1
昔高辛氏有犬戎之寇，帝患其侵暴，而征伐不克。 乃訪募天下，有能得犬戎之將吳將軍頭者，購黄金千镒，邑萬家，又妻以少女。 時帝有畜狗，其毛五采，名曰槃瓠。 下令之后，槃瓠遂衔人頭造阙下，群臣怪而診之，乃吳將軍首也。 帝大喜，而計槃瓠不可妻之以女，又無封爵之道，議欲有報而未知所宜。 女聞之，以為帝皇下令，不可違信，因請行。 帝不得已，乃以女配槃瓠。 槃瓠得女，負而走入南山，止石室中。 所處險絕，人迹不至。 于是女解去衣裳，為僕鉴之結，着獨力之衣。 帝悲思之，遣使尋求，輒遇風雨震晦，使者不得進。 经三年，生子一十二人，六男六女。 槃瓠死后，因自相夫妻。 織績木皮，染以草實，好五色衣服。 制裁皆有尾形。 其母后歸，以状白帝，于是使迎致諸子。 衣裳班兰，語言侏離，好入山壑，不乐平曠。 帝顺其意，賜以名山廣澤。 其后滋蔓，号曰蠻夷。 外痴内黠，安土重旧。 以先父有功，母帝之女，田作贾贩，無关梁符传、租税之赋。 有邑君长，皆賜印绶，冠用獭皮。 名渠帅曰精夫，相呼為姎徒。 今长沙武陵蠻是也。
Ancient Emperor Ku faced the Quanrong raiders: punitive expeditions failed to stop their violence. He offered a thousand yi of gold, a fief of ten thousand households, and an imperial princess to whoever brought in General Wu's head. The emperor owned a five-colored hound named Panhu. Panhu soon laid General Wu's severed head at the palace gate for all to verify. The court rejoiced yet hesitated—how marry a dog or grant it nobility?—while owing a reward. The princess held the proclamation binding and volunteered to go. Yielding to necessity, he gave her to Panhu. Panhu shouldered his bride into the southern hills and sheltered in a stone cave. The refuge lay in trackless, precipitous wilds. She shed court dress for rustic wraps suited to the mountains. Search parties turned back before storms and darkness blocked every path. Three years brought twelve children, evenly split between sons and daughters. After Panhu died, the siblings intermarried among themselves. They wove bark cloth dyed from berries into bright patterned dress. Their garments were cut with trailing ends like tails. When the mother finally reached court and told her tale, the emperor summoned the children down from the hills. They wore parti-colored clothes, spoke a guttural tongue, and preferred ravines to open plains. Honoring their wishes, he granted them titled hills and wide wetlands. Their descendants multiplied into the peoples called Man and Yi. They seem simple but are shrewd, deeply attached to homeland and ancient ways. As heirs of a meritorious forebear and an imperial daughter, they farmed and peddled free of tolls and grain taxes. Local headmen received Han seals and wore otter-skin caps. Chiefs were styled jingfu; people hailed each other as yangtu. These are the ancestors of today's Changsha and Wuling Man.
2
其在唐、虞，与之要質，故曰要服。 夏、商之時，漸為边患。 逮于周世，党众弥盛。 宣王中興，乃命方叔南伐蠻方，詩人所謂“蠻荆来威”者也。 又曰：“蠢尔蠻荆，大邦為仇。 ”明其党众繁多，是以抗敌諸夏也。
Under Yao and Shun they exchanged hostages—hence the "covenant quarter" of the nine domains. By Xia and Shang they had turned into a frontier threat. Under Zhou their numbers swelled. Restored King Xuan sent Fang Shu south—the "Man of Jing submit in awe" line in the Odes. Another ode taunts: "Insolent Man of Jing—you dare rival the great realm." The verse shows their hosts were vast enough to defy the central states.
