was routed and Zhang He was killed.

臘月，勝之汝陰，還至下城父，其御莊賈殺勝以降秦。葬碭，諡曰隱王。

In the twelfth month, Chen Sheng went to Ruyin; on the return to Xiagchengfu, his own charioteer Zhuang Jia killed him and defected to Qin. Chen Sheng was buried at Dang and posthumously styled the "Hidden King."

勝故涓人將軍呂臣為蒼頭軍，起新陽，攻陳下之，殺莊賈，復以陳為楚。

Lu Chen, once a palace attendant-general under Chen Sheng, led the Cangtou troops from Xinyang, retook Chen, killed Zhuang Jia, and restored Chen to Chu control.

初，勝令銍人宋留將兵定南陽，入武關。留已徇南陽，聞勝死，南陽復為秦。宋留不能入武關，乃東至新蔡，遇秦軍，宋留以軍降秦。秦傳留至咸陽，車裂留以徇。

Earlier, Chen Sheng had sent Song Liu of Zhi to pacify Nanyang and push through Wu Pass. Song Liu had already swept through Nanyang, but when news of Chen Sheng's death arrived, Nanyang reverted to Qin. Unable to break through Wu Pass, Song Liu turned east to Xincai, met Qin troops, and surrendered with his army. Qin sent Song Liu to Xianyang and executed him by dismemberment with chariots as a public warning.

秦嘉等聞勝軍敗，乃立景駒為楚王，引兵之方與，欲擊秦軍濟陰下。使公孫慶使齊王，欲與并力俱進。齊王曰：「陳王戰敗，未知其死生，楚安得不請而立王？」公孫慶曰：「齊不請楚而立王，楚何故請齊而立王？且楚首事，當令於天下。」田儋殺公孫慶。

When Qin Jia heard Chen Sheng's forces had collapsed, he and his allies installed Jing Ju as Chu king, moved to Fangyu, and prepared to attack Qin near Jiyin. They sent Gongsun Qing to Qi, seeking a joint advance with combined forces. The king of Qi said, "King Chen has been beaten and may already be dead. How can Chu enthrone a king without consultation?" Gongsun Qing replied, "Qi made its own king without asking Chu. Why should Chu ask Qi before doing the same? And besides, Chu was first to rise; it should lead the realm." Tian Dan then killed Gongsun Qing.

秦左右校復攻陳，下之。呂將軍走，徼兵復聚，與番盜英布相遇，攻擊秦左右校，破之青波，復以陳為楚。會項梁立懷王孫心為楚王。

Qin's left and right field commanders attacked Chen again and captured it. General Lu retreated, regrouped stragglers, joined with Ying Bu of Fan, beat the Qin commanders at Qingbo, and brought Chen back under Chu. Around this time, Xiang Liang enthroned Xin, grandson of King Huai, as Chu king.

陳勝王凡六月。初為王，其故人嘗與傭耕者聞之，乃之陳，叩宮門曰：「吾欲見涉。」宮門令欲縛之。自辯數，乃置，不肯為通。勝出，遮道而呼涉。乃召見，載與歸。入宮，見殿屋帷帳，客曰：「夥，涉之為王沈沈者！」楚人謂多為夥，故天下傳之，「夥涉為王」，由陳涉始。客出入愈益發舒，言勝故情。或言「客愚無知，專妄言，輕威。」勝斬之。諸故人皆自引去，由是無親勝者。以朱防為中正，胡武為司過，主司群臣。諸將徇地，至，令之不是者，繫而罪之。以苛察為忠。其所不善者，不下吏，輒自治。勝信用之，諸將以故不親附。此其所以敗也。

Chen Sheng's kingship lasted only six months. After he became king, a former fellow farm laborer came to Chen and knocked at the palace gate, saying, "I want to see She." The gate officer tried to have him seized and tied up. He argued his case again and again, and though they released him, they still refused to announce him. When Chen Sheng came out, the man blocked the road and shouted, "She!" Chen Sheng had him brought in and took him back with the procession. Inside the palace, seeing the halls and draperies, the guest exclaimed, "So this is how grand She has become as king!" In Chu speech, "huo" meant "many," so people repeated the phrase "Huo, She has become king"; that saying began with Chen She. As he came and went freely, the man grew increasingly loose-tongued and kept recounting Chen Sheng's old days. Some courtiers said, "This man is ignorant and babbles wildly. He undermines royal dignity." Chen Sheng had him executed. After that, all his old friends distanced themselves, and no one truly drew close to him. He appointed Zhu Fang as rectifier and Hu Wu as inspector of faults, placing them over the officials. When field generals came back, if their reports displeased him he had them arrested and punished. He treated severity and suspicion as proof of loyalty. If he disliked someone, he bypassed normal officials and punished the person himself. Chen Sheng trusted this style of rule, so his generals no longer felt loyal to him. That is why his regime failed.

勝雖已死，其所置遣侯王將相竟亡秦。高祖時為勝置守冢于碭，至今血食。王莽敗，乃絕。

Though Chen Sheng died, the kings, commanders, and ministers he had set in motion ultimately brought Qin down. Under Emperor Gaozu, a tomb keeper was assigned to Chen Sheng at Dang, and sacrificial offerings continued there. Those offerings ended only after Wang Mang fell.

項籍字羽，下相人也。初起，年二十四。其季父梁，梁父即楚名將項燕者也。家世楚將，封於項，故姓項氏。

Xiang Ji, courtesy name Yu, came from Xiaxiang. He was twenty-four when he first rose in revolt. His uncle was Xiang Liang, son of Xiang Yan, the renowned Chu general. His lineage had served as Chu generals for generations and held fief at Xiang, hence the clan name Xiang.

籍少時，學書不成，去；學劍又不成，去。梁怒之。籍曰：「書足記姓名而已。劍一人敵，不足學，學萬人敵耳。」於是梁奇其意，乃教以兵法。籍大喜，略知其意，又不肯竟。梁嘗有櫟陽逮，請蘄獄掾曹咎書抵櫟陽獄史司馬欣，以故事皆已。梁嘗殺人，與籍避仇吳中。吳中賢士大夫皆出梁下。每有大繇役及喪，梁常主辦，陰以兵法部勒賓客子弟，以知其能。秦始皇帝東遊會稽，渡浙江，梁與籍觀。籍曰：「彼可取而代也。」梁掩其口，曰：「無妄言，族矣！」梁以此奇籍。籍長八尺二寸，力扛鼎，才氣過人。吳中弟子皆憚籍。

As a youth, Xiang Ji tried studying letters but quit before mastering them. He then learned swordplay, and quit that too. Xiang Liang was furious with him. Xiang Ji said, "Writing only teaches one to record names. Swordsmanship beats one man at a time; that is not worth learning. I want the art of facing ten thousand." Xiang Liang found this ambition unusual and began teaching him military strategy. Xiang Ji was delighted and grasped the main ideas, but still refused to study through to the end. Xiang Liang once faced arrest from Liyang, but with a letter from Qi prison clerk Cao Jiu to Liyang jail official Sima Xin, the matter was quietly smoothed over. After Xiang Liang killed a man, he and Xiang Ji took refuge in Wuzhong. In Wuzhong, local elites and officials all deferred to Xiang Liang. Whenever there were major labor levies or funerals, Xiang Liang managed the arrangements and quietly used them to drill young followers in military order and test their talent. When the First Emperor toured east to Kuaiji and crossed the Zhejiang, Xiang Liang and Xiang Ji stood watching. Xiang Ji said, "That man can be replaced." Xiang Liang clapped a hand over his mouth: "Do not speak recklessly, or our whole clan will be wiped out!" From this, Xiang Liang knew Xiang Ji was no ordinary man. Xiang Ji was over eight chi tall, strong enough to lift tripods, with gifts and force of character beyond other men. All the young men of Wuzhong stood in awe of Xiang Ji.

