Volume 95: Traditions of the Southwest Yi peoples, the two Yues, and Chosun (Korea)

南夷君長以十數，夜郎最大。其西，靡莫之屬以十數，滇最大。自滇以北，君長以十數，邛都最大。此皆椎結，耕田，有邑聚。其外，西自桐師以東，北至葉榆，名爲巂、昆明、編發，隨畜移徙，亡常處，亡君長，地方可數千里。自巂以東北，君長以十數，徙、莋都最大。自莋以東北，君長以十數，冉駹最大。其俗，或土著，或移徙。在蜀之西。自駹以東北，君長以十數，白馬最大，皆氐類也。此皆巴、蜀西南外蠻夷也。

South of the Han heartland, Yi chiefs ran into the dozens; Yelang was the largest of them. West of them, Mimo-affiliated groups likewise numbered in the dozens, and Dian dominated. North of Dian, chiefdoms again ran into the tens; Qiongdu was foremost. They all wore the topknot, farmed fixed fields, and lived in clustered towns. Outside that belt, from Tongshi east to Yeyu in the north, lay peoples known as Xi, Kunming, and the plait-haired tribes—pastoral nomads without permanent homes or titled chiefs, spread across thousands of li. Northeast of Xi country, chiefdoms again ran into the tens; the Xi tribe’s sphere and Zuodu were the largest. Northeast of Zuo, chiefdoms again numbered in the tens; Ranmang led them. Some groups stayed put; others moved with the seasons. All of this lay west of Shu. Northeast of Mang, chiefdoms again ran into the tens; Baima was paramount, and these were Di communities. They were the barbarian peoples beyond Ba and Shu to the southwest.

始楚威王時，使將軍莊蹻將兵循江上，略巴、黔中以西。莊蹻者，楚莊王苗裔也。蹻至滇池，方三百里，旁平地肥饒數千里，以兵威定屬楚。欲歸報，會秦擊奪楚巴、黔中郡，道塞不通，因乃以其衆王滇，變服，從其俗以長之。秦時嘗破，略通五尺道，諸此國頗置吏焉。十余歲，秦滅。及漢興，皆棄此國而關蜀故徼。巴、蜀民或竊出商賈，取其莋馬、僰僮、旄牛，以此巴、蜀殷富。

In King Wei of Chu’s day, the court sent General Zhuang Qiao up the Yangzi to carve out ground west of Ba and Qianzhong. Zhuang Qiao traced his line to King Zhuang of Chu. He reached Dian Lake—three hundred li across—with rich plains stretching for thousands of li beyond; force of arms brought the region under Chu’s shadow. He meant to march home with word of conquest, but Qin snatched Ba and Qianzhong from Chu and sealed every route; stranded, he declared himself king in Dian, adopted local dress, and governed by local ways. The Qin had earlier battered the region open, hacked through the Five-Foot Road, and posted magistrates across many of these polities. A dozen years later Qin fell. When Han arose, the court walked away from those dependencies and sealed them behind Shu’s former border posts. Ba and Shu commoners smuggled trade beyond the line for Zuo horses, Bo bondsmen, and hairy cattle—trade that fattened the Two Shu.

建元六年，大行王恢擊東粵，東粵殺王郢以報。恢因兵威使番陽令唐蒙風曉南粵。南粵食蒙蜀枸醬，蒙問所從來，曰：「道西北牂柯江，江廣數里，出番禺城下。」蒙歸至長安，問蜀賈人，獨蜀出枸醬，多持竊出市夜郎。夜郎者，臨牂柯江，江廣百余步，足以行船。南粵以財物役屬夜郎，西至桐師，然亦不能臣使也。蒙乃上書說上曰：「南粵王黃屋左纛，地東西萬餘里，名爲外臣，實一州主。今以長沙、豫章往，水道多絕，難行。竊聞夜郎所有精兵可得十萬，浮船牂柯，出不意，此制粵一奇也。誠以漢之強，巴、蜀之饒，通夜郎道，爲置吏，甚易。」上許之。乃拜蒙以郎中將，將千人，食重萬餘人，從巴苻關入，遂見夜郎侯多同。厚賜，諭以威德，約爲置吏，使其子爲令。夜郎旁小邑皆貪漢繒帛，以爲漢道險，終不能有也，乃且聽蒙約。還報，乃以爲犍爲郡。發巴、蜀卒治道，自僰道指牂柯江。蜀人司馬相如亦言西夷邛、莋可置郡。使相如以郎中將往諭，皆如南夷，爲置一都尉，十餘縣，屬蜀。當是時，巴、蜀西郡通西南夷道，載轉相餉。數歲，道不通，士罷餓餧，離暑濕，死者甚衆。西南夷又數反，發兵興擊，耗費亡功。上患之，使公孫弘往視問焉。還報，言其不便。及弘爲御史大夫，時方築朔方，據河逐胡，弘等因言西南夷爲害，可且罷，專力事匈奴。上許之，罷西夷，獨置南夷兩縣一都尉，稍令犍爲自保就。

In Jianyuan 6, Grand Coachman Wang Hui struck Eastern Yue; the Yue court executed King Ying to placate Han. Riding that show of force, Hui dispatched Poyang’s magistrate Tang Meng to probe Southern Yue. Southern Yue treated Meng to Shu dogwood paste; when he asked its route, they said it came down the Zangke—several li across—under the walls of Panyu. Back in Chang’an he cornered Shu traders: only Shu made that condiment, they said, and smugglers ran most of it to Yelang markets. Yelang sat on the Zangke, wide enough for more than a hundred paces—ample draft for shipping. Southern Yue bought Yelang’s loyalty as far west as Tongshi, but never reduced it to vassalage. Tang Meng petitioned the throne: Southern Yue’s king sports an imperial yellow canopy and left pennant; his realm stretches ten thousand li east and west—outwardly a vassal, in practice a regional sovereign. Striking from Changsha or Yuzhang means broken water routes—an arduous approach. Yelang fields perhaps a hundred thousand good troops; a fleet down the Zangke could take Yue by surprise—that is the flank worth buying.’ With Han’s might and Shu’s wealth, a corridor into Yelang and county seats there would be straightforward.’ The emperor agreed. Meng was commissioned colonel of household troops—one thousand fighters and ten thousand support—entered via Ba’s Fuguan, and was received by Yelang’s chief Duotong. Rich gifts, lectures on Han power and grace, a pact to post officials, and Duotong’s son named county magistrate. Petty chiefdoms round Yelang craved Han brocade yet assumed the terrain would keep Han out for good; they accepted Meng’s terms for now. His report home yielded the creation of Qianwei commandery. Ba and Shu draftees carved a highway from Bodao to the Zangke. Sima Xiangru of Shu likewise urged counties on the western Yi of Qiong and Zuo. Xiangru went south as colonel with the same brief as the southern campaign: one commandant, a dozen-odd counties, all under Shu. Ba and Shu’s western counties fed supply trains into the Yi frontier. Years passed without a usable road; soldiers starved and wilted in the malarial heat—casualties mounted. Repeated Yi revolts drew costly, fruitless expeditions. The emperor dispatched Gongsun Hong to survey the mess. Hong reported that the venture did not pay. Once Hong rose to imperial counselor—just as Shuofang rose on the northern frontier—he argued the Yi drain should wait while Han focused on the steppe. The emperor concurred: western counties were folded back, only two southern Yi counties and a commandant remained, and Qianwei was told to hold what it could.