3
平王东迁，蠻遂侵暴上國。 晉文侯輔政，乃率蔡共侯擊破之。 至楚武王時，蠻与罗子共败楚師，殺其將屈瑕。 庄王初立，民饥兵弱，復為所寇。 楚師既振。 然后乃服，自是遂屬于楚。 鄢陵之役，蠻与恭王合兵擊晉。 及吳起相悼王，南并蠻越，遂有洞庭、苍梧。 秦昭王使白起伐楚，略取蠻夷，始置黔中郡。 漢興，改為武陵。 岁令大人輸布一匹，小口二丈，是謂賨布。 雖時為寇盗，而不足為郡國患。
After King Ping relocated east, the Man raided the heartland. Regent Marquis Wen of Jin and Cai's ruler drove them back. Under King Wu of Chu the Man and Luo allies shattered Chu and slew Qu Xia. Early in King Zhuang's reign famine and weak arms let the Man strike again. Once Chu recovered its strength the Man yielded and thereafter answered to Chu. At Yanling they fought beside King Gong of Chu against Jin. Wu Qi's southern campaigns for King Dao absorbed Man and Yue lands to Dongting and Cangwu. Bai Qi's offensive carved out the Man lands as Qianzhong commandery. The Han renamed the region Wuling. Adults paid one bolt of cloth yearly, children two zhang—the "tribute cloth." Occasional banditry never seriously threatened the commanderies.
4
光武中興，武陵蠻夷特盛。 建武二十三年，精夫相单程等据其險隘，大寇郡縣。 遣武威將軍劉尚发南郡、长沙、武陵兵萬余人，乘船溯沅水，入武谿擊之。 尚轻敌入險，山深水疾，舟船不得上。 蠻氏知尚粮少入遠，又不晓道径，遂屯聚守險。 尚食尽引还，蠻缘路徼戰，尚軍大败，悉為所没。 二十四年，相单程等下攻临沅，遣谒者李嵩、中山太守馬成擊之，不能克。 明年春，遣伏波將軍馬援、中郎將劉匡、馬武、孫永等，將兵至临沅，擊破之。 单程等饥困乞降，会援病卒，谒者宗均听悉受降。 為置吏司，群蠻遂平。
Emperor Guangwu's revival found Wuling's tribes unusually powerful. Jianwu 47: chiefs such as Xiang Dancheng held the defiles and overran the lowlands. General Liu Shang took ten thousand men up the Yuan into Wuxi gorge. Liu Shang underestimated the terrain: rapids and cliffs stopped his fleet. The tribes knew he was short of supplies and lost in the maze of trails; they massed on the heights. Starving, Shang retreated into ambushes and lost his entire command. Jianwu 48: the Man struck Linyuan; Li Song and Ma Cheng failed to dislodge them. Next spring Ma Yuan and his lieutenants crushed the rebels at Linyuan. The rebels sued for peace when supplies failed; Ma Yuan died before the finish, but Herald Zong Jun accepted wholesale capitulation. Han installed magistrates and the tribes quieted.
5
和帝永元四年冬，溇中、澧中蠻潭戎等反，燔烧邮亭，殺略吏民，郡兵擊破降之。 安帝元初二年，澧中蠻以郡縣徭税失平，怀怨恨，遂結充中諸种二千余人，攻城殺长吏。 州郡募五里蠻六亭兵追擊破之，皆散降。 賜五里、六亭渠帅金帛各有差。 明年秋，溇中、澧中蠻四千人并為盗贼。 又零陵蠻羊孫、陳汤等千余人，著赤帻，称將軍，烧官寺，抄掠百姓。 州郡募善蠻討平之。
Yongyuan 92 winter: Tan Rong's bands torched relay stations until county troops forced their surrender. Yuanchu 115: Lizhong tribes, resenting uneven taxes, joined two thousand Chongzhong warriors to storm towns and murder prefects. Provincial levies from allied Man villages ran them down until they dissolved and yielded. Loyal chiefs of Wuli and Liuting received graded gifts of bullion and silk. Next fall four thousand Louzhong and Lizhong warriors turned outlaw. Over a thousand Lingling rebels under Yang Sun and Chen Tang donned red turbans, styled themselves generals, and pillaged shrines and villages. Authorities hired loyal Man auxiliaries to restore order.