秦二年，廣陵人召平為陳勝徇廣陵，未下。聞陳勝敗走，秦將章邯且至，乃渡江矯陳王令，拜梁為楚上柱國，曰：「江東已定，急引兵西擊秦。」梁乃以八千人渡江而西。聞陳嬰已下東陽，使使欲與連和俱西。陳嬰者，故東陽令史，居縣，素信，為長者。東陽少年殺其令，相聚數千人，欲立長，無適用，乃請陳嬰。嬰謝不能，遂強立之，縣中從之者得二萬人。欲立嬰為王，異軍蒼頭特起。嬰母謂嬰曰：「自吾為乃家婦，聞先故未曾貴。今暴得大名，不祥。不如有所屬，事成猶得封侯，事敗易以亡，非世所指名也。」嬰乃不敢為王，謂其軍曰：「項氏世世將家，有名於楚，今欲舉大事，將非其人，不可。我倚名族，亡秦必矣。」其眾從之，乃以其兵屬梁。梁渡淮，英布、蒲將軍亦以其兵屬焉。凡六七萬人，軍下邳。

In Qin's second year, Zhao Ping of Guangling campaigned there for Chen Sheng but had not yet captured it. When he heard Chen Sheng had fallen and Zhang Han was approaching, Zhao Ping crossed the river and forged an order from King Chen appointing Xiang Liang Supreme Pillar of Chu, urging him: "Jiangdong is secure; move west at once against Qin." Xiang Liang then crossed west with eight thousand troops. Hearing Chen Ying had secured Dongyang, Xiang Liang sent envoys to ally with him and march west together. Chen Ying had been a county clerk at Dongyang, widely trusted and regarded as an upright elder. Dongyang youths killed the magistrate and gathered several thousand men. Wanting a leader and finding none fit, they turned to Chen Ying. Chen Ying refused, but they forced him into command, and his followers in the county grew to twenty thousand. They wanted to make Chen Ying king, and this independent Cangtou force rose rapidly. Chen Ying's mother said, "Since I married into this house, I have never heard that our family held high rank. To gain such fame overnight is inauspicious. Better to attach yourself to another power. If things succeed, you may still win a marquisate; if they fail, you can more easily vanish and avoid becoming the name everyone condemns." So Chen Ying did not dare claim kingship. He told his troops, "The Xiang clan has been famous Chu generals for generations. In a great uprising like this, we must follow the right kind of leader. If we rely on such a renowned house, Qin's fall is assured." His men agreed, and he placed his army under Xiang Liang. After Xiang Liang crossed the Huai, Ying Bu and General Pu also joined him with their forces. In total they had sixty to seventy thousand men and encamped at Xiapi.

是時，秦嘉已立景駒為楚王，軍彭城東，欲以距梁。梁謂軍吏曰：「陳王首事，戰不利，未聞所在。今秦嘉背陳王立景駒，大逆亡道。」乃引兵擊秦嘉。軍敗走，追至胡陵。嘉還戰一日，嘉死，軍降。景駒走死梁地。梁已并秦嘉軍，胡陵，將引而西。章邯至栗，梁使別將朱雞石、餘樊君與戰。餘樊君死。朱雞石敗，亡走胡陵。梁乃引兵入薛，誅朱雞石。梁前使羽別攻襄城，襄城堅守不下。已拔，皆阬之，還報梁。聞陳王定死，召諸別將會薛計事。時沛公亦從沛往。

By then Qin Jia had set up Jing Ju as Chu king and camped east of Pengcheng to block Xiang Liang. Xiang Liang told his officers, "King Chen was first to rise. He lost in battle, and no one knows where he is. Now Qin Jia has betrayed him by installing Jing Ju. That is great treason and utter lawlessness." He therefore led troops against Qin Jia. Qin Jia's forces broke and fled, and Xiang Liang pursued them to Huling. Qin Jia turned and fought for a day, then died; his army surrendered. Jing Ju fled and was killed in Liang territory. After absorbing Qin Jia's troops at Huling, Xiang Liang prepared to march west. When Zhang Han reached Li, Xiang Liang sent Zhu Jishi and Lord Yufan as detached commanders to engage him. Lord Yufan was killed. Zhu Jishi was defeated and fled back to Huling. Xiang Liang then marched into Xue and executed Zhu Jishi. Earlier, Xiang Liang had sent Xiang Yu to attack Xiangcheng, but the city held out stubbornly. Once Xiangcheng finally fell, Xiang Yu buried all defenders alive and returned to report. When news confirmed King Chen's death, Xiang Liang called his detached commanders to Xue for deliberation. At that time the Duke of Pei also arrived from Pei.

居鄛人范增年七十，素好奇計，往說梁曰：「陳勝敗固當。夫秦滅六國，楚最亡罪，自懷王入秦不反，楚人憐之至今，故南公稱曰『楚雖三戶，亡秦必楚』。今陳勝首事，不立楚後，其勢不長。今君起江東，楚蠭起之將皆爭附君者，以君世世楚將，為能復立楚之後也。」於是梁乃求楚懷王孫心，在民間為人牧羊，立以為楚懷王，從民望也。陳嬰為上柱國，封五縣。與懷王都盱台。梁自號武信君，引兵攻亢父。

Fan Zeng of Juchao, seventy years old and known for bold strategy, came to advise Xiang Liang: "Chen Sheng's defeat was inevitable. Of the six states Qin destroyed, Chu had least cause to perish. Since King Huai entered Qin and never returned, Chu people have mourned him ever since. Thus Lord Nan said, 'Even if Chu is reduced to three households, Qin will still be destroyed by Chu.' Chen Sheng rose first, but because he did not install a rightful Chu heir, his position could not endure. Now you have risen in Jiangdong. Chu forces are swarming to join you because your house has served as Chu generals for generations, and they believe you can restore Chu's royal line." So Xiang Liang searched out Xin, grandson of King Huai, then a common shepherd, and enthroned him as King Huai to match popular sentiment. Chen Ying was made Supreme Pillar of State and granted five counties. He and King Huai established their seat at Xutai. Xiang Liang took the title Lord Wuxin and led troops to attack Kangfu.

初，章邯既殺齊王田儋於臨菑，田假復自立為齊王。儋弟榮走保東阿，章邯追圍之。梁引兵救東阿，大破秦軍東阿，田榮即引兵歸，逐王假。假亡走楚，相田角亡走趙。角弟閒，故將，居趙不敢歸。田榮立儋子市為齊王。梁已破東阿下軍，遂追秦軍。數使使趣齊兵俱西。榮曰：「楚殺田假，趙殺田角、田閒，乃發兵。」梁曰：「田假與國之王，窮來歸我，不忍殺。」趙亦不殺角、閒以市於齊。齊遂不肯發兵助楚。梁使羽與沛公別攻城陽，屠之。西破秦軍濮陽東，秦兵收入濮陽。沛公、羽攻定陶。定陶未下，去，西略地至雍丘，大破秦軍，斬李由。還攻外黃，外黃未下。

Earlier, after Zhang Han killed King Tian Dan of Qi at Linzi, Tian Jia once more declared himself king of Qi. Tian Dan's younger brother Tian Rong fled to Dong'e and held it, but Zhang Han pursued and besieged him. Xiang Liang marched to relieve Dong'e, badly defeated Qin there, and Tian Rong then returned with troops and expelled King Jia. Tian Jia fled to Chu, while Chancellor Tian Jiao fled to Zhao. Jiao's younger brother Tian Xian, a former general, remained in Zhao and dared not return. Tian Rong installed Tian Dan's son Shi as king of Qi. After defeating Qin's lower camp at Dong'e, Xiang Liang pressed the pursuit. He repeatedly sent envoys to urge Qi to send troops west in concert. Tian Rong said, "Only if Chu kills Tian Jia and Zhao kills Tian Jiao and Tian Xian will I send troops." Xiang Liang said, "Tian Jia is a king of another state. He came to me in distress, and I cannot bring myself to kill him." Zhao likewise spared Tian Jiao and Tian Xian, hoping to bargain with Qi. Qi ultimately refused to send troops to aid Chu. Xiang Liang sent Xiang Yu and the Duke of Pei to attack Chengyang; they slaughtered the city. They defeated the Qin army east of Puyang, forcing the Qin troops to withdraw into the city. The Duke of Pei and Xiang Yu then attacked Dingtao. When Dingtao held out, they moved west, ravaged territory to Yongqiu, crushed a Qin army, and killed Li You. They turned back and attacked Waihuang, but the city held out.

梁起東阿，比至定陶，再破秦軍，羽等又斬李由，益輕秦，有驕色。宋義諫曰：「戰勝而將驕卒惰者敗。今少惰矣，秦兵日益，臣為君畏之。」梁不聽。乃使宋義於齊。道遇齊使者高陵君顯，曰：「公將見武信君乎？」曰：「然。」義曰：「臣論武信君軍必敗。公徐行則免，疾行則及禍。」秦果悉起兵益章邯，夜銜枚擊楚，大破之定陶，梁死。沛公與羽去外黃，攻陳留，陳留堅守不下。沛公、羽相與謀曰：「今梁軍敗，士卒恐。」乃與呂臣俱引兵而東。呂臣軍彭城東，羽軍彭城西，沛公軍碭。

Marching from Dong'e to Dingtao, Xiang Liang's side had beaten Qin twice and Xiang Yu had killed Li You, and this success made them increasingly contemptuous and proud. Song Yi warned, "Armies that win and then grow arrogant and slack are bound to lose. We are already growing lax, while Qin strength grows every day. I fear this for you." Xiang Liang did not listen. He then dispatched Song Yi to Qi. Along the way, he encountered the Qi envoy Lord Gao Ling Xian, who asked: 'Are you going to see Lord Wu Xin?' Song Yi replied: 'Yes.' Song Yi said, "By my judgment, Lord Wuxin's army will surely be defeated. If you proceed slowly you may escape; if you rush, disaster will catch you." Qin did reinforce Zhang Han with full strength, then launched a silent night attack and crushed Chu at Dingtao; Xiang Liang was killed. The Duke of Pei and Xiang Yu left Waihuang and attacked Chenliu, but the city held fast. The Duke of Pei and Xiang Yu conferred: "Xiang Liang's army is beaten, and the troops are frightened." So they joined Lu Chen and withdrew east with their forces. Lu Chen camped east of Pengcheng, Xiang Yu west of it, and the Duke of Pei at Dang.