及元狩元年，博望侯張騫言使大夏時，見蜀布、邛竹杖，問所從來，曰：「從東南身毒國，可數千里，得蜀賈人市。」或聞邛西可二千里有身毒國。騫因盛言大夏在漢西南，慕中國，患匈奴隔其道，誠通蜀，身毒國道便近，又亡害。於是天子乃令王然子、柏始昌、呂越人等十餘輩間出西南夷，指求身毒國。至滇，滇王當羌乃留爲求道。四歲餘，皆閉昆明，莫能通。滇王與漢使言：「漢孰與我大？」及夜郎侯亦然，各自以一州王，不知漢廣大。使者還，因盛言滇大國，足事親附。天子注意焉。

In Yuanshou 1, Zhang Qian told the throne how in Bactria he had spotted Shu cloth and Qiong bamboo staffs; asked their origin, locals traced them to Shendu—thousands of li southeast—via Shu traders. Others claimed Shendu lay some two thousand li west of Qiong. Qian pressed the point: Bactria sits southwest of Han, looks toward China, and chafes at Xiongnu obstruction—a Shu corridor through Shendu would be shorter and safer. The emperor dispatched Wang Ranzi, Bo Shichang, Lü Yueren, and a dozen others into the Yi hills by stealth, hunting a route to Shendu. At Dian, King Dangqiang held the envoys while he looked for a passage. Four years on, Kunming tribes bottled every party—no breakthrough. The Dian king asked the Han envoys: ‘Which is larger—Han or my realm?’ Yelang’s chief asked the same—each man imagined himself lord of a world and had no notion of Han’s scale. Back at court they painted Dian as a prize ally worth cultivating. The emperor took notice.

及至南粵反，上使馳義侯因犍爲發南夷兵。且蘭君恐遠行，旁國虜其老弱，乃與其衆反，殺使者及犍爲太守。漢乃發巴、蜀罪人當擊南粵者八校尉擊之。會越已破，漢八校尉不下，中郎將郭昌、衛廣引兵還，行誅隔滇道者且蘭，斬首數萬，遂平南夷爲牂柯郡。夜郎侯始倚南粵，南粵已滅，還誅反者，夜郎遂入朝，上以爲夜郎王。南粵破後，及漢誅且蘭、邛君，並殺莋侯，冉駹皆震恐，請臣置吏，以邛都爲粵巂郡，作都爲沈黎郡，冉駹爲文山郡，廣漢西白馬爲武都郡。

Southern Yue’s revolt brought orders for the Marquis of Chiyi to levy Yi auxiliaries out of Qianwei. Qielan’s chief refused the long march lest neighbors loot his rear; he turned his men on Han, slaughtering the envoys and Qianwei’s governor. Han redirected eight colonels of Ba–Shu penal troops bound for Yue against the rebels. Yue collapsed before those eight wings reached it; Guo Chang and Wei Guang turned their columns west, crushed Qielan—the chokepoint on the Dian road—claimed tens of thousands of heads, and folded the south into Zangke commandery. Yelang had leaned on Yue; with Yue gone and rebels punished, its chief came to court and left ennobled as king. Yue’s collapse and Han’s killing of Qielan, the Qiong lord, and the Zuo marquis terrified Ranmang—the lot sued for county rule: Qiongdu became Yuexi, Zuodu Shenli, Ranmang Wenshan, and Guanghan’s western Baima lands Wudu.

使王然於以粵破及誅南夷兵威風諭滇王入朝。滇王者，其衆數萬人，其旁東北勞深、靡莫皆同姓相杖，未肯聽。勞、莫數侵犯使者吏卒。元封二年，天子發巴、蜀兵擊滅勞深、靡莫，以兵臨滇。滇王始首善，以故弗誅。滇王離西夷，滇舉國降，請置吏入朝，於是以爲益州郡，賜滇王王印，復長其民。西南夷君長以百數，獨夜郎、滇受王印。滇，小邑也，最寵焉。

Wang Ranyu carried word of Yue’s ruin and southern heads on stakes to coax Dian’s king to Chang’an. Dian fielded tens of thousands; allied Laoshen and Mimo kinsmen on his northeast flank refused the summons. Those allies repeatedly ambushed Han messengers and escorts. In Yuanfeng 2 the emperor sent Ba–Shu armies to wipe out Laoshen and Mimo, then massed on Dian’s border. Dian’s king had stayed comparatively loyal, so his life was spared. Dian quit the western league and surrendered wholesale, asking for magistrates and tributary status—Han mapped it as Yizhou, handed the king a royal seal, and let him govern his own folk under Han law. Scores of Yi chiefs existed; only Yelang and Dian won kingly chops. Tiny Dian drew the court’s fondest treatment.

後二十三歲，孝昭始元元年，益州廉頭、姑繒民反，殺長吏。牂柯、談指、同並等二十四邑，凡三萬餘人皆反。遣水衡都尉發蜀郡、犍爲奔命萬餘人擊牂柯，大破之。後三歲，姑繒、葉榆復反，遣水衡都尉呂辟胡將郡兵擊之。辟胡不進，蠻夷遂殺益州太守，乘勝與辟胡戰，士戰及溺死者四千餘人。明年，復遣軍正王平與大鴻臚田廣明等並進，大破益州，斬首捕虜五萬餘級，獲畜產十余萬。上曰：「鉤町侯亡波率其邑君長人民擊反者，斬首捕虜有功，其立亡波爲鉤町王。大鴻臚廣明賜爵關內侯，食邑三百戶。」後間歲，武都氐人反，遣執金吾馬適建、龍額侯韓增與大鴻臚廣明將兵擊之。

Twenty-three years on, in Emperor Zhao’s first Shiyuan year, Liantou and Guzeng in Yizhou rose and slew their magistrates. Twenty-four polities—Zangke, Tanzhi, Tongbing, and the rest—put more than thirty thousand rebels in the field. The court ordered the palace superintendent to scrape together ten thousand crack troops from Shu and Qianwei; they shattered the Zangke rebels. Three years later Guzeng and Yeyu rose again; Lü Pihu led county levies against them. Pihu stalled; the rebels slew Yizhou’s governor, then routed his hesitant column—four thousand dead by steel or river. The following year Wang Ping and Grand Herald Tian Guangming drove a coordinated offensive, shattered Yizhou resistance—fifty thousand counted heads—and drove off a hundred thousand head of stock. The emperor ruled: ‘Gouding marquis Wang Bo rallied his yeomen against the rebels and earned blood merit—elevate him to king of Gouding.’ Grand Herald Tian Guangming took a secondary marquisate and three hundred taxable households. ’ A year later Wudu’s Di rose; Mashijian, Han Zeng of Long’e, and Tian Guangming marched to suppress them.

至城帝河平中，夜郎王興與鉤町王禹、漏臥侯俞更舉兵相攻。牂柯太守請發兵誅興等，議者以爲道遠不可擊，乃遣太中大夫蜀郡張匡持節和解。興等不從命，刻木象漢吏，立道旁射之。杜欽說大將軍王鳳曰：「太中大夫匡使和解蠻夷王侯，王侯受詔，已復相攻，輕易漢使，不憚國威，其效可見。恐議者選耎，復守和解，太守察動靜有變，乃以聞。如此，則復曠一時，王侯得收獵其衆，申固其謀，黨助衆多，各不勝忿，必相殄滅。自知罪成，狂犯守尉，遠臧溫暑毒草之地，雖有孫、吳將，賁、育士，若入水火，往必焦設，知勇亡所施。屯田守之，費不可勝量。宜因其罪惡未成，未疑漢家加誅，陰敕旁郡守尉練士馬，大司農豫調穀積要害處，選任職太守往，以秋涼時入，誅其王侯尤不軌者。即以爲不毛之地，亡用之民，聖王不以勞中國，宜罷郡，放棄其民，絕其王侯勿復通。如以先帝所立累世之功不可墮壞，亦宜因其萌牙，早斷絕之，及已成形然後戰師，則萬姓被害。」

Under Emperor Cheng, in the Heping years, Yelang’s king Xing, Gouding’s king Yu, and Louwo marquis Yu traded blows in endless rounds. Zangke’s governor wanted Xing’s head; court opinion cited distance and vetoed force—instead Zhang Kuang of Shu went south with an ivory tally to mediate. The kings ignored the order, whittled Han-style figurines, lined the highway with them, and used them for archery practice. Du Qin warned Wang Feng: Zhang Kuang’s mission bought only a pause—the kings took the edict and kept fighting, mocking Han envoys and daring state prestige—the insult speaks for itself.’ Weak ministers will cling to talk while the frontier governor waits for smoke on the horizon before cabling the throne.’ Months slip away; each ruler rallies kin, hardens conspiracy, stacks allies, rage boils—and they will tear one another apart.’ Once guilt sets in they will strike county seats and bolt into fever-country—even Sun Wu tactics and elite infantry burn up like kindling; wit and valor vanish in that jungle.’ Trying to hold it by frontier farms would bleed the treasury beyond counting.’ Better strike before guilt ripens into suspicion—quiet orders to drill neighboring commands, grain dumps on the passes, a seasoned governor, a dry-season thrust, and decapitate the worst offenders.’ If you judge it sterile soil and worthless subjects no sage king should tax China for—then strike the commandery from the map, walk away, and seal the passes.’ If you cherish the edifice earlier emperors raised—then nip this at the bud; wait until armies must march against finished rebellion and common folk pay the price.’