6
顺帝永和元年，武陵太守上書，以蠻夷率服，可比漢人，增其租赋。 議者皆以為可。 尚書令虞诩獨奏曰：“自古圣王，不臣异俗，非德不能及，威不能加，知其兽心贪婪，难率以礼。 是故羁縻而绶抚之，附則受而不逆，叛則弃而不追。 先帝旧典，贡税多少，所由来久矣。 今猥增之，必有怨叛。 計其所得，不偿所费，必有后悔。 ”帝不从。 其冬、澧中、溇中蠻果争贡布非旧约，遂殺乡吏，舉种反叛。 明年春，蠻二萬人围充城，八千人寇夷道。 遣武陵太守李進討破之，斬首數百級，余皆降服。 進乃简选良吏，得其情和。 在郡九年，梁太后临朝，下詔增進秩二千石，賜钱二十萬。 桓帝元嘉元年秋，武陵蠻詹山等四千余人反叛，拘执縣令，屯結深山。 至永興元年，太守应奉以恩信招誘，皆悉降散。
Yonghe 136: the Wuling governor argued the tribes were docile enough to tax like Han subjects. Most advisers agreed. Grand Clerk Yu Xu dissented: sage kings never fully Sinicized barbarians—virtue and fear alike fail against greedy natures untamed by ritual. Hence loose rein: welcome allies without forcing uniformity, drop rebels without chasing forever. The founding precedents on tribute levels have stood for generations. Sudden hikes will breed resentment and revolt. Revenue will not cover the cost of pacification—you will rue it. The emperor ignored him. That winter Lizhong and Louzhong disputed the new cloth levy, slew headmen, and rose en masse. Next spring twenty thousand laid siege to Chong while eight thousand struck Yidao. Governor Li Jin routed them, took several hundred heads, and accepted the rest. Li Jin then posted honest officials and restored harmony. After nine years Empress Dowager Liang promoted him to two-thousand-shi rank with two hundred thousand cash. Yuanjia 151 autumn: Zhan Shan led four thousand Wuling Man who seized their magistrate and entrenched in the hills. By Yongxing 153 Governor Ying Feng talked them down with promises.
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永寿三年十一月，长沙蠻反叛，屯益阳。 至延熹三年秋，遂抄掠郡界，众至萬余人，殺伤长吏。 又零陵蠻入长沙。 冬，武陵蠻六千余人寇江陵，荆州刺史劉度、谒者馬睦、南郡太守李肃皆奔走。 肃主簿胡爽扣馬首谏曰：“蠻夷见郡無儆备，故敢乘間而進。 明府為國大臣，連城千里，舉旄鸣鼓，应声十萬，奈何委符守之重，而為逋逃之人乎！ ”肃拔刃向爽曰：“掾促去！ 太守今急，何暇此計。 ”爽抱馬固谏，肃遂殺爽而走。 帝聞之，征肃弃市，度、睦减死一等，復爽门闾，拜家一人為郎。 于是以右校令度尚為荆州刺史，討长沙贼，平之。 又遣车骑將軍冯绲討武陵蠻，并皆降散。 軍还，贼復寇桂阳，太守瘳析奔走。 武陵蠻亦更攻其郡，太守陳奉率吏人擊破之，斬首三千余級，降者二千余人。 至靈帝中平三年，武陵蠻復叛，寇郡界，州郡擊破之。
Yongshou 157: Changsha tribes rebelled and camped at Yiyang. By Yanxi 160 autumn over ten thousand raided the commandery and wounded prefects. Lingling tribes joined the thrust into Changsha. Winter: six thousand Wuling warriors took Jiangling while Liu Du, Ma Mu, and Li Su fled. Hu Shuang seized the bridle: "The tribes strike because they see no defenses—" you command a thousand li—ten thousand arms answer your drum—how can you cast aside your seal and run like a coward! Li Su drew steel: "Out of my way, clerk!" I'm fleeing for my life—no time for lectures. Hu Shuang clung to the reins until Li Su cut him down and rode off. The court executed Li Su in the marketplace, reduced sentences on Liu Du and Ma Mu, honored Hu Shuang's kin, and ennobled a son. Du Shang became inspector and crushed the Changsha rebels. General Feng Juan dispersed the Wuling rising. On withdrawal the rebels hit Guiyang and Governor Liao Xi bolted. Wuling tribes struck again until Chen Feng killed three thousand and accepted two thousand surrenders. Zhongping 186: another Wuling revolt ended in defeat.