章邯已破梁軍，則以為楚地兵不足憂，乃渡河北擊趙，大破之。當此之時，趙歇為王，陳餘為將，張耳為相，走入鉅鹿城。秦將王離、涉閒圍鉅鹿，章邯軍其南，築甬道而輸之粟。陳餘將卒數萬人軍鉅鹿北，所謂河北軍也。

After defeating Xiang Liang, Zhang Han judged Chu no longer dangerous, crossed north of the Yellow River, and dealt Zhao a heavy defeat. At that time Zhao Xie was king, with Chen Yu as general and Zhang Er as chancellor; they retreated into Julu. Qin generals Wang Li and She Xian besieged Julu, while Zhang Han camped south of it and built protected supply lines for grain. Chen Yu commanded tens of thousands north of Julu; this was the so-called Hebei army.

宋義所遇齊使者高陵君顯見楚懷王曰：「宋義論武信君必敗，數日果敗。軍未戰先見敗徵，可謂知兵矣。」王召宋義與計事而說之，因以為上將軍；羽為魯公，為次將，范增為末將。諸別將皆屬，號卿子冠軍。北救趙，至安陽，留不進。秦三年，羽謂宋義曰：「今秦軍圍鉅鹿，疾引兵渡河，楚擊其外，趙應其內，破秦軍必矣。」宋義曰：「不然。夫搏牛之虻不可以破蝨。今秦攻趙，戰勝則兵罷，我承其敝；不勝，則我引兵鼓行而西，必舉秦矣。故不如先鬥秦、趙。夫擊輕銳，我不如公；坐運籌策，公不如我。」因下令軍中曰：「猛如虎，佷如羊，貪如狼，強不可令者，皆斬。」遣其子襄相齊，身送之無鹽，飲酒高會。天寒大雨，士卒凍飢。羽曰：「將戮力而攻秦，久留不行。今歲飢民貧，卒食半菽，軍無見糧，乃飲酒高會，不引兵渡河因趙食，與并力擊秦，乃曰『承其敝』。夫以秦之強，攻新造之趙，其勢必舉趙。趙舉秦強，何敝之承！且國兵新破，王坐不安席，掃境內而屬將軍，國家安危，在此一舉。今不卹士卒而徇私宴，非社稷之臣也。」羽晨朝上將軍宋義，即其帳中斬義頭。出令軍中曰：「宋義與齊謀反楚，楚王陰令籍誅之。」諸將讋服，莫敢枝梧。皆曰：「首立楚者，將軍家也。今將軍誅亂。」乃相與共立羽為假上將軍。使人追宋義子，及之齊，殺之。使桓楚報命於王。王因使使立羽為上將軍。

Lord Gaoling Xian, the Qi envoy Song Yi met, told King Huai: "Song Yi predicted Lord Wuxin's defeat, and days later it happened. He foresaw defeat before battle began. That is true military insight." The king summoned Song Yi, liked his counsel, and appointed him supreme commander. Xiang Yu was made Duke of Lu and deputy general, with Fan Zeng as rear general. All other commanders were placed under him, and he was styled Qingzi Guanjun. He marched north to aid Zhao, reached Anyang, and then halted. In Qin's third year Xiang Yu told Song Yi, "Qin has Julu encircled. Cross the river at once: we attack from outside and Zhao from within, and Qin will be broken." Song Yi replied: 'Not so.' A gadfly that troubles oxen cannot crush a louse. Now Qin attacks Zhao. If they win, their troops will be worn out, and we can exploit their exhaustion. If they lose, we can lead our troops westward in a triumphal march and will surely conquer Qin. So it is better to let Qin and Zhao wear each other down first. In leading shock troops, I am not your equal; But in seated planning and calculation, you are not my equal." He then ordered the army: "Men fierce like tigers, obstinate like sheep, greedy like wolves, or unwilling to obey command will all be executed." He sent his son Xiang to serve in Qi and personally escorted him to Wuyan, where he held lavish drinking banquets. Rain and cold intensified, and the troops were freezing and starving. Xiang Yu said, "We are supposed to unite and strike Qin, yet he lingers and will not move. This year is famine, the people are impoverished, soldiers survive on half-rations, and the army has no reserves; yet he drinks at high feasts instead of crossing the river, using Zhao's supplies, and joining force against Qin, all while saying we should 'wait to profit from exhaustion.' With Qin this strong attacking a newly restored Zhao, Zhao will surely be crushed. If Zhao falls and Qin becomes stronger, what 'exhaustion' will be left for us to exploit? Our army was only just defeated, the king cannot rest easy, and he has committed the whole realm to this command. The state's survival depends on this one move. To neglect the troops and indulge private banquets is no service to the state." At dawn Xiang Yu entered Song Yi's tent under pretext of audience and beheaded him. Coming out, he announced to the army: "Song Yi plotted with Qi against Chu; the king secretly ordered me to execute him." All commanders were terrified into submission, and none dared object. They all declared: 'Your family was the first to restore the Chu royal line.' Now you, General, have put down the traitor.' They then jointly appointed Xiang Yu as Acting Supreme Commander. He dispatched men to pursue Song Yi's son. They caught up with him in Qi and executed him. He sent Huan Chu to report events to the king. The king then dispatched envoys and formally installed Xiang Yu as supreme commander.

羽已殺卿子冠軍，威震楚國，名聞諸侯。乃遣當陽君、蒲將軍將卒二萬人渡河救鉅鹿。戰少利，陳餘復請兵。羽乃悉引兵渡河。已渡，皆湛舡，破釜甑，燒廬舍，持三日糧，視士必死，無還心。於是至則圍王離，與秦軍遇，九戰，絕甬道，大破之，殺蘇角，虜王離。涉閒不降，自燒殺。當是時，楚兵冠諸侯。諸侯軍救鉅鹿者十餘壁，莫敢縱兵。及楚擊秦，諸侯皆從壁上觀。楚戰士無不一當十，呼聲動天地。諸侯軍人人惴恐。於是楚已破秦軍，羽見諸侯將，入轅門，膝行而前，莫敢仰視。羽繇是始為諸侯上將軍，兵皆屬焉。

After Xiang Yu killed Qingzi Guanjun, his authority shook Chu and his fame spread among the lords. He then sent Lord Dangyang and General Pu with twenty thousand men across the river to relieve Julu. The fighting yielded scant success, so Chen Yu requested reinforcements once more. Xiang Yu then brought his full force across the river. After crossing, they sank their boats, smashed cooking gear, burned camps, and carried only three days of food, forcing every soldier to fight to the death with no thought of retreat. On arrival they enclosed Wang Li, fought nine engagements, severed Qin's supply lines, won a crushing victory, killed Su Jiao, and captured Wang Li. She Xian refused surrender and burned himself to death. At this juncture, the Chu army was preeminent among all the feudal lords. More than ten allied camps had come to relieve Julu, but none dared commit troops. When Chu finally attacked, the allied armies only watched from their walls. Every Chu fighter fought like ten men, and their shouts shook heaven and earth. The allied armies were all terrified. After Chu's victory, when Xiang Yu received the other generals at the camp gate, they crawled forward on their knees, not daring to look up. From then on, Xiang Yu was acknowledged as overlord commander among the lords, and their armies fell under his authority.

章邯軍棘原，羽軍漳南，相持未戰。秦軍數卻，二世使人讓章邯。章邯恐，使長史欣請事。至咸陽，留司馬門三日，趙高不見，有不信之心。長史欣恐，還走，不敢出故道。趙高果使人追之，不及。欣至軍，報曰：「事亡可為者。相國趙高顓國主斷。今戰而勝，高嫉吾功；不勝，不免於死。願將軍熟計之。」陳餘亦遺章邯書曰：「白起為秦將，南并鄢郢，北阬馬服，攻城略地，不可勝計，而卒賜死。蒙恬為秦將，北逐戎人，開榆中地數十里，竟斬陽周。何者？功多，秦不能封，因以法誅之。今將軍為秦將三歲矣，所亡失已十萬數，而諸侯並起茲益多。彼趙高素諛日久，今事急，亦恐二世誅之，故欲以法誅將軍以塞責，使人更代以脫其禍。將軍居外久，多內隙，有功亦誅，亡功亦誅。且天之亡秦，無愚智皆知之。今將軍內不能直諫，外為亡國將，孤立而欲長存，豈不哀哉！將軍何不還兵與諸侯為從，南面稱孤，孰與身伏斧質，妻子為戮乎？」章邯狐疑，陰使候始成使羽，欲約。約未成，羽使蒲將軍引兵渡三戶，軍漳南，與秦戰，再破之。羽悉引兵擊秦軍汙水上，大破之。