大將軍鳳於是薦金城司馬陳立爲牂柯太守。立者，臨邛人，前爲連然長，不韋令，蠻夷畏這。及至牂柯，諭告夜郎王興，興不從命，立請誅之。未報，乃從吏數十人出行縣，至興國且同亭，召興。興將數千人往至亭，從邑君數十人入見立。立數責，因斷頭。邑君曰：「將軍誅亡狀，爲民除害，願出曉士衆。」以興頭示之，皆釋兵降。鉤町王禹、漏臥侯俞震恐，入粟千斛，牛、羊勞吏士。立還歸郡，興妻父翁指與興子邪務收餘兵，迫脅旁二十二邑反。至冬，立奏募諸夷與都尉長史分將攻翁指等。翁指據厄爲壘，立使奇兵絕其餉道，縱反間以誘其衆。都尉萬年曰：「兵久不決，費不可共。」引兵獨進，敗走，趨立營。立怒，叱戲下令格之。都尉復還戰，立引兵救之。時天大旱，立攻絕其水道。蠻夷共斬翁指，持首出降。立已平定西夷，征詣京師。會巴郡有盜賊，復以立爲巴郡太守，秩中二千石居，賜爵左庶長。徙爲天水太守，勸民農桑爲天下最，賜金四十斤。入爲左曹衛將軍、護軍都尉，卒官。

Wang Feng nominated Jincheng marshal Chen Li for Zangke. A Linqiong native, he had run Lianran and Buwei—Yi leaders learned to dread him. At his post he summoned Yelang’s king Xing; defiance brought Chen Li’s memorial demanding execution. Before capital approval arrived he toured with a light escort to Qietong Pavilion in Yelang and called Xing out. Xing marched thousands to the pavilion; dozens of village headmen followed him inside. Chen Li lectured him once, then took his head. The headmen said: ‘You executed a king who had forfeited all warrant of rule and rid us of a tyrant—let us walk out and calm the host.’ Chen Li lifted Xing’s head; every spear hit the ground. Gouding’s Yu and Louwo’s marquis panicked—each sent a thousand hu of grain plus cattle and sheep for Han troops. Back at headquarters, Xing’s father-in-law Wuzhi and son Xiewu scraped together survivors and dragooned twenty-two neighboring towns into revolt. That winter Chen Li asked to levy Yi auxiliaries under the commandant and chief clerk for a pincer on Wuzhi. Wuzhi walled up the defile; Chen Li sent raiders to sever his trains and fed his ranks rumor. The commandant Wannian protested: ‘A drawn-out standoff will bleed the treasury dry.’ ’ He charged ahead on his own, broke, and bolted for Chen Li’s lines. Chen Li roared at the rout and ordered Wannian cut down for disobedience. Wannian wheeled back into the fight; Chen Li threw in reinforcements. A crushing drought settled in; Chen Li seized the rebels’ water and strangled them. The Yi turned on Wuzhi, presented his head, and capitulated. With the western Yi quiet, the court recalled Chen Li to Chang’an. Banditry in Ba bought him a second tour as governor—full two-thousand-shi salary and the noble rank of Left Senior Leader. Shifted to Tianshui, he made its farms and mulberry groves a model for the empire and earned forty jin of gold. He finished as Left Bureau Guards general and colonel of the army guard—dying in harness.

王莽篡位，改漢制，貶鉤町王以爲侯。王邯怨恨，牂柯大尹周欽詐殺邯。邯弟承攻殺欽，州郡擊之，不能服。三邊蠻夷愁擾盡反，復殺益州大尹程隆。莽遣平蠻將軍馮茂發巴、蜀、犍爲吏士，賦斂取足於民，以擊益州。出入三年，疾疫死者什七，巴、蜀騷動。莽征茂還，誅之。更遣甯始將軍廉丹與庸部牧史熊大發天水、隴西騎士，廣漢、巴、蜀、犍爲吏民十萬人，轉輸者合二十萬人，擊之。始至，頗斬首數千，其後軍糧前後不相及，士卒饑疫，三歲余死者數萬。而粵巂蠻夷任貴亦殺太守枚根，自立爲邛谷王。會莽敗漢興，誅貴，復舊號雲。

Wang Mang seized the throne, rewrote Han law, and stripped Gouding’s king down to marquis rank. King Han nursed a grudge; Zangke’s Grand Intendant Zhou Qin lured him to his death. Han’s brother Cheng avenged him on Qin; provincial armies could not bring the south to heel. Frontier Yi rose everywhere in fury and slew Yizhou’s Grand Intendant Cheng Long. Mang sent Feng Mao south with Ba–Shu–Qianwei troops, wringing the countryside until his purse was full, then marched on Yizhou. Three years of campaigning killed seven men in ten by plague; Ba and Shu buckled under the strain. Mang recalled Feng Mao and took his head. Next came Lian Dan and Yong department’s Shi Xiong with Longxi–Tianshui cavalry, a hundred thousand levies from Guanghan through Qianwei, and twice that many porters. Early raids scored thousands of heads; then supply trains failed, hunger and pestilence swept the camps, and within three years tens of thousands were dead. Meanwhile Yuexi’s Yi leader Ren Gui slew Governor Mei Gen and styled himself king of the Qiong valley. Mang fell, Han returned, Ren Gui was executed, and the former titles were restored.

南粵王趙佗，真定人也。秦並天下，略定揚粵，置桂林、南海、象郡，以適徙民與粵雜處。十三歲，至二世時，南海尉任囂病且死，召龍川令趙佗語曰：「聞陳勝等作亂，豪桀叛秦相立，南海辟遠，恐盜兵侵此。吾欲興兵絕新道，自備侍諸侯變，會疾甚。且番禺負山險阻，南北東西數千里，頗有中國人相輔，此亦一州之主，可爲國。郡中長吏亡足與謀者，故召公告之。」即被佗書，行南海尉事。囂死，佗即移檄告橫浦、陽山、湟溪關曰：「盜兵且至，急絕道聚兵自守。」因稍以法誅秦所置吏，以其黨爲守假。秦已滅，佗即擊並桂林、象郡，自立爲南粵武王。

Zhao Tuo, king of Southern Yue, hailed from Zhending. Unified Qin carved out Guilin, Nanhai, and Xiang from the Yang–Yue south and parked convict colonists among the Yue. Thirteen years later, dying Nanhai commandant Ren Xiao called in Longchuan’s Zhao Tuo: rebels like Chen Sheng were toppling Qin; this distant coast might be next.’ I meant to seal the new highways and wait out the warlords—but this sickness has me.’ Panyu sits behind ranges for thousands of li in every direction, with Han settlers to lean on—enough to be a regional power.’ No one else in this command is fit to plan with—that is why I called you.’ ’ He handed Zhao Tuo acting command of Nanhai. Xiao died; Zhao Tuo wired the mountain passes—bandits coming; bar the roads and rally the garrisons.’ ’ Then he lawfully purged Qin’s appointees and filled posts with his own men. Qin gone, Zhao Tuo swallowed Guilin and Xiang and proclaimed himself Southern Yue’s Martial King.

高帝已定天下，爲中國勞苦，故釋佗不誅。十一年，遣陸賈立佗爲南粵王，與部符通使，使和輯百粵，毋爲南邊害，與長沙接境。

Gaozu had pacified the realm but shrank from another costly campaign—he spared Zhao Tuo. In year eleven Lu Jia invested Zhao Tuo as king of Southern Yue, restored tallied missions, and charged him to pacify the Yue peoples without troubling Han’s south—his realm adjoined Changsha.