8
《礼记》称“南方曰蠻，雕题交阯”。 其俗男女同川而浴，故曰交阯。 其西有噉人國，生首子輒解而食之，謂之宜弟。 味旨，則以遗其君，君喜而赏其父。 取妻美，則让其兄。 今烏滸人是也。
The "Book of Rites" calls the south "Man"—tattooed brows and the "Interleaved Toes" land. Men and women shared riverside baths—hence the name Jiaozhi. Westward lies a cannibal realm that sacrifices firstborns for luck—"feeding the younger brother." Choice cuts go to the chief, who rewards the father. A beautiful bride they cede to an elder brother. These are the modern Wuhu tribes.
9
交阯之南有越裳國。 周公居摄六年，制礼作乐，天下和平，越裳以三象重譯而献白雉，曰：“道路悠遠，山川阻深，音使不通，故重譯而朝。 ”成王以歸周公。 公曰：“德不加焉，則君子不飨其質； 政不施焉，則君子不臣其人。 吾何以获此賜也！ ”其使請曰：“吾受命吾國之黄耉曰：‘久矣，天之無烈風雷雨，意者中國有圣人乎？ 有則盍往朝之。 ’”周公乃歸之于王，称先王之神致，以荐于宗庙。 周德既衰，于是稍絕。
South of Jiaozhi lies Yueshang. In the sixth year of the Duke of Zhou's regency, after he had established rites and made music and all under heaven was peaceful, Yueshang presented a white pheasant through three elephant envoys and repeated translation, saying, "The roads are long and distant, the mountains and rivers are obstructed and deep, and our sounds and envoys cannot pass through directly; therefore we have come to court through repeated translation. King Cheng forwarded the gift to the Duke of Zhou. The Duke replied: "Without virtue abroad we do not accept distant tribute—" without civilizing rule we do not claim them as subjects." How have I earned such an honor! The envoy explained: his gray-haired elders had sent word—"No storms rage over us; perhaps a sage rules China?" If so, we should present ourselves at his court. The Duke of Zhou passed the gift to King Cheng and lodged it in the Zhou ancestral shrine as a token from the departed kings. When Zhou's moral prestige faded, Yueshang contact lapsed.
10
及楚子称霸，朝贡百越。 秦并天下，威服蠻夷，始开领外，置南海、桂林、象郡。 漢興，尉佗自立為南越王，传國五世。 至武帝元鼎五年，遂灭之，分置九郡，交阯刺史领焉。 其珠崖、儋耳二郡在海洲上，东西千里，南北五百里。 其渠帅貴长耳，皆穿而缒之，垂肩三寸。 武帝末，珠崖太守会稽孫幸调廣幅布献之，蠻不堪役，遂攻郡殺幸。 幸子豹合率善人还，復破之，自领郡事，討擊余党，連年乃平。 豹遣使封还印绶，上書言状，制詔即以豹為珠崖太守。 威政大行，献命岁至。 中國贪其珍赂，漸相侵侮，故率數岁一反。 元帝初元三年，遂罢之。 凡立郡六十五岁。
Under Chu hegemony the Hundred Yue sent tribute. Qin's unification pushed south with Nanhai, Guilin, and Xiang commanderies beyond the old frontier. Early Han saw Zhao Tuo style himself king of Nuyue through five reigns. Emperor Wu extinguished Nuyue in 112 B.C.E., carved nine southern commanderies, and placed them under a Jiaozhi inspector. Zhuya and Dan'er covered island chains roughly a thousand li by five hundred. Chiefs pierced elongated lobes weighted to hang three inches past the shoulders. Governor Sun Xing's cloth levy for Han tribute drove the isles to revolt and kill him. Sun Bao rallied loyalists, routed the rebels, governed in his father's stead, and spent years mopping up. Sun Bao returned the seals with a full report; the court confirmed him as governor. His stern rule restored annual tribute from the isles. Han greed for pearls bred exploitation and revolts every few years. Emperor Yuan abolished the commanderies in 46 B.C.E. They had lasted sixty-five years.