Zhang Han camped at Jiyuan while Xiang Yu camped south of the Zhang; the two armies faced off without fighting. The Qin army suffered repeated setbacks. The Second Emperor sent envoys to reprimand Zhang Han. Terrified, Zhang Han sent his chief clerk Sima Xin to negotiate surrender terms. They reached Xianyang and waited at the Sima Gate for three days. Zhao Gao refused to meet them, harboring suspicions. Chief Clerk Xin was afraid and fled back by a different route. Zhao Gao did send pursuers after him, but they failed to catch him. When Xin returned to camp, he said, "There is no saving this situation. Chancellor Zhao Gao has monopolized power and decides everything himself. If we win, Zhao Gao will resent our merit. If we lose, we die all the same. General, you must weigh this carefully." Chen Yu also wrote to Zhang Han: "Bai Qi was a Qin general who conquered endlessly, yet was ultimately forced to commit suicide. Meng Tian drove back northern tribes and opened vast frontier lands, yet he too was executed. Why was that? Qin did not reward great merit; it used legal charges to kill its own great commanders. You have commanded Qin armies for three years, lost over one hundred thousand men, and meanwhile the anti-Qin lords only keep multiplying. Zhao Gao has lived by flattery for years. In this crisis he fears punishment from the Second Emperor, so he means to sacrifice you under legal pretext, replace you, and save himself. You have been away from court too long and are now politically isolated. With victories you may be killed, and without victories you will also be killed. Moreover, Heaven has clearly abandoned Qin. Even the foolish know this. Now you cannot speak truth at court, and in the field you command for a dying dynasty. Alone and hoping to survive, is this not tragic? Why not turn your army and join the lords, rule in your own right, and live? Is that not better than kneeling for execution while your family is slaughtered?" Zhang Han hesitated and secretly sent his aide Shicheng to Xiang Yu to negotiate terms. Before an agreement was reached, Xiang Yu sent General Pu across Sanhu; they camped south of the Zhang and beat Qin twice. Xiang Yu then personally led the full army against Qin at the Wu River and won a major victory.

邯使使見羽，欲約。羽召軍吏謀曰：「糧少，欲聽其約。」軍吏皆曰：「善。」羽乃與盟洹水南殷虛上。已盟，章邯見羽流涕，為言趙高。羽乃立章邯為雍王，置軍中。使長史欣為上將，將秦軍行前。

Zhang Han then sent envoys to Xiang Yu, seeking terms. Xiang Yu gathered his officers and said, "Our supplies are low. I am inclined to accept his terms." All the officers replied: 'Excellent.' Xiang Yu then concluded a covenant south of the Huan River at the ruins of Yin. After sealing terms, Zhang Han met Xiang Yu in tears and told him what Zhao Gao had done. Xiang Yu then enfeoffed Zhang Han as King of Yong and kept him with the army. He appointed Chief Clerk Xin as senior commander and put him at the head of the surrendered Qin forces.

至函谷關，有兵守，不得入。聞沛公已屠咸陽，羽大怒，使當陽君擊關。羽遂入，至戲西鴻門，聞沛公欲王關中，獨有秦府庫珍寶。亞父范增亦大怒，勸羽擊沛公。饗士，旦日合戰。羽季父項伯素善張良。良時從沛公，項伯夜以語良。良與俱見沛公，因伯自解於羽。明日，沛公從百餘騎至鴻門謝羽，自陳「封秦府庫，還軍霸上以待大王，閉關以備他盜，不敢背德。」羽意既解，范增欲害沛公，賴張良、樊噲得免。語在高紀。

At Hangu Pass they found it defended and could not get through. When Xiang Yu heard the Duke of Pei had taken and sacked Xianyang, he flew into a rage and ordered Lord Dangyang to force the pass. Xiang Yu entered and camped at Hong Gate west of Xi, where he heard that the Duke of Pei meant to rule Guanzhong and monopolize Qin's stores and treasures. Fan Zeng, Xiang Yu's "Second Father," was equally furious and urged him to attack at once. He held a military feast and prepared to fight at dawn. Xiang Yu's uncle Xiang Bo was an old friend of Zhang Liang. Zhang Liang was then serving the Duke of Pei, and Xiang Bo secretly warned him that night. Zhang Liang went with him to see the Duke of Pei, and through Xiang Bo secured Xiang Yu's understanding. Next morning the Duke of Pei came to Hong Gate with a little over a hundred riders to apologize. He said he had sealed Qin's treasuries, withdrawn to Bashang to await the king, and closed the pass only to guard against other raiders, never to betray Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu's anger softened, though Fan Zeng still sought to kill the Duke of Pei; Zhang Liang and Fan Kuai enabled his escape. This episode is recorded in the Basic Annals of Gaozu.

後數日，羽乃屠咸陽，殺秦降王子嬰，燒其宮室，火三月不滅；收其寶貨，略婦女而東。秦民失望。於是韓生說羽曰：「關中阻山帶河，四塞之地，肥饒，可都以伯。」羽見秦宮室皆已燒殘，又懷思東歸，曰：「富貴不歸故鄉，如衣錦夜行。」韓生曰：「人謂楚人沐猴而冠，果然。」羽聞之，斬韓生。

A few days later Xiang Yu sacked Xianyang, killed the surrendered Qin ruler Ziying, and burned the palaces; the fires raged for three months. He seized treasure and women and then marched east. The people of Qin were left in bitter despair. Han Sheng advised Xiang Yu: "Guanzhong is ringed by mountains and rivers, naturally fortified and fertile. It is fit to be your capital and base of hegemony." But Xiang Yu saw the Qin palaces in ruins and yearned for the east. He said, "To gain rank and wealth yet not return home is like wearing brocade in the dark." Han Sheng muttered, "People say Chu men are monkeys in ceremonial caps. It is true." When Xiang Yu heard it, he had Han Sheng executed.

初，懷王與諸將約，先入關者王其地。羽既背約。使人致命於懷王。懷王曰：「如約。」羽乃曰：「懷王者，吾家武信君所立耳，非有功伐，何以得顓主約？天下初發難，假立諸侯後以伐秦。然身被堅執銳首事，暴露於野三年，滅秦定天下者，皆將相諸君與籍力也。懷王亡功，固當分其地王之。」諸將皆曰：「善。」羽乃陽尊懷王為義帝，曰：「古之王者，地方千里，必居上游。」徙之長沙，都郴。乃分天下以王諸侯。

Originally King Huai had sworn with his generals that whoever entered Guanzhong first would rule it. Xiang Yu broke that covenant. He sent envoys to announce terms to King Huai. King Huai replied: 'As we agreed.' Xiang Yu said, "King Huai was set up by my family's Lord Wuxin. He has no military merit, so why should he alone decide the covenant? When the uprising began, we set up former royal heirs only as a temporary measure against Qin. The men who donned armor, took up arms, endured exposure for three years, destroyed Qin, and pacified the realm were we commanders and ministers, together with me. King Huai has no such merit. It is only right that we divide the lands and enthrone ourselves as kings." All the generals replied: 'Excellent.' So Xiang Yu nominally elevated King Huai as "Righteous Emperor," saying, "A true king should dwell in the upper reaches." He removed him to Changsha and set his seat at Chen. He then partitioned the realm and granted kingdoms to the feudal lords.

羽與范增疑沛公，業已講解，又惡背約，恐諸侯叛之，陰謀曰：「巴、蜀道險，秦之遷民皆居之。」乃曰：「巴、蜀亦關中地。」故立沛公為漢王，王巴、蜀、漢中。而參分關中，王秦降將以距塞漢道。乃立章邯為雍王，王咸陽以西。長史司馬欣，故櫟陽獄吏，嘗有德於梁；都尉董翳，本勸章邯降。故立欣為塞王，王咸陽以東至河；立翳為翟王，王上郡。徙魏王豹為西魏王，王河東。瑕丘公申陽者，張耳嬖臣也，先下河南，迎楚河上。立陽為河南王。趙將司馬卬定河內，數有功。立卬為殷王，王河內。徙趙王歇王代。趙相張耳素賢，又從入關，立為常山王，王趙地。當陽君英布為楚將，常冠軍。立布為九江王。番君吳芮帥百粵佐諸侯從入關。立芮為衡山王。義帝柱國共敖將兵擊南郡，功多，因立為臨江王。徙燕王韓廣為遼東王。燕將臧荼從楚救趙，因從入關。立荼為燕王。徙齊王田市為膠東王。齊將田都從共救趙，入關。立都為齊王。故秦所滅齊王建孫田安，羽方渡河救趙，安下濟北數城，引兵降羽。立安為濟北王。田榮者，背梁不肯助楚擊秦，以故不得封。陳餘棄將印去，不從入關，然素聞其賢，有功於趙，聞其在南皮，故因環封之三縣。番君將梅鋗功多，故封十萬戶侯。羽自立為西楚伯王，王梁楚地九郡，都彭城。