高後時，有司請禁粵關市鐵器。佗曰：「高皇帝立我，通使物，今高後聽讒臣，別異蠻夷，隔絕器物，此必長沙王計，欲倚中國，擊滅南海並王之，自爲功也。」於是佗乃自尊號爲南武帝，發兵攻長沙邊，敗數縣焉。高後遣將軍隆慮侯灶擊之，會暑濕，士卒大疫，兵不能逾領。歲餘，高後崩，即罷兵。佗因此以兵威財物賂遺閩粵、西甌駱，伇屬焉。東西萬餘里。乃乘黃屋左纛，稱制，與中國侔。

Under Empress Lü the bureaucracy moved to ban iron sales to Yue at the passes. Zhao Tuo fumed: Gaozu had recognized him and kept trade flowing; Lü’s court listened to malice, singled out the barbarians, and embargoed metal—classic Changsha intrigue to borrow Han blades and swallow his kingdom.’ ’ He crowned himself Southern Martial Emperor and struck Changsha’s frontier counties. Lü sent Marquis Zao of Longlü; heat and malaria hollowed the column—it never crossed the divide. A year later Empress Lü died and Han called off the expedition. Zhao Tuo spent treasure and swagger to pull Minyue and the western Ou-Luo into his orbit. His sway stretched ten thousand li from east to west. He adopted the imperial equipage, issued orders as sovereign, and matched the Middle Kingdom in pomp.

文帝元年，初鎮撫天下，使告諸侯四夷從代來即位意，諭盛德焉。乃爲佗親塚在真定置守邑，歲時奉祀。召其從昆弟，尊官厚賜寵之。召丞相平舉可使粵者，平言陸賈先帝時使粵。上召賈爲太中大夫，謁者一人爲副使，賜佗書曰：「皇帝謹問南粵王，甚苦心勞意。朕，高皇帝側室之子，棄外奉北籓於代，道里遼遠，壅蔽樸愚，未嘗致書。高皇帝棄群臣，孝惠皇帝即世，高後自臨事，不幸有疾，日進不衰，以故悖暴乎治。諸呂爲變故亂法，不能獨制，乃取它姓子爲孝惠皇帝嗣。賴宗廟之靈，功臣之力，誅之已畢。朕以王侯吏不釋之故，不得不立，今即位。乃者聞王遺將軍隆慮侯書，求親昆弟，請罷長沙兩將軍。朕以王書罷將軍博陽侯，親昆弟在真定者，已遣人存問，修治先人塚。前日聞王發兵于邊，爲寇災不止。當其時，長沙苦之，南郡尤甚，雖王之國，庸獨利乎！必多殺士卒，傷良將吏，寡人之妻，孤人之子，獨人父母，得一亡十，朕不忍爲也。朕欲定地犬牙相入者，以問吏，吏曰『高皇帝所以介長沙土也』，朕不得擅變焉。吏曰：『得王之地不足以爲大，得王之財不足以爲富，服領以南，王自治之。』雖然，王之號爲帝。兩帝並立，亡一乘之使以通其道，是爭也；爭而不讓，仁者不爲也。願與王分棄前患，終今以來，通使如故。故使賈馳諭告王朕意，王亦受之，毋爲寇災矣。上褚五十衣，中褚三十衣，下褚二十衣，遺王。願王聽樂娛憂，存問鄰國。」

Emperor Wen’s first year opened with outreach: he explained his rise from Dai to every prince and frontier power and showcased his virtue. He posted a guard village at Zhao Tuo’s ancestral graves in Zhending and funded regular sacrifices. He summoned Zhao’s cousins northward, gave them rank, silk, and favor. He asked Chancellor Chen Ping for an envoy; Ping named Lu Jia, who had served under Gaozu. Lu Jia became Grandee of the Palace with a herald as deputy; the emperor’s letter opened: ‘The Son of Heaven greets the king of Southern Yue and knows how heavy your cares have been.’ ‘I am a minor son of Gaozu, long relegated to Dai’s northern march—remote, rustic, and silent until now.’ ‘Gaozu died; Emperor Hui followed; Empress Lü ruled in person while sickness twisted her judgment until government ran harsh and skewed.’ ‘The Lü clan bent the statutes; unable to rule alone, she installed an outsider as Hui’s heir.’ ‘Temple spirits and founding ministers prevailed—the plotters are dead.’ ‘Princes and officials would brook no delay—I took the throne because I had to.’ ‘I hear you wrote Marquis Zao of Longlü for kin in the north and asked Han to pull Changsha’s two generals.’ ‘On your word I cashiered Marquis Boyang; agents already tend your kin and ancestral graves in Zhending.’ ‘Yet lately your troops raid the frontier without end.’ ‘Changsha bleeds—Nan commandery worst of all—even your own realm gains nothing by this!’ ‘War means stacks of widows, orphans, and childless elders—one village taken for ten ruined counties; I will not pay that coin gladly.’ ‘I asked to straighten the zigzag border; clerks answered that Gaozu drew those teeth—I cannot redraw them alone.’ ‘They add: your lands would not enlarge Han nor your treasure enrich us—south of the ridge you may govern yourself.’ ‘Yet you still style yourself emperor.’ ‘Two Son of Heaven without envoys between them is rivalry—’ ‘—and rivalry without yielding ill suits humane rule.’ ‘Let us bury old scores from this day and exchange envoys as before.’ ‘Lu Jia rides south with this olive branch—accept it and spare us border raids.’ ‘I send fifty upper suits, thirty middle, twenty lower.’ ‘May music lighten your cares and courtesy bind your neighbors.’

陸賈至，南粵王恐，乃頓首謝，願奉明詔，長爲籓臣，奉貢職。於是下令國中曰：「吾聞兩雄不俱立，兩賢不並世。漢皇帝賢天子。自今以來，去帝制黃屋左纛。」因爲書稱：「蠻夷大長老夫臣佗昧死再拜上書皇帝陛下：老夫故粵吏也，高皇帝幸賜臣佗璽，以爲南粵王，使爲外臣，時內貢職。孝惠皇帝即位，義不忍絕，所以賜老夫者厚甚。高後自臨用事，近細士，信讒臣，別異蠻夷，出令曰：『毋予蠻夷外粵金鐵田器；馬、牛、羊即予，予牡，毋與牝。』老夫處辟，馬、羊、羊齒已長，自以祭祀不修，有死罪，使內史籓、中尉高、御史平凡三輩上書謝過，皆不反。又風聞老夫父母墳墓已壞削，兄弟宗族已誅論。吏相與議曰：『今內不得振於漢。外亡以自高異。』故更號爲帝，自帝其國，非敢有害於天下也。高皇后聞之大怒，削去南粵之籍，使使不通。老夫竊疑長沙王讒臣，故敢發兵以伐其邊。且南方卑濕，蠻夷中西有西甌，其衆半羸，南面稱王；東有閩粵，其衆數千人，亦稱王；西北有長沙，其半蠻夷，亦稱王。老夫故敢妄竊帝號，聊以自娛。老夫身定百邑之地，東西南北數千萬里，帶甲百萬有餘，然北面而臣事漢，何也？不敢背先人之故。老夫處粵四十九年，於今抱孫焉。然夙興夜寐，寢不安席，食不甘味，目不視靡曼之色，耳不聽鐘鼓之音者，以不得事漢也。今陛下幸哀憐，復故號，通使漢如故，老夫死骨不腐，改號不敢爲帝矣！謹北面因使者獻白璧一雙，翠鳥千，犀角十，紫貝五百，桂蠹一器，生翠四十雙，孔雀二雙。昧死再拜，以聞皇帝陛下。」