11
逮王莽輔政，元始二年，日南之南黄支國来献犀牛。 凡交阯所统，雖置郡縣，而言語各异，重譯乃通。 人如禽兽，长幼無别。 项髻徒跣，以布贯頭而著之。 后颇徙中國罪人，使杂居其間，乃稍知言語，漸见礼化。
Wang Mang's regency brought a rhino gift from Huangzhi beyond Rinan. Despite county administration, languages required chained interpreters. People lived like animals, without order between old and young. They went barefoot with chignons and cloth slipped over the head like a poncho. Settled Chinese convicts spread the language and a little civilizing ritual.
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光武中興，锡光為交阯，任延守九真，于是教其耕稼，制為冠履，初設媒娉，始知姻娶，建立学校，导之礼義。
Emperor Guangwu's officials Xi Guang and Ren Yan brought farming, shoes, betrothal rites, schools, and moral instruction to Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen.
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建武十二年，九真徼外蠻里張游，率种人慕化内屬，封為歸漢里君。 明年，南越徼外蠻夷献白雉、白菟。 至十六年，交阯女子徵側及其妹徵贰反，攻郡。 徵側者，麊泠縣雒將之女也。 嫁為硃珪人詩索妻，甚雄勇。 交阯太守苏定以法绳之，側忿，故反。 于是九真、日南、合浦蠻里皆应之，凡略六十五城，自立為王。 交阯刺史及諸太守仅得自守。 光武乃詔长沙、合浦、交阯具车船，修道桥，通障谿，储粮谷。 十八年，遣伏波將軍馬援、楼船將軍段志，发长沙、桂阳、零陵、苍梧兵萬余人討之。 明年夏四月，援破交阯，斬徵側、徵贰等，余皆降散。 進擊九真贼都阳等，破降之。 徙其渠帅三百余口于零陵。 于是领表悉平。
Jianwu 36: Zhang You of outer Jiuzhen brought his people to allegiance and became Han's "lord of the Submit-to-Han hamlet." The following year southern frontier tribes offered white pheasants and hares. Jianwu 40: the sisters Zheng Ce and Zheng Er of Jiaozhi rose against the commandery. Zheng Ce was daughter of a Luo chief in Mi[-ling] county. Married to Shi Suo of Zhugui, she was famously fierce. Governor Su Ding prosecuted her by Han law; rage sparked the revolt. Jiuzhen, Rinan, and Hepu villages rose with them, took sixty-five towns, and crowned Zheng Ce queen. Han officials could barely hold their walls. Guangwu mobilized boats, roads, bridges, and grain across the southern commanderies. Jianwu 42: Ma Yuan and Duan Zhi led ten thousand southern troops against the rebels. The next summer Ma Yuan took Jiaozhi, executed both sisters, and dispersed their armies. He pressed into Jiuzhen and crushed Du Yang's holdouts. Three hundred rebel chiefs were resettled in Lingling. The southern frontier was quiet again.
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肃宗元和元年，日南徼外蠻夷究不事人邑豪献生犀、白雉。 和帝永元十二年夏四月，日南、象林蠻夷二千余人寇掠百姓，燔烧官寺，郡縣发兵討擊，斬其渠帅，余众乃降。 于是置象林將兵长史，以防其患。 安帝永初元年，九真徼外夜郎蠻夷舉土内屬，开境千八百四十里。 元初二年，苍梧蠻夷反叛。 明年，遂招誘郁林、合浦蠻漢數千人攻苍梧郡。 邓太后遣侍御史任逴奉詔赦之，贼皆降散。 延光元年，九真徼外蠻贡献内屬。 三年，日南徼外蠻復来内屬。 顺帝永建六年，日南徼外叶调王便遣使贡献，帝賜便金印紫绶。
84 C.E.: Jiubushi headmen beyond Rinan sent a live rhino and white pheasants. 100 C.E.: two thousand Rinan and Xianglin tribesmen burned offices until county troops slew their chiefs and accepted surrender. Han created a military overseer at Xianglin to deter further raids. 107 C.E.: outer Jiuzhen Yelang tribes yielded territory extending Han sway 1,840 li. 115 C.E.: Cangwu tribes rebelled. They drew thousands from Yulin and Hepu against Cangwu. Empress Deng's amnesty envoys led by Ren Cong broke up the rising. 122 C.E.: outer Jiuzhen tribes submitted with tribute. 124 C.E.: another wave beyond Rinan yielded allegiance. 131 C.E.: King Bian of Yediao sent tribute; Emperor Shun granted him a gold seal and purple ribbon.