Xiang Yu and Fan Zeng still distrusted the Duke of Pei. Though they had reached terms, they feared openly breaking the pact might provoke revolt, so they schemed to send him to remote Ba and Shu, where Qin exiles lived amid dangerous roads. They claimed, "Ba and Shu count as part of Guanzhong too." So they made the Duke of Pei King of Han, assigning him Ba, Shu, and Hanzhong. They also divided Guanzhong into three kingdoms under surrendered Qin generals to block Han's route through the passes. Zhang Han was made King of Yong, with lands west of Xianyang. Sima Xin, once a Liyang jail officer, had formerly shown kindness to Xiang Liang. Dong Yi had originally persuaded Zhang Han to capitulate. So Sima Xin was made King of Sai, with territory east of Xianyang up to the Yellow River. Dong Yi was made King of Di, ruling Shang Commandery. Wei king Bao was relocated as King of Western Wei over Hedong. Shenyang of Xiaqiu, a favorite of Zhang Er, had taken Henan early and welcomed Chu forces at the river. He was enfeoffed as King of Henan. Zhao general Sima Ang had repeatedly earned merit in pacifying Henei. He was made King of Yin over Henei. King Xie of Zhao was moved to Dai. Zhang Er, Zhao's respected chancellor, had followed the western campaign, so he was made King of Changshan over Zhao territory. Ying Bu, Lord Dangyang, was a leading Chu commander and often took top honors. He was made King of Jiujiang. Wu Rui, lord of Fan, had led Baiyue forces to aid the coalition into Guanzhong. He was made King of Hengshan. Gong Ao, pillar of the Righteous Emperor, had won major merit in the campaign against Nan Commandery, so he was made King of Linjiang. They relocated King Guang of Yan to become King of Liaodong. Yan commander Zang Tu had joined Chu in rescuing Zhao and then entered the pass with the coalition. He was made King of Yan. They relocated King Shi of Qi to become King of Jiaodong. Qi general Tian Du had joined the rescue of Zhao and entered Guanzhong. He was made King of Qi. Tian An, grandson of Qi's last pre-Qin king Tian Jian, had seized several Jibei cities and surrendered to Xiang Yu when he crossed the river to aid Zhao. He was made King of Jibei. Because Tian Rong had defied Xiang Liang and refused to aid Chu against Qin, he was denied a kingdom. Chen Yu had cast aside his command seal and not entered the pass, but his reputation and service to Zhao were well known; hearing he was at Nanpi, Xiang Yu gave him three counties as a token grant. The Lord of Fan's general Mei Dun had achieved great merit. Therefore he was enfeoffed as a marquis with one hundred thousand households. Xiang Yu proclaimed himself Hegemon-King of Western Chu over nine commanderies of Liang-Chu, with his capital at Pengcheng.

諸侯各就國。田榮聞羽徙齊王市膠東，而立田都為齊王，大怒，不肯遣市之膠東，因以齊反，迎擊都。都走楚。市畏羽，乃亡之膠東就國。榮怒，追殺之即墨，自立為齊王。予彭越將軍印，今反梁地。越乃擊殺濟北王田安。田榮遂并王三齊之地。時漢王還定三秦。羽聞漢并關中，且東，齊、梁畔之，大怒，乃以故吳令鄭昌為韓王以距漢，令蕭公角等擊彭越。越敗蕭公角等。時，張良徇韓，遺項王書曰：「漢王失職，欲得關中，如約即止，不敢東。」又以齊、梁反書遺羽，羽以此故無西意，而北擊齊。徵兵九江王布。布稱疾不行，使將將數千人往。二年，羽陰使九江王布殺義帝。陳餘使張同、夏說說齊王榮，曰：「項王為天下宰不平，今盡王故王於醜地，而王群臣諸將善地，逐其故主趙王，乃北居代，餘以為不可。聞大王起兵，且不聽不義，願大王資餘兵，使擊常山，以復趙王，請以國為扞蔽。」齊王許之，因遣兵往。陳餘悉三縣兵，與齊併力擊常山，大破之。張耳走歸漢。陳餘迎故趙王歇反之趙。趙王因立餘為代王。羽至城陽，田榮亦將兵會戰。榮不勝，走至平原，平原民殺之。羽遂北燒夷齊城郭室屋，皆阬降卒，係虜老弱婦女。徇齊至北海，所過殘滅。齊人相聚而畔之。於是田榮弟橫收得亡卒數萬人，反城陽。羽因留，連戰未能下。

The feudal lords each departed for their own domains. When Tian Rong learned Xiang Yu had moved King Shi of Qi to Jiaodong and installed Tian Du, he raged, refused to dispatch Shi east, and rebelled in Qi against Tian Du. Tian Du fled to Chu. King Shi, fearing Xiang Yu, fled to Jiaodong to assume his post. Tian Rong, still enraged, pursued and killed him at Jimo, then declared himself king of Qi. He granted Peng Yue a general's seal, and Peng Yue now rose in rebellion in Liang territory. Peng Yue then attacked and killed Tian An, king of Jibei. Tian Rong thus united and ruled all three Qi regions. At that time the Han king had returned and secured the Three Qin kingdoms. When Xiang Yu learned Han had taken Guanzhong and was moving east while Qi and Liang were in revolt, he furiously installed Zheng Chang as a rival "Han king" to block Liu Bang and sent Xiao Gongjiao and others against Peng Yue. Peng Yue defeated Xiao Gongjiao and the other commanders. At that time Zhang Liang was rallying Han territory and sent Xiang Yu a letter: "The Han king merely seeks Guanzhong in line with the agreement; once granted, he will halt and not move east." He also sent reports of the Qi and Liang rebellions, so Xiang Yu abandoned any western move and turned north to attack Qi. He conscripted troops from Ying Bu, King of Jiujiang. Ying Bu feigned illness and did not come in person, sending a subordinate with several thousand men. In the second year, Xiang Yu secretly ordered Ying Bu, king of Jiujiang, to assassinate the Righteous Emperor. Chen Yu sent Zhang Tong and Xia Shuo to persuade Tian Rong of Qi: "Xiang Yu has apportioned the realm unjustly, exiling rightful kings to barren lands while rewarding his own followers with rich ones; he even expelled Zhao's former king to far northern Dai. This is intolerable. I hear you have risen against this injustice. Lend me troops to attack Changshan and restore Zhao's king, and Zhao will stand as your shield state." The Qi king agreed and sent forces. Chen Yu mobilized all troops from his three counties and, joining Qi, struck Changshan and won a great victory. Zhang Er fled back to Han. Chen Yu brought the former Zhao king Xie back to Zhao. In return, the Zhao king made Chen Yu king of Dai. When Xiang Yu reached Chengyang, Tian Rong came out with his army to engage him. Tian Rong lost, fled to Pingyuan, and was killed there by local people. Xiang Yu then devastated northern Qi, burning cities and homes, burying surrendered soldiers alive, and enslaving the old, the weak, and women. He swept through Qi as far as Beihai, destroying everything in his path. The people of Qi rallied and rebelled again. Then Tian Heng, Tian Rong's younger brother, gathered tens of thousands of fugitives and counterattacked at Chengyang. Xiang Yu was forced to remain there, and despite repeated fighting he could not subdue it.

漢王劫五諸侯兵，凡五十六萬人，東伐楚。羽聞之，即令諸將擊齊，而自以精兵三萬人南從魯出胡陵。漢王皆已破彭城，收其貨賂美人，日置酒高會。羽乃從蕭晨擊漢軍而東，至彭城，日中，大破漢軍。漢軍皆走，迫之穀、泗水。漢軍皆南走山，楚又追擊至靈辟東睢水上。漢軍卻，為楚所擠，多殺。漢卒十餘萬皆入睢水，睢水為不流。漢王乃與數十騎遁去。語在高紀。太公、呂后間求漢王，反遇楚軍。楚軍與歸，羽常置軍中。

The Han king massed forces from five feudal states, totaling 560,000, and launched an eastern campaign against Chu. When Xiang Yu heard, he ordered his generals to continue the Qi campaign while he personally led 30,000 elite troops south from Lu through Huling. The Han king had already taken Pengcheng and spent his days in lavish drinking, enjoying captured wealth and women. Xiang Yu launched a dawn strike from Xiao and by midday at Pengcheng shattered the Han army. The Han army collapsed in flight, and Chu pursued them to the Gu and Si. Han forces fled south into the hills, but Chu chased them to the Sui River east of Lingbi. The Han lines buckled under Chu pressure, and many were slaughtered. Over a hundred thousand Han troops were driven into the Sui, so many that the river itself ran clogged. The Han king fled with only a few dozen riders. Details are in the Basic Annals of Gaozu. The Han king's father and Empress Lü went searching for him and fell into Chu hands. They were taken into Chu custody, and Xiang Yu kept them with the army.