Lu Jia’s arrival rattled Zhao Tuo; he kowtowed, pledged to obey the decree, and resume life as a tributary king. He proclaimed through Yue: ‘Two stallions cannot share one stable—two sages cannot rule one age.’ The Han Son of Heaven is the true sage-king.’ Henceforth I shed imperial title, yellow canopy, and kingly pennant.’ ’ His memorial ran: ‘Barbarian elder Zhao Tuo kowtows to the throne: once a mere Yue official, I received Gaozu’s seal as king of Southern Yue and outer vassal with regular tribute inward.’ Emperor Hui succeeded and out of kindness kept the gifts flowing—lavishly.’ Empress Lü ruled through petty favorites who issued edicts: no iron farm tools to outer Yue barbarians;’ If livestock went north, send only males—never breeding stock.’ ’ Stranded in the south with aging herds, I feared my neglect of ancestral rites was treason—I sent Fan, Gao, and Ping thrice with apologies; silence answered each.’ Rumor said Han had smashed my parents’ tombs and executed my kin.’ My advisers muttered: ‘Han gives us no dignity within—’ —and abroad no lever to raise our prestige.’ ’ So I borrowed an emperor’s title at home—not to threaten the realm.’ Empress Lü struck Yue from the rolls and sealed the missions.’ I blamed Changsha’s faction and hit their frontier.’ The muggy south breeds rivals: Western Ou, half starved, still crowns itself king in the west;’ eastward Minyue’s thousands call themselves kings;’ northwest Changsha—half Yi—does the same.’ Small wonder I toyed with an empty emperor’s style.’ I carved out a million spears and myriad li—yet I bow north to Han: why?’ Because I dare not dishonor what my predecessors began.’ Forty-nine years in Yue—I am a grandfather now.’ Yet I rose before dawn and slept uneasy—no taste for food, no taste for silk or music—all because Han shut its door on me.’ Now Your Majesty restores my old station and the old traffic—my bones may rest easy; I shall never again style myself emperor!’ Through your envoy I send paired white jades, a thousand kingfisher skins, ten rhino horns, five hundred cowries, a jar of cinnamon larvae, forty pairs of kingfisher plumes, and two pairs of peacocks.’ Risking execution, I bow twice and lay this before the throne.’

陸賈還報，文帝大說。遂至孝景時，稱臣遣使入朝請。然其居國，竊如故號；其使天子，稱王朝命如諸侯。

Lu Jia’s report delighted Emperor Wen. Through Emperor Jing’s reign he styled himself vassal and sent envoys to Chang’an. At home he quietly kept his old imperial style; his missions to the capital spoke only the language of a feudal king.

至武帝建元四年，佗孫胡爲南粵王。立三年，閩粵王郢興兵南擊邊邑。粵使人上書曰：「兩粵俱爲籓臣，毋擅興兵相攻擊。今東粵擅興兵侵臣，臣不敢興兵，唯天子詔之。」於是天子多南粵義，守職約，爲興師，遣兩將軍往討閩粵。兵未逾領，閩粵王弟餘善殺郢以降，於是罷兵。

By Wu-di’s Jianyuan 4, Zhao Tuo’s grandson Hu ruled Southern Yue. Three years into his reign, Minyue’s king Ying swept south against Yue’s march towns. Yue petitioned: ‘Both realms are Han vassals—no private wars between us.’ Eastern Yue struck first; I refuse to answer in kind—only the Son of Heaven may judge.’ ’ The court praised Yue’s restraint, honored the treaty, and sent two generals against Minyue. Han never crossed the divide: Minyue prince Yu Shan murdered King Ying and yielded—so Han stood down.

相呂嘉年長矣，相三王，宗族官貴爲長吏七十餘人，男盡尚王女，女盡嫁王子弟宗室，及蒼梧秦王有連。其居國中甚重，粵人信之，多爲耳目者，得衆心愈于王。王之上書，數諫止王，王不聽。有畔心，數稱病不見漢使者。使者注意嘉，勢未能誅。王、王太后亦恐嘉等先事發，欲介使者權，謀誅嘉等。置酒請使者，大臣皆侍坐飲。嘉弟爲將，將卒居宮外。酒行，太后謂嘉：「南粵內屬，國之利，而相君苦不便者，何也？」以激怒使者。使者狐疑相杖，遂不敢發。嘉見耳目非是，即趨出。太后怒，欲鏦嘉以矛，王止太后。嘉遂出，介弟兵就舍，稱病，不肯見王及使者。乃陰謀作亂。王素亡意誅嘉，嘉知之，以故數月不發。太后獨欲誅嘉等，力又不能。

Lü Jia, elderly premier to three Yue kings, had seventy-odd kinsmen in high posts, sons wedded to princesses and daughters to Zhao royals, plus marriage ties to Cangwu’s prince. He dominated court opinion—his spy ring ran deep—and ordinary Yue favored him over their king. Whenever the king drafted petitions northward, Lü Jia talked him down—the king rarely listened. He nursed treason and dodged every Han envoy with feigned sickness. Envoys marked Lü Jia for removal but lacked force to strike. King and queen mother feared Lü Jia would move first and schemed to borrow Han envoys’ cover for a coup. They banqueted the Han party—all senior ministers at table. Lü Jia’s brother commanded body troops camped beyond the palace walls. Mid-feast the queen mother cornered Lü Jia: annexation helps Yue—why does the premier fight it?’ —hoping to bait the Han envoys into action. The envoys wavered and held each other back—no blow fell. Lü Jia read the room and bolted. The queen mother grabbed for a spear; the king restrained her. Lü Jia slipped out, rallied his brother’s guard, and hid behind sickness. He began plotting open revolt. The king would never kill him—Lü Jia knew it—so he waited months before moving. Only the queen mother wanted him dead—and she lacked the muscle.

天子聞之，罪使者怯亡決。又以爲王、王太后已附漢，獨呂嘉爲亂，不足以興兵，欲使莊參以二千人往。參曰：「以好往，數人足；以武往，二千人亡足以爲也。」辭不可，天子罷參兵。郟壯士故濟北相韓千秋奮曰：「以區區粵，又有王應，獨相呂嘉爲害，願得勇士三百人，必斬嘉以報。」於是天子遣千秋與王太后弟摎樂將二千人往。入粵境，呂嘉乃遂反，下令國中曰：「王年少。太后中國人，又與使者亂，專欲內屬，盡持先王寶入獻天子以自媚，多從人，行至長安，虜賣以爲僮。取自脫一時利，亡顧趙氏社稷爲萬世慮之意。」乃與其弟將卒攻殺太后、王，盡殺漢使者。遣人告蒼梧秦王及其諸郡縣，立明王長男粵妻子術陽侯建德爲王。而韓千秋兵之入也，破數小邑。其後粵直開道給食，未至番禺四十里，粵以兵擊千秋等，滅之。使人函封漢使節置塞上，好爲謾辭謝罪，發兵守要害處。於是天子曰：「韓千秋雖亡成功，亦軍鋒之冠。封其子延年爲成安侯。摎樂，其姊爲王太后，首願屬漢，封其子廣德爲龍侯。」乃赦天下，曰：「天子微弱，諸侯力政，譏臣不討賊。呂嘉、建德等反，自立晏如，令粵人及江淮以南樓船十萬師往討之。」

The emperor condemned his envoys for timidity. Figuring king and queen mother pro-Han with only Lü Jia rebellious, he thought two thousand men under Zhuang Can enough. Zhuang Can replied: ‘A peaceful visit needs only a handful;’ two thousand fighters will not finish the job.’ He refused the commission; the emperor stood Zhuang Can down. Han Qianqiu of Jia, ex-chancellor of Jibei, volunteered: petty Yue, a friendly king, one villainous premier—give me three hundred blades and I bring Lü Jia’s head.’ The court sent Han Qianqiu and the queen mother’s brother Jiu Le with two thousand men. Inside Yue’s borders Lü Jia declared revolt: ‘The king is a boy.’ ‘The Han-born queen mother dallies with envoys and means to drag Yue north—she would ship the royal heirlooms to flatter Chang’an and march our people there for the slave markets.’ ‘She chases a moment’s gain with no care for Zhao’s lasting realm.’ He and his brother stormed the palace, slew king and queen mother, and massacred the Han mission. Messengers rallied Cangwu and the counties; he enthroned Zhao Jiande, Ming-king’s eldest son by his Yue consort and Marquis of Shuyang. Han Qianqiu’s column overran a few towns. Yue feigned safe passage and supplies—then ambushed Han Qianqiu forty li short of Panyu and annihilated him. He returned Han tally-staves in a cedar box on the border, spun polite apologies, and fortified the passes. The emperor ruled: ‘Han Qianqiu failed—but his was the vanguard’s valor.’ He made his son Yannian Marquis of Cheng’an. Jiu Le’s sister was queen mother and first to seek absorption—his son Guangde became Marquis of Long. ’ He proclaimed a general amnesty: ‘When the throne was weak and lords fought among themselves, ministers failed to punish traitors.’ ‘Lü Jia and Jiande sit smug in rebellion—mobilize a hundred thousand tower ships from Yue and south of the Yangzi–Huai to crush them.’