15
永和二年，日南、象林徼外蠻夷区怜等數千人攻象林縣，烧城寺，殺长吏。 交阯刺史樊演发交阯、九真二郡兵萬余人救之。 兵士惮遠役，遂反，攻其府。 二郡雖擊破反者，而贼势转盛。 会侍御史贾昌使在日南，即与州郡并力討之，不利，遂為所攻。 围岁余而兵谷不继，帝以為忧。 明年，召公卿百官及四府掾屬，问其方略，皆議遣大將，发荆、杨、兗、豫四萬人赴之。 大將軍从事中郎李固驳曰：
137 C.E.: Ou Lian led thousands from beyond Rinan and Xianglin to burn Xianglin and murder officials. Inspector Fan Yan raised ten thousand men from Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen. The troops mutinied rather than march south and stormed headquarters. Both counties crushed the mutiny yet the tribal revolt grew. Censor Jia Chang joined provincial troops but lost ground and was besieged. After a year-long siege supplies failed and the court worried. Next year the court debated sending forty thousand men from four provinces under a senior general. Staff adviser Li Gu objected:
16
若荆、杨無事，发之可也。 今二州盗贼槃結不散，武陵、南郡蠻夷未辑，长沙、桂阳數被征发，如復扰动，必更生患。 其不可一也。 又兗、豫之人卒被征发，遠赴萬里，無有还期，詔書迫促，必致叛亡。 其不可二也。 南州水土温暑，加有瘴气，致死亡者十必四五。 其不可三也。 遠涉萬里，士卒疲劳，比至领南，不復堪斗。 其不可四也。 軍行三十里為程，而去日南九千余里，三百日乃到，計人禀五升，用米六十萬斛，不計將吏驴馬之食，但負甲自致，费便若此。 其不可五也。 設軍到所在，死亡必众，既不足御敌，当復更发，此為刻割心腹以补四支。 其不可六也。 九真、日南相去千里，发其吏民，犹尚不堪，何况乃苦四州之卒，以赴萬里之艰哉！ 其不可七也。 前中郎將尹就討益州叛羌，益州谚曰：“虏来尚可，尹来殺我。 ”后就征还，以兵付刺史張乔。 乔因其將吏，旬月之間，破殄寇虏。 此发將無益之效，州郡可任之验也。 宜更选有勇略仁惠任將帅者，以為刺史、太守，悉使共住交阯。 今日南兵单無谷，守既不足，戰又不能。 可一切徙其吏民，北依交阯，事静之后，又命歸本。 还募蠻夷，使自相攻，转輸金帛，以為其資。 有能反間致頭首者，許以封侯列士之赏。 故并州刺史长沙祝良，性多勇决，又南阳張乔，前在益州有破虏之功，皆可任用。 昔太宗就加魏尚為云中守，哀帝即拜龚舍為太山太守。 宜即拜良等，便道之官。
If Jing and Yang were quiet, a levy would be fine. But bandits choke those provinces, southern tribes smolder, and Changsha and Guiyang are exhausted—another draft risks fresh disaster. First objection. Yan and Yu peasants marched ten thousand li with no return date under harsh orders would desert. Second objection. Southern heat and miasma would kill four or five of every ten men. Third objection. Men would arrive too exhausted to fight after crossing China. Fourth objection. Nine thousand li means three hundred marches—six hundred thousand hu of grain before counting animals—cost alone defeats the plan. Fifth objection. Heavy losses would force fresh levies—flaying the heartland to patch the limbs. Sixth objection. Local Jiuzhen-Rinan levies already buckle—how burden four distant provinces? Seventh objection. Yizhou still remembers Yin Jiu's campaign—"Better meet barbarians than