漢王稍收散卒，蕭何亦發關中卒悉詣滎陽，戰京、索間，敗楚。楚以故不能過滎陽而西。漢軍滎陽，築甬道，取敖倉食。三年，羽數擊絕漢甬道，漢王食乏，請和，割滎陽以西為漢。羽欲聽之。歷陽侯范增曰：「漢易與耳，今不取，後必悔之。」羽乃急圍滎陽。漢王患之，乃與陳平金四萬斤以間楚君臣。語在陳平傳。項羽以故疑范增，稍奪之權。范增怒曰：「天下事大定矣，君王自為之！願賜骸骨歸。」行未至彭城，疽發背死。於是漢將紀信詐為漢王出降，以誑楚軍，故漢王得與數十騎從西門出。令周苛、樅公、魏豹守滎陽。漢王西入關收兵，還出宛、葉間，與九江王黥布行收兵。羽聞之，即引兵南。漢王堅壁不與戰。

The Han king slowly regrouped his scattered men, while Xiao He sent reinforcements from Guanzhong to Xingyang; in battles between Jing and Suo they beat Chu. As a result, Chu could not break past Xingyang to the west. At Xingyang, Han built protected supply lines and drew grain from Aocang. In the third year Xiang Yu repeatedly severed Han's supply lines. Starving, Liu Bang asked for peace, offering to keep only lands west of Xingyang. Xiang Yu was inclined to accept. Fan Zeng, marquis of Liyang, warned: "Han can still be crushed. If we let this pass now, we will regret it." Xiang Yu tightened the siege of Xingyang. Liu Bang, in distress, gave Chen Ping forty thousand jin of gold to drive a wedge through Chu's leadership. This episode is recorded in Chen Ping's biography. As a result, Xiang Yu began to distrust Fan Zeng and steadily cut his power. Fan Zeng said in anger, "The realm is nearly decided. Your Majesty can manage it yourself. Grant me leave to retire home." He died before reaching Pengcheng, struck down by a back carbuncle. Han general Ji Xin impersonated Liu Bang and surrendered to mislead Chu, allowing the real king to slip out the west gate with a few dozen riders. He left Zhou Ke, Lord Cong, and Wei Bao to hold Xingyang. Liu Bang withdrew west into the passes to raise forces, then reemerged between Wan and Ye, rallying troops together with Ying Bu, king of Jiujiang. When Xiang Yu heard, he immediately marched south. The King of Han fortified his position and refused battle.

是時，彭越渡睢，與項聲、薛公戰下邳，殺薛公。羽乃東擊彭越。漢王亦引兵北軍成皋。羽已破走彭越，引兵西下滎陽城，亨周苛，殺樅公，虜韓王信，進圍成皋。漢王跳，獨與滕公得出。北渡河，至修武，從張耳、韓信。楚遂拔成皋。漢王得韓信軍，留止，使盧綰、劉賈渡白馬津入楚地，佐彭越共擊破楚軍燕郭西，燒其積聚，攻下梁地十餘城。羽聞之，謂海春侯大司馬曹咎曰：「

At this time Peng Yue crossed the Sui, fought Xiang Sheng and Lord Xue at Xiapi, and killed Lord Xue. Xiang Yu turned east to attack Peng Yue. The King of Han also marched north and made camp at Chenggao. After routing Peng Yue, Xiang Yu moved west on Xingyang, executed Zhou Ke by boiling, killed Lord Cong, captured Han Xin of Han, and then besieged Chenggao. Liu Bang escaped by a desperate breakout, getting out only with Lord Teng. He crossed north of the river to Xiuwu and joined Zhang Er and Han Xin. Chu then captured Chenggao. After gaining Han Xin's army, Liu Bang held position and sent Lu Wan and Liu Jia across Baima Ford into Chu territory; together with Peng Yue they beat Chu west of Yankuo, burned supplies, and took more than ten Liang cities. Hearing this, Xiang Yu told Grand Marshal Cao Jiu, Marquis of Haichun: "

謹守成皋。即漢欲挑戰，慎毋與戰，勿令得東而已。我十五日必定梁地，復從將軍。」於是引兵東。

Hold Chenggao carefully. If Han provokes you, do not engage. Just keep them from moving east." In fifteen days I will certainly settle the land of Liang and return to join the generals.'' With that, he took troops eastward.

四年，羽擊陳留、外黃，外黃不下。數日降，羽悉令男子年十五以上詣城東，欲阬之。外黃令舍人兒年十三，往說羽曰：「彭越強劫外黃，外黃恐，故且降，待大王。大王至，又皆阬之，百姓豈有所歸心哉！從此以東，梁地十餘城皆恐，莫肯下矣。」羽然其言，乃赦外黃當阬者。而東至睢陽，聞之皆爭下。

In the fourth year, Xiang Yu attacked Chenliu and Waihuang, but Waihuang held out. After several days the city surrendered, and Xiang Yu ordered every male fifteen or older assembled east of the walls for mass execution by burial. A thirteen-year-old servant of the Waihuang magistrate came to remonstrate: "Peng Yue coerced Waihuang by force; out of fear we submitted only until Your Majesty arrived. If you now bury them anyway, how can any people still turn their hearts to you?" East of here, all the cities in Liang territory—more than ten of them—will be terrified and none will surrender.' Xiang Yu accepted his argument and spared those marked for execution. After that, as he advanced east to Suiyang, cities hearing of his clemency rushed to surrender.

漢果數挑楚軍戰，楚軍不出。使人辱之，五六日，大司馬怒，渡兵氾水。卒半渡，漢擊，大破之，盡得楚國金玉貨賂。大司馬咎、長史欣皆自剄氾水上。咎故蘄獄掾，欣故塞王，羽信任之。羽至睢陽，聞咎等破，則引兵還，漢軍方圍鍾離昧於滎陽東，羽軍至，漢軍畏楚，盡走險阻。羽亦軍廣武相守，乃為高俎，置太公其上，告漢王曰：「今不急下，吾亨太公。」漢王曰：「吾與若俱北面受命懷王，約為兄弟，吾翁即汝翁。必欲亨乃翁，幸分我一盃羹。」羽怒，欲殺之。項伯曰：「天下事未可知。且為天下者不顧家，雖殺之無益，但益怨耳。」羽從之。乃使人謂漢王曰：「天下匈匈，徒以吾兩人願與王挑戰，決雌雄，毋徒罷天下父子為也。」漢王笑謝曰：「吾寧鬥智，不能鬥力。」羽令壯士出挑戰。漢有善騎射曰樓煩，楚挑戰，三合，樓煩輒射殺之。羽大怒，自被甲持戟挑戰。樓煩欲射，羽瞋目叱之。樓煩目不能視，手不能發，走還入壁，不敢復出。漢王使間問之，乃羽也。漢王大驚。於是羽與漢王相與臨廣武間而語。漢王數羽十罪。語在高紀。羽怒，伏弩射傷漢王。漢王入成皋。

As expected, Han repeatedly challenged the Chu army to battle, but the Chu army refused to come out. Han taunted him for five or six days; Cao Jiu, enraged, led troops across the Si. With only half the army across, Han struck and crushed them, seizing Chu's gold, jade, and treasures. Grand Marshal Cao Jiu and Chief Clerk Sima Xin both committed suicide at the Si. Cao Jiu had once been a prison clerk in Qi, and Xin had been king of Sai; Xiang Yu had trusted both deeply. When Xiang Yu reached Suiyang and learned of their defeat, he turned back. Han was then besieging Zhongli Mo east of Xingyang, but when Xiang Yu arrived Han forces fled into rough ground. Xiang Yu then faced Han at Guangwu, set up a high execution block, placed Liu Bang's father on it, and threatened: "Surrender now, or I boil him alive." Liu Bang replied, "You and I both received command from King Huai and swore brotherhood. My father is your father too. If you insist on boiling him, send me a bowl of the broth." Xiang Yu flew into a rage and wanted to kill him. Xiang Bo said, "The outcome of the realm is still uncertain. And those fighting for the world do not yield over family alone. Killing him gains nothing and only deepens hatred." Xiang Yu accepted that advice. He then sent word: "The realm suffers only because we two remain unresolved. Let us fight one-on-one and settle it, instead of exhausting the fathers and sons of the world." Liu Bang laughed and refused: "I compete with strategy, not brute strength." Xiang Yu sent out a champion for single combat. Han had a mounted archer called Loufan; whenever Chu sent challengers, he shot them dead within three bouts. Xiang Yu, enraged, donned armor and personally came out with a halberd. Loufan drew to shoot, but Xiang Yu glared and roared at him. Loufan's gaze faltered, his hand froze, and he fled back behind the wall, never daring to emerge again. Liu Bang sent men to confirm it, and it was indeed Xiang Yu. The Han king was greatly shocked. Then Xiang Yu and Liu Bang came face-to-face between the Guangwu lines and spoke. Liu Bang listed Xiang Yu's ten crimes. The full speech appears in the Basic Annals of Gaozu. Xiang Yu, enraged, loosed a concealed crossbow bolt and wounded Liu Bang. Liu Bang withdrew into Chenggao.

時彭越數反梁地，絕楚糧食，又韓信破齊，且欲擊楚。羽使從兄子項它為大將，龍且為裨將，救齊。韓信破殺龍且，追至成陽，虜齊王廣。信遂自立為齊王。羽聞之，恐，使武涉往說信。語在信傳。

At this time Peng Yue kept rising in Liang and cutting Chu's food routes, while Han Xin had already broken Qi and was preparing to attack Chu. Xiang Yu sent his cousin's son Xiang Tuo as commander, with Long Ju as deputy, to relieve Qi. Han Xin defeated and killed Long Ju, pursued to Chengyang, and captured King Guang of Qi. Han Xin then declared himself king of Qi. When Xiang Yu heard, he grew alarmed and sent Wu She to persuade Han Xin. This is recorded in Han Xin's biography.