元鼎五年秋，衛尉路博德爲伏波將軍，出桂陽，下湟水；主爵都尉楊僕爲樓船將軍，出豫章，下橫浦；故歸義粵侯二人爲戈船、下瀨將軍，出零陵，或下離水，或抵蒼梧；使馳義侯因巴、蜀罪人，發夜郎兵，下牂柯江；鹹會番禺。

Yuanding 5, autumn: Commandant Lu Bode led the Wave-Quelling host from Guiyang down the Huangshui; Capital Peers commandant Yang Pu’s tower ships left Yuzhang for Hengpu; Two surrendered Yue marquises took halberd ships and rapids craft from Lingling—one column on the Li, one toward Cangwu; The Marquis of Chiyi drove Ba–Shu felons and Yelang auxiliaries down the Zangke; every wing aimed for Panyu.

六年冬，樓船將軍將精卒先陷尋陿，破石門，得粵船粟，因推而前，挫粵鋒，以粵數萬人待伏波將軍。伏波將軍將罪人，道遠後期，與樓船會乃有千餘人，遂俱進。樓船居前，至番禺，建德、嘉皆城守。樓船自擇便處，居東南面，伏波居西北面。會暮，樓船攻敗粵人，縱火燒城。粵素聞伏波，莫，不知其兵多少。伏波乃爲營，遣使招降者，賜印綬，復縱令相招。樓船力攻燒敵，反驅而入伏波營中。遲旦，城中皆降伏波。呂嘉、建德以夜與其屬數百人亡入海。伏波又問降者，知嘉所之，遣人追。故其校司馬蘇弘得建德，爲海常侯；粵郎都稽得嘉，爲臨蔡侯。

Winter of year six: Yang Pu’s marines took Xunyang and Stone Gate, seized Yue grain barges, rolled forward, bloodied Yue’s van—while tens of thousands of defenders waited for Lu Bode. Lu Bode’s penal column trailed far behind—barely a thousand men linked up with Yang Pu—yet both pushed on. Yang Pu reached Panyu first; Jiande and Lü Jia barred the gates. Yang Pu seized the southeast sector; Lu Bode sealed the northwest. At dusk Yang Pu stormed the walls and set Panyu ablaze. Yue had feared Lu Bode’s name for years—they could not gauge his numbers in the gloom. Lu Bode pitched camp, handed seals to defectors, and sent them back to recruit others. Yang Pu’s assault drove survivors straight into Lu Bode’s lines. By dawn the whole city had capitulated to Lu Bode. Lü Jia and Jiande slipped seaward at night with hundreds. Lu Bode wrung Lü Jia’s trail from prisoners and gave chase. Su Hong, Lu Bode’s major, bagged Jiande and earned Marquis of Haichang; the Yue courtier Du Ji caught Lü Jia and took Marquis of Lancai.

蒼梧王趙光與粵王同姓，聞漢兵至，降，爲隨桃侯。及粵揭陽令史定降漢，爲安道侯。粵將畢取以軍降，爲膫侯。粵桂林監居翁諭告甌駱四十余萬口降，爲湘城侯。戈船、下瀨將軍兵及馳義侯所發夜郎兵未下，南粵已平。遂以其地爲儋耳、珠崖、南海、蒼梧、郁林、合浦、交止、九真、日南九郡。伏波將軍益封。樓船將軍以推鋒陷堅爲將梁侯。

Zhao Guang of Cangwu, a kinsman of the royal house, submitted when Han arrived and was ennobled as Marquis of Suitao. Jieyang clerk Shi Ding defected and became Marquis of Andao. General Bi Qu brought his command over and took Marquis of Liao. Guilin’s Ju Weng talked four hundred thousand Ou-Luo into submission and earned Marquis of Xiangcheng. The halberd fleets, rapids squadrons, and Yelang corps never arrived—Southern Yue had already fallen. Han carved the south into nine commanderies: Dan’er, Zhuya, Nanhai, Cangwu, Yulin, Hepu, Jiaozhi, Jiuzhen, and Rinan. Lu Bode’s fief was expanded. Yang Pu won Marquis of Jiangliang for cracking the hardest nuts.

自尉佗王凡五世，九十三歲而亡。

Five kings after Zhao Tuo—ninety-three years—the line ended.

閩粵王無諸及粵東海王搖，其先皆粵王勾踐之後也，姓騶氏。秦並天下，廢爲君長，以其地爲閩中郡。及諸侯畔秦，無諸、搖率粵歸番陽令吳芮，所謂番君者也，從諸侯滅秦。當是時，項羽主命，不王也，以故不佐楚。漢擊項籍，無諸、搖帥粵人佐漢。漢五年，復立無諸爲閩粵王，王閩中故地，都冶。孝惠三年，舉高帝時粵功，曰閩君搖功多，其民便附，乃立搖爲東海王，都東甌，世號曰東甌王。

Minyue’s Wuzhu and Eastern Sea’s Yao traced their line to Goujian of Yue—the clan name Zou. Unified Qin stripped their kingship and drew Minzhong commandery around them. When lords rose against Qin, Wuzhu and Yao brought Minyue to Wu Rui of Poyang—the ‘Lord of Fan’—and helped fell the dynasty. Xiang Yu handed out titles but skipped them—so they withheld aid from Chu. When Han struck Xiang Yu, Wuzhu and Yao threw Minyue behind Liu Bang. In Han’s fifth year he restored Wuzhu as king of Minyue with capital at Ye. In Hui-di year three the court cited wartime service: Yao had earned his people’s loyalty—Han named him king of Eastern Sea at Dong’ou, henceforth ‘King of Eastern Ou.’

後數世，孝景三年，吳王濞反，欲從閩粵，閩粵未肯行，獨東甌從。及吳破，東甌受漢購，殺吳王丹徒，以故得不誅。

Generations later, in Jing-di year three, Liu Pi of Wu sought Minyue’s alliance—Minyue refused; only Eastern Ou marched with him. After Wu’s defeat Eastern Ou earned amnesty by killing Liu Pi at Dantu for Han’s bounty.

吳王子駒亡走閩粵，怨東甌殺其父，常勸閩粵擊東甌。建元三年，閩粵發兵圍東甌，東甌使人告急天子。天子問太尉田蚡，蚡對曰：「粵人相攻擊，固其常，不足以煩中國往救也。」中大夫嚴助詰蚡，言當救。天子遣助發會稽郡兵浮海救之，語具在《助傳》。漢兵未至，閩粵引兵去。東粵請舉國徙中國，乃悉與衆處江、淮之間。

Liu Pi’s son Ju fled to Minyue and ceaselessly urged revenge on Eastern Ou for his father’s death. In Jianyuan 3 Minyue besieged Eastern Ou; Ou sent frantic pleas to Chang’an. Emperor Wu consulted Tian Fen; Fen shrugged: Yue civil wars are routine—not worth mobilizing China.’ Yan Zhu challenged him—intervention was owed. The emperor ordered Yan Zhu to lift Kuaiji’s fleet—the full account is in his biography. Before Han landed, Minyue lifted the siege. Eastern Ou asked to relocate wholesale—Han resettled them between the Yangzi and Huai.