時，漢關中兵益出，食多，羽兵食少。漢王使侯公說羽，羽乃與漢王約，中分天下，割鴻溝而西者為漢，東者為楚，歸漢王父母妻子。已約，羽解而東。五年，漢王進兵追羽，至故陵，復為羽所敗。漢王用張良計，致齊王信、建成侯、彭越兵，乃劉賈入楚地，圍壽春。大司馬周殷叛楚，舉九江兵隨劉賈，迎黥布，與齊梁諸侯皆大會。

By then Han reinforcements from Guanzhong kept arriving and supplies were plentiful, while Xiang Yu's army was short of grain. Liu Bang sent Marquis Hou to negotiate, and Xiang Yu agreed to divide the empire at the Hong Canal, west to Han and east to Chu, and to return Liu Bang's family. After concluding terms, Xiang Yu withdrew east. In the fifth year Liu Bang advanced in pursuit as far as Guling, but Xiang Yu defeated him again. Liu Bang then adopted Zhang Liang's strategy, summoning forces from King Xin of Qi, the Marquis of Jiancheng, and Peng Yue, while Liu Jia pushed into Chu and besieged Shouchun. Grand Marshal Zhou Yin defected from Chu with Jiujiang troops to join Liu Jia, brought Ying Bu over, and the lords of Qi and Liang assembled in force.

羽壁垓下，軍少食盡。漢帥諸侯兵圍之數重。羽夜聞漢軍四面皆楚歌，乃驚曰：「漢皆已得楚乎？是何楚人多也！」起飲帳中。有美人姓虞氏，常幸從；駿馬名騅，常騎。乃悲歌忼慨，自為歌詩曰：「力拔山兮氣蓋世，時不利兮騅不逝。騅不逝兮可柰何！虞兮虞兮柰若何！」歌數曲，美人和之。羽泣下數行，左右皆泣，莫能仰視。

Xiang Yu encamped at Gaixia with dwindling troops and exhausted supplies. Han and the feudal armies surrounded him in several rings. At night Xiang Yu heard Chu songs from every side of Han's encirclement and cried out, "Has Han already taken all Chu? How can there be so many men of Chu?" He rose and drank inside his tent. Lady Yu, his favored consort, was with him as always. His famed steed Zhui, which he always rode, was there too. In grief he sang impromptu: "My strength could pull mountains, my spirit overshadowed the age; yet fortune is against me, and Zhui no longer runs. If Zhui no longer runs, what can I do? Yu, my Yu, what am I to do with you?" He sang it again and again, and Lady Yu sang in harmony. Xiang Yu's tears streamed down; all those beside him wept and none dared look up.

於是羽遂上馬，戲下騎從者八百餘人，夜直潰圍南出馳。平明，漢軍乃覺之，令騎將灌嬰以五千騎追羽。羽渡淮，騎能屬者百餘人。羽至陰陵，迷失道，問一田父，田父紿曰「左」。左，乃陷大澤中，以故漢追及之。羽復引而東，至東城，乃有二十八騎。追者數千，羽自度不得脫，謂其騎曰：「吾起兵至今八歲矣，身七十餘戰，所當者破，所擊者服，未嘗敗北，遂伯有天下。然今卒困於此，此天亡我，非戰之罪也。今日固決死，願為諸軍快戰，必三勝，斬將，艾旗，乃後死，使諸君知我非用兵罪，天亡我也。」於是引其騎因四隤山而為圜陳外嚮。漢騎圍之數重。羽謂其騎曰：「吾為公取彼一將。」令四面騎馳下，期山東為三處。於是羽大呼馳下，漢軍皆披靡。遂殺漢一將。是時，楊喜為郎騎，追羽，羽還叱之，喜人馬俱驚，辟易數里。與其騎會三處。漢軍不知羽所居，分軍為三，復圍之。羽乃馳，復斬漢一都尉，殺數十百人。復聚其騎，亡兩騎。乃謂騎曰：「何如？」騎皆服曰：「如大王言。」

Xiang Yu mounted up, and with more than eight hundred riders under his banner broke south through the encirclement in the night. At daybreak Han realized he had escaped and sent cavalry commander Guan Ying with five thousand horse in pursuit. After crossing the Huai, Xiang Yu had barely more than one hundred riders left with him. At Yinling, Xiang Yu lost the road. He asked a farmer for directions, and the man deliberately sent him left. That turn led him into marshland, allowing the Han pursuers to catch up. Xiang Yu turned east again, and by Dongcheng only twenty-eight horsemen remained. With thousands in pursuit, Xiang Yu knew he could not get away. He told his riders: "Eight years since we rose, over seventy battles fought, and never a defeat. All who faced me were broken, all I attacked submitted. That is how I held the realm. Yet now I am cornered here. Heaven destroys me; this is not a failure of command. Today I am resolved to die. I will win three more charges, kill their officers, and cut their standards before I fall, so you all know this is Heaven's decree, not my military fault." He drew his riders around Sihui Mountain in a ring formation facing out on all sides. Han cavalry surrounded them in multiple rings. Xiang Yu said, "Watch me take one of their commanders." He commanded the horsemen on all four sides to charge down and agreed to rally at three places east of the mountain. With a great roar, Xiang Yu charged downhill, and Han ranks broke before him. He cut down a Han commander. Yang Xi, a Han mounted attendant, gave chase. Xiang Yu turned and bellowed; Yang Xi and his horse panicked and fell back several miles. He rejoined his riders at the three agreed points. Han forces lost track of Xiang Yu, split into three columns, and closed in again. Xiang Yu charged again, killed another Han officer, and cut down dozens upon dozens of men. He regrouped once more, now missing only two riders. He asked, "Well?" The riders all answered in awe, "Exactly as you said, Great King."

於是羽遂引東，欲渡烏江。烏江亭長檥船待，謂羽曰：「江東雖小，地方千里，眾數十萬，亦足王也。願大王急渡。今獨臣有船，漢軍至，亡以渡。」羽笑曰：「乃天亡我，何渡為！且籍與江東子弟八千人渡而西，今亡一人還，縱江東父兄憐而王我，我何面目見之哉？縱彼不言，籍獨不愧於心乎！」謂亭長曰：「吾知公長者也，吾騎此馬五歲，所當亡敵，嘗一日千里，吾不忍殺，以賜公。」乃令騎皆去馬，步持短兵接戰。羽獨所殺漢軍數百人。羽亦被十餘創。顧見漢騎司馬呂馬童曰：「若非吾故人乎？」馬童面之，指王翳曰：「此項王也。」羽乃曰：「吾聞漢購我頭千金，邑萬戶，吾為公得。」乃自剄。王翳取其頭，亂相輮蹈爭羽相殺者數十人。最後楊喜、呂馬童、郎中呂勝、楊武各得其一體。故分其地以封五人，皆為列侯。

Xiang Yu then moved east, intending to cross the Wu River. The Wu River ferrymaster had a boat ready and urged him: "Jiangdong may be small, but it has broad lands and hundreds of thousands of people, enough for kingship. I urge Your Majesty to cross quickly.' Right now only this one boat is available. Once Han arrives, you will not be able to cross." Xiang Yu laughed: "If Heaven means to destroy me, what use is crossing? I led eight thousand sons of Jiangdong west, and not one returns. Even if their fathers and elders took pity and made me king again, how could I face them? Even if they don't say anything, wouldn't I feel ashamed in my own heart?'' He told the ferrymaster: "I know you are a good man. I have ridden this horse for five years; no enemy withstood it, and it has covered a thousand li in a day. I cannot bear to kill it, so I give it to you." He ordered his men to abandon their horses and fight on foot with short arms. Xiang Yu himself killed several hundred Han men. He too took more than ten wounds. Looking back, he saw the Han cavalry commander Lu Matong and said: 'Aren't you my old friend?' Lu Matong faced him and pointed to Wang Yi, saying: 'This is King Xiang.' Xiang Yu said, "Han offers a thousand jin and a ten-thousand-household fief for my head. I will give you that reward." Then he cut his own throat. Wang Yi seized Xiang Yu's head, and in the scramble men crushed and killed one another by the dozens to claim the body. In the end Yang Xi, Lü Matong, Gentleman Lü Sheng, and Yang Wu each took a part of his corpse. So his former lands were split among five claimants, all enfeoffed as marquises.

漢王乃以魯公號葬羽於穀城。諸項支屬皆不誅。封項伯等四人為列侯，賜姓劉氏。

The Han king had Xiang Yu buried at Gucheng with honors under the title Duke of Lu. The Xiang clan's collateral branches were spared. Xiang Bo and three others were made marquises and granted the imperial surname Liu.

贊曰：昔賈生之過秦曰：

Appraisal: Jia Yi once wrote in "Faulting Qin":

秦孝公據殽函之固，擁雍州之地，君臣固守而闚周室，有席卷天下，包舉宇內，囊括四海，并吞八荒之心。當是時也，商君佐之，內立法度，務耕織，修守戰之備，外連衡而鬥諸侯。於是秦人拱手而取西河之外。

Duke Xiao of Qin held the natural defenses of Xiao and Han and controlled Yongzhou. Ruler and ministers guarded it tightly while watching the Zhou court, bent on sweeping up the world and absorbing all within the four seas. Shang Yang aided him by imposing internal laws, prioritizing agriculture and textiles, and strengthening military readiness, while abroad using alliance strategy to pit the feudal states against one another. Thus Qin seized the lands west of the Yellow River with apparent ease.