六年，閩粵擊南粵，南粵守天子約，不敢擅發兵，而以聞。上遣大行王恢出豫章，大司農韓安國出會稽，皆爲將軍。兵未逾領，閩粵王郢發兵距險。其弟餘善與宗族謀曰：「王以擅發兵，不請，故天子兵來誅。漢兵衆強，即幸勝之，後來益多，滅國乃止。今殺王以謝天子，天子罷兵，固國完。不聽乃力戰，不勝即亡入海。」皆曰：「善。」即鏦殺王，使使奉其頭致大行。大行曰：「所爲來者，誅王。王頭至，不戰而殞，利莫大焉。」乃以便宜案兵告大司農軍，而使使奉王頭馳報天子。詔罷兩將軍兵，曰：「郢等首惡，獨無諸孫繇君醜不與謀。」乃使郎中將立醜爲粵繇王，奉閩粵祭祀。

In year six Minyue hit Southern Yue; Southern Yue—bound by treaty—held fire and petitioned the throne. He sent Wang Hui from Yuzhang and Han Anguo from Kuaiji—both commissioned generals. Han never crossed the divide: King Ying fortified the passes. Prince Yu Shan told the clan: ‘The king marched without imperial leave—that’s why Han comes.’ ‘Han is huge—even a lucky win draws endless reinforcements until our country dies.’ ‘Kill the king as apology—Han withdraws and we survive.’ ‘Refuse, and we fight to the last—or bolt seaward if we lose.’ ’ The kin agreed. They assassinated Ying and sent his head to Wang Hui. Wang Hui said: ‘We crossed the mountains to execute your king.’ ‘His head ends the war—no greater bargain.’ He froze both columns, notified Han Anguo, and galloped the king’s head to the emperor. An edict stood down both armies: Ying led the conspiracy—only royal grandson Yao Chou stayed clean.’ ’ He named Yao Chou king of Minyue’s ritual line.

餘善以殺郢，威行國中，民多屬，竊自立爲王，繇王不能制。上聞之，爲餘善不足復興師，曰：「餘善首誅郢，師得不勞。」因立餘善爲東粵王，與繇王並處。

Yu Shan’s regicide made him king in all but name—the puppet Yao could not rein him in. The court judged another campaign wasteful: ‘Yu Shan rid us of Ying without battle.’ ’ He recognized Yu Shan as king of Eastern Yue beside Yao Chou.

至元鼎五年，南粵反，餘善上書請以卒八千從樓船擊呂嘉等。兵至揭陽，以海風波爲解，不行，持兩端，陰使南粵。及漢破番禺，樓船將軍僕上書願請引兵擊東粵。上以士卒勞倦，不許。罷兵，令諸校留屯豫章梅領待命。

In Yuanding 5, when Southern Yue rose, Yu Shan offered eight thousand men under Yang Pu against Lü Jia. At Jieyang he blamed storms and stalled—hedging while secretly dealing with Southern Yue. After Panyu fell, Yang Pu asked leave to march on Eastern Yue. The emperor refused—his troops were spent. He stood the army down but left colonels camped at Meiling in Yuzhang on alert.

明年秋，餘善聞樓船請誅之，漢兵留境，且往，乃遂發兵距漢道，號將軍騶力等爲「吞漢將軍」，入白沙、武林、梅領，殺漢三校尉。是時，漢使大司農張成、故山州侯齒將屯，不敢擊，卻就便處，皆坐畏懦誅。餘善刻「武帝」璽自立，詐其民，爲妄言。上遣橫海將軍韓說出句章，浮海從東方往；樓船將軍僕出武林，中尉王溫舒出梅領，粵侯爲戈船、下瀨將軍出如邪、白沙，元封元年冬、鹹入東粵。東粵素發兵距險，使徇北將軍守武林，敗樓船軍數校尉，殺長史。樓船軍卒錢唐榬終古斬徇北將軍，爲語皃侯。自兵未往。

Next autumn Yu Shan learned Yang Pu wanted his head—Han lingered on the frontier—so he seized the passes, dubbed Zou Li ‘Swallow-Han General,’ struck Baisha, Wulin, and Meiling, and slew three colonels. Minister Zhang Cheng and Marquis Chi held static camps and fell back—all executed for cowardice. Yu Shan forged an emperor’s seal, crowned himself, and lied to his subjects. Han Yue’s Across-the-Sea fleet sailed from Gouzhang eastward; Yang Pu struck Wulin, Wang Wenshu Meiling, Yue marquises took halberd ships from Ruye and Baisha—all converged on Eastern Yue in Yuanfeng 1 winter. Eastern Yue held the heights—Northward-General at Wulin broke Yang Pu’s wing and slew his chief clerk. Private Mou Zhonggu of Qiantang took Northward-General’s head and earned Marquis of Yu’er. This preceded the arrival of the full expedition.

故粵衍侯吳陽前在漢，漢使歸諭餘善，不聽。及橫海軍至，陽以其邑七百人反，攻粵軍於漢陽。及故粵建成侯敖與繇王居股謀，俱殺餘善，以其衆降橫海軍。封居股爲東成侯，萬戶；封敖爲開陵侯；封陽爲卯石侯，橫海將軍說爲按道侯，橫海校尉福爲繚嫈侯。福者，城陽王子，故爲海常侯，坐法失爵，從軍亡功，以宗室故侯。及東粵將多軍，漢兵至，棄軍降，封爲無錫侯。故甌駱將左黃同斬西于王，封爲下鄜侯。

Wu Yang of Yan marquis rank—once a hostage in Han—was sent back to sway Yu Shan; Yu Shan ignored him. When Han Yue landed, Wu Yang rose with seven hundred locals and hit Yue forces at Hanyang. Jiancheng marquis Ao and puppet king Yao Jugu murdered Yu Shan and brought their troops to Han Yue. Jugu became Marquis of Dongcheng at ten thousand households; Ao took Marquis of Kailing; Wu Yang became Marquis of Maoshi; Han Yue Marquis of Andao; Colonel Fu Marquis of Liaoying. Fu was a Chengyang prince’s son, stripped of Haichang for a crime; he earned Liaoying on lineage despite thin battlefield credit. General Duo Jun threw down his command at Han’s approach and won Marquis of Wuxi. Ou-Luo’s Zuo Huangtong slew King Xiyu and took Marquis of Xiafu.

於是天子曰「東粵狹多阻，閩粵悍，數反復」，詔軍吏皆將其民徙處江、淮之間。東粵地遂虛。

The emperor judged Eastern Yue cramped and defensible, Minyue restive—he ordered the population resettled between the Yangzi and Huai. Eastern Yue became an empty march.

朝鮮王滿，燕人。自始燕時，嘗略屬真番、朝鮮，爲置吏築障。秦滅燕，屬遼東外徼。漢興，爲遠難守，復修遼東故塞，至浿水爲界，屬燕。燕王盧綰反，入匈奴，滿亡命，聚党千餘人，椎結蠻夷服而東走出塞，渡浿水，居秦故空地上下障，稍伇屬真番、朝鮮蠻夷及故燕、齊亡在者王之，都王險。

Chosun’s King Man came from Yan. Early Yan had annexed Zhenfan and Chosun—posting magistrates and frontier walls. Qin’s conquest of Yan folded them into Liaodong’s outer belt. Han deemed them too distant to hold—rebuilt old Liaodong walls with the Pe as boundary under Yan. When Lu Wan fled to the steppe, Man led a thousand refugees east across the Pe into abandoned Qin fort zones—absorbed local tribes and Yan–Qi exiles—and founded Chosun at Wangxian.

會孝惠、高後天下初定，遼東太守即約滿爲外臣，保塞外蠻夷，毋使盜邊；蠻夷君長欲入見天子，勿得禁止。以聞，上許之，以故滿得以兵威財物侵降其旁小邑，真番、臨屯皆來服屬，方數千里。

Once Hui-di and Empress Lü had stabilized the realm, Liaodong’s governor recognized Man as outer vassal—keep tribal raiders off Han soil; and let tribal chiefs travel to court if they wished. The throne agreed—Man used pressure and gold to absorb neighboring towns until Zhenfan and Lintun acknowledged him across thousands of square li.

傳子至孫右渠，所誘漢亡人滋多，又未嘗入見；真番、辰國欲上書見天子，又雍閼弗通。元封二年，漢使涉何譙諭右渠，終不肯奉詔。何去至界，臨浿水，使馭刺殺送何者朝鮮裨王長，即渡水，馳入塞，遂歸報天子曰「殺朝鮮將」。上爲其名美，弗詰，拜何爲遼東東部都尉。朝鮮怨何，發兵襲攻，殺何。

Through son to grandson Youqu—he sheltered ever more Han fugitives and never came to court; Zhenfan and Chen wished to petition the throne—Youqu choked every channel. In Yuanfeng 2 She He lectured Youqu—who still defied the decree. At the Pe, He had his driver murder escorting secondary king Chang, bolted back across the river, and claimed a general slain. The emperor liked the headline and skipped inquiry—made She He eastern Liaodong commandant. Chosun avenged itself on She He with a raid.

天子募罪人擊朝鮮。其秋，遣樓船將軍楊僕從齊浮勃海，兵五萬，左將軍荀彘出遼東，誅右渠。右渠發兵距險。左將軍卒多率遼東士兵先縱，敗散。多還走，坐法斬。樓船將齊兵七千人先至王險。右渠城守，窺知樓船軍少，即出擊樓船，樓船軍敗走。將軍僕失其衆，遁山中十餘日，稍求收散卒，復聚。左將軍擊朝鮮浿水西軍，未能破。

The emperor raised a convict army against Chosun. That fall Yang Pu sailed fifty thousand from Qi across Bohai while Xun Zhi marched from Liaodong—both aimed at Youqu. Youqu held the defiles. Xun Zhi’s corps commander Duo threw Liaodong levies forward too soon—they shattered. Duo ran and died on the execution ground. Yang Pu’s seven thousand Qi men reached Wangxian first. Youqu saw Yang Pu’s thin ranks and sallied—Pu broke. Pu lost his command and hid two weeks before scraping survivors back together. Xun Zhi failed to crack the force west of the Pe.

天子爲兩將未有利，乃使衛山因兵威往諭右渠。右渠見使者，頓首謝：「願降，恐將詐殺臣；今見信節，請服降。」遣太子入謝，獻馬五千匹，及饋軍糧。人衆萬餘持兵，方度浿水，使者及左將軍疑其爲變，謂太子已服降，宜令人毋持兵，太子亦疑使者左將軍詐之，遂不度浿水，復引歸。山報，天子誅山。

With both wings stalled, the emperor sent Wei Shan under arms to parley. Youqu kowtowed: ‘I would yield—yet fear your generals mean treachery;’ these tallies convince me—I ask to come in.’ ’ He sent his heir with five thousand horses and army grain. Ten thousand armed escorts reached the Pe—Han demanded they disarm; the prince feared a trap—turned back without crossing. Wei Shan’s report bought him execution.

左將軍破浿水上軍乃前至城下，圍其西北。樓船亦往會，居城南。右渠遂堅城守，數月未能下。

Xun Zhi smashed the force on the Pe and invested Wangxian’s northwest. Yang Pu linked up on the south face. Youqu held tight—for months neither wing broke in.

左將軍素侍中，幸，將燕，代卒，悍，乘勝，軍多驕。樓船將齊卒，入海已多敗亡，其先與右渠戰，困辱亡卒，卒皆恐，將心慚，其圍右渠，常持和節。左將軍急擊之，朝鮮大臣乃陰間使人私約降樓船，往來言，尚未肯決。左將軍數與樓船期戰，樓船欲就其約，不會。左將軍亦使人求間隙降下朝鮮，不肯，心附樓船。以故兩將不相得。左將軍心意樓船前有失軍罪，今與朝鮮和善而又不降，疑其有反計，未敢發。天子曰：「將率不能前，乃使衛山諭降右渠，不能顓決，與左將軍相誤，卒沮約。今兩將圍城又乖異，以故久不決。」使故濟南太守公孫遂往正之，有便宜得以從事。遂至，左將軍曰：「朝鮮當下久矣，不下者，樓船數期不會。」具以素所意告遂曰：「今如此不取，恐爲大害，非獨樓船，又且與朝鮮共滅吾軍。」遂亦以爲然，而以節召樓船將軍入左將軍軍計事，即令左將軍戲下執縛樓船將軍，並其軍。以報，天子誅遂。

Xun Zhi was an imperial favorite with swaggering Yan–Dai veterans flush with confidence. Yang Pu’s Qi troops had bled crossing the sea; first clash shamed them—the general favored talk over assault. Xun Zhi hammered the walls while Korean ministers secretly sounded out Yang Pu—no deal closed. Xun Zhi scheduled joint attacks—Yang Pu skipped every meeting to nurse his surrender talks. Xun Zhi’s own envoys got nowhere—Korean nobles trusted only Yang Pu. The two commanders despised each other. Xun Zhi suspected Yang Pu—already stained by defeat—of cutting a separate deal but lacked proof to strike. The emperor fumed: ‘Generals stalled; Wei Shan botched Youqu’s surrender and wrecked the armistice.’ Now both besiege the capital yet refuse to cooperate—that is why it holds.’ ’ He sent ex-governor Gongsun Sui of Jinan with discretionary powers. Xun Zhi told Sui: ‘This city should have fallen—Yang Pu keeps missing joint strikes.’ ‘Act now or Yang Pu may hand our army to the enemy.’ Sui agreed—summoned Yang Pu under imperial tally—then had Xun Zhi’s guards arrest him and absorb his corps. The emperor executed Gongsun Sui for overreach.

左將軍已並兩軍，即急擊朝鮮。朝鮮相路人、相韓陶、尼谿相參、將軍王夾相與謀曰：「始欲降樓船，樓船今執，獨左將軍並將，戰益急，恐不能與，王又不肯降。」陶、唊、路人皆亡降漢。路人道死。元封三年夏，尼谿相參乃使人殺朝鮮王右渠來降。王險城未下，故右渠之大臣成已又反，復攻吏。左將軍使右渠子長、降相路人子最，告諭其民，誅成已。故遂定朝鮮爲真番、臨屯、樂浪、玄菟四郡。封參爲澅清侯，陶爲秋苴侯，唊爲平州侯，長爲幾侯。最以父死頗有功，爲沮陽侯。左將軍征至，坐爭功相嫉乖計，棄市。樓船將軍亦坐兵至列口當待左將軍，擅先縱，失亡多，當誅，贖爲庶人。

With Yang Pu’s troops folded in, Xun Zhi struck hard. Ministers Lu Ren, Han Tao, Shen of Nixi, and Wang Jia plotted: ‘We meant to yield to Yang Pu—Pu is chained—only Xun Zhi drives the assault; the king still won’t bend.’ ’ Tao, Jia, and Lu Ren defected to Han. Lu Ren died en route. In Yuanfeng 3 summer Shen of Nixi had Youqu murdered and surrendered. Wangxian still held—minister Cheng Yi revolted anew against Han officials. Xun Zhi sent Youqu’s heir Chang and Lu Ren’s son Zui to rally the city—then executed Cheng Yi. Chosun became four commanderies: Zhenfan, Lintun, Lelang, and Xuantu. Shen took Huqing, Tao Qiuju, Jia Pingzhou, Chang Ji. Zui earned Juyang on his father’s service. Recalled to Chang’an, Xun Zhi died in the marketplace for jealous intrigue. Yang Pu should have waited at Liekou—his rash advance cost lives—capital sentence commuted to ransom and commoner status.

贊曰：楚、粵之先，曆世有土。及周之衰，楚地方五千里，而勾踐亦以粵伯。秦滅諸侯，唯楚尚有滇王。漢誅西南夷，獨滇復寵。及東粵滅國遷衆，繇王居股等猶爲萬戶侯。三方之開，皆自好事之臣。故西南夷發于唐蒙、司馬相如，兩粵起嚴助、硃買臣，朝鮮由涉何。遭世富盛，動能成功，然已勤矣。追觀太宗填撫尉佗，豈古所謂「招攜以禮，懷遠以德」者哉！

Appraisal: Chu and Yue held soil for generations. Late Zhou saw Chu span five thousand li while Goujian lorded Yue. Qin abolished the feudal order—yet Dian’s kings endured under Chu’s shadow. Han crushed the southwestern Yi—only Dian won renewed favor. Even after Eastern Yue fell and its people were moved, men like Yao Jugu kept ten-thousand-household marquisates. Expansion on three frontiers began with ambitious courtiers. The southwest opened with Tang Meng and Sima Xiangru; the two Yues with Yan Zhu and Zhu Maichen; Chosun with She He. An affluent age made conquest possible—but the effort was severe. Compare Emperor Wen’s gentle handling of Zhao Tuo—the very model of winning allies by ritual and distant peoples by virtue!

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