孝公既沒，惠文、武、昭襄蒙故業，因遺策，南取漢中，西舉巴蜀，東割膏腴之地，收要害之郡。諸侯恐懼，會盟而謀弱秦，不愛珍器重寶肥饒之地，以致天下之士。合從締交，相與為一。當此之時，齊有孟嘗，趙有平原，楚有春申，魏有信陵。此四賢者，皆明智而忠信，寬厚而愛人，尊賢重士，約從離橫，兼韓、魏、燕、趙、宋、衛、中山之眾。於是六國之士有甯越、徐尚、蘇秦、杜赫之屬為之謀，齊明、周最、陳軫、召滑、樓緩、翟景、蘇厲、樂毅之徒通其意，吳起、孫臏、帶他、兒良、王廖、田忌、廉頗、趙奢之朋制其兵。常以十倍之地，百萬之軍，仰關而攻秦。秦人開關延敵，九國之師遁巡而不敢進。秦無亡矢遺鏃之費，而天下已困矣。於是從散約敗，爭割地而賂秦。秦有餘力而制其弊，追亡逐北，伏尸百萬，流血漂鹵，因利乘便，宰割天下，分裂山河；強國請服，弱國入朝。

After Duke Xiao, Kings Huiwen, Wu, and Zhaoxiang built on inherited gains and strategy, taking Hanzhong, then Ba and Shu, then fertile eastern lands and key strategic commanderies. The feudal states, alarmed, swore alliances to weaken Qin and spent treasure, land, and privilege to recruit the best men under heaven. They forged vertical alliances and acted as a single bloc. At that time Qi had Mengchang, Zhao had Pingyuan, Chu had Chunshen, and Wei had Xinling. These four were wise and trustworthy, generous and people-minded. They honored talent and rallied men, knitting vertical alliances and breaking Qin's horizontal strategy, drawing in Han, Wei, Yan, Zhao, Song, Wey, and Zhongshan. So the six states had planners like Ning Yue and Su Qin, diplomats like Chen Zhen and Yue Yi, and commanders like Wu Qi, Sun Bin, Tian Ji, Lian Po, and Zhao She coordinating strategy, policy, and armies. With tenfold land and armies in the millions, they repeatedly attacked Qin through the passes. Yet when Qin opened the passes to meet them, the coalition armies of the nine states wavered and would not press forward. Qin paid almost nothing in men or matériel, while its enemies were already drained. The coalition broke apart, and the states scrambled to cede territory and buy Qin off. Qin then exploited their weakness, chasing routed armies and piling up corpses in the hundreds of thousands, blood running like floodwater, and proceeded to carve up the realm. Strong states requested submission; weak ones came to court.

施及孝文、莊襄王，享國之日淺，國家亡事。

Through Kings Xiaowen and Zhuangxiang, whose reigns were brief, the state met no major trouble.

及至始皇，奮六世之餘烈，振長策而馭宇內，吞二周而亡諸侯，履至尊而制六合，執敲扑以鞭笞天下，威震四海。南取百粵之地，以為桂林、象郡。百粵之君頫首係頸，委命下吏。乃使蒙恬北築長城而守藩籬，卻匈奴七百餘里，胡人不敢南下而牧馬，士不敢彎弓而報怨。於是廢先王之道，焚百家之言，以愚黔首。墮名城，殺豪俊，收天下之兵聚之咸陽，銷鋒鍉鑄以為金人十二，以弱天下之民。然後踐華為城，因河為池，據億丈之城，臨不測之川，以為固。良將勁弩，守要害之處，信臣精卒，陳利兵而誰何。天下已定，始皇之心，自以為關中之固，金城千里，子孫帝王萬世之業也。

Then the First Emperor inherited six generations of momentum, drove the empire with iron force, extinguished the feudal states, took supreme rule, and ruled all directions by punishment and terror. He conquered the Hundred Yue in the south and made them the commanderies of Guilin and Xiang. The Yue rulers bowed in submission, offered their necks, and placed their fate in Qin officials' hands. He sent Meng Tian north to build the Great Wall as frontier barrier, pushing the Xiongnu back more than seven hundred li so the northern tribes dared not pasture south or draw bows in reprisal. He then abolished the old kingly teachings and burned the writings of the hundred schools to keep the common people ignorant. He dismantled famous walled cities, killed heroic elites, collected weapons from across the empire to Xianyang, and melted them into twelve giant bronze figures to weaken the populace. Then he treated Mount Hua as rampart and the Yellow River as moat, trusting colossal defenses and perilous waters as impregnable security. Skilled generals with powerful crossbows held the chokepoints, while trusted ministers and picked troops stood ready with sharpened arms to challenge any threat. With the realm unified, the First Emperor believed Guanzhong's defenses were an iron citadel that would secure imperial rule for ten thousand generations.

始皇既沒，餘威震于殊俗。然而陳涉，甕牖繩樞之子，甿隸之人，遷徙之徒也，材能不及中庸，非有仲尼、墨翟之知，陶朱、猗頓之富。躡足行伍之間，而免起阡陌之中，帥罷散之卒，將數百之眾，轉而攻秦。斬木為兵，揭竿為旗，天下雲合嚮應，贏糧而景從，山東豪俊遂並起而亡秦族矣。

Even after his death, his lingering prestige still cowed distant peoples. Yet Chen She was from a poor household, a common laborer among relocated convicts, with neither exceptional talent nor the wisdom of Confucius and Mozi, nor the wealth of Tao Zhu and Yi Dun. Still, he rose from peasant paths into the ranks, gathered exhausted stragglers into a few hundred men, and turned them against Qin. With wooden weapons and pole-banners, he drew responses from everywhere: men came like clouds, supplies followed like shadows, and the eastern heroes rose in concert to end Qin's house.

且天下非小弱也；雍州之地，殽函之固，自若也。陳涉之位，不齒於齊、楚、燕、趙、韓、魏、宋、衛、中山之君；鉏耰棘矜，不敵於鉤戟長鎩；適戍之眾，不亢於九國之師；深謀遠慮，行軍用兵之道，非及曩時之士也。然而成敗異變，功業相反，何也？試使山東之國與陳涉度長絜大，比權量力，不可同年而語矣。然秦以區區之地，致萬乘之權，招八州而朝同列，百有餘年，然后以六合為家，殽函為宮。一夫作難而七廟墮，身死人手，為天下笑者，何也？仁誼不施，而攻守之勢異也。

And the realm Qin ruled was neither small nor weak. Yongzhou's territory and the fortifications of Xiao and Han remained intact. Chen She's status was nowhere near that of the kings of Qi, Chu, Yan, Zhao, Han, Wei, Song, Wey, and Zhongshan. Hoes and wooden poles could not match halberds and long spears. His conscript garrison men were no match for the nine-state coalition armies. In strategy, planning, and military art, he did not equal the great men of earlier times. Yet outcomes reversed completely: failure became success and success became ruin. Why? If you compare the eastern states to Chen She in scale, power, and strength, they are not even fit for comparison. Yet Qin, from a tiny base, seized imperial power, summoned the states of eight regions to court, and for over a century made all under heaven its household and Xiao-Han its inner palace. Then one common man rose in rebellion, and Qin's ancestral temples fell; it perished by others' hands and became the world's joke. Why? Because it never practiced humane and righteous rule, and once circumstances shifted from attack to defense, it could no longer stand.

周生亦有言，「舜蓋重童子」，項羽又重童子，豈其苗裔邪？何其興之暴也！夫秦失其政，陳涉首難，豪桀蜂起，相與並爭，不可勝數。然羽非有尺寸，乘勢拔起隴畝之中，三年，遂將五諸侯兵滅秦，分裂天下而威海內，封立王侯，政繇羽出，號為「伯王」，位雖不終，近古以來未嘗有也。及羽背關懷楚，放逐義帝，而怨王侯畔己，難矣。自矜功伐，奮其私智而不師古，始霸王之國，欲以力征經營天下，五年卒亡其國，身死東城，尚不覺寤，不自責過失，乃引「天亡我，非用兵之罪」，豈不謬哉！

Master Zhou once said, "Shun likely had double pupils." Xiang Yu too had double pupils; could he have been of that line? How sudden and explosive his rise was. When Qin's rule failed, Chen She raised the first revolt, and heroes swarmed up everywhere in numbers beyond count. Yet Xiang Yu began with no territorial base at all, rose from the fields on momentum, and in three years led the armies of five lords to destroy Qin, partition the world, and overawe the realm; kings and marquises were created by his word alone. Though his rule was short, nothing quite like it had appeared since antiquity. But once Xiang Yu turned away from Guanzhong for Chu, exiled the Righteous Emperor, and then blamed the feudal kings for deserting him, his position became untenable. He gloried in his achievements, trusted his private cleverness, and refused historical example. He sought to rule all by force; within five years his state was ruined and he died at Dongcheng, yet even then he never recognized his own errors, claiming only, "Heaven destroyed me, not military fault." How could that not be delusion?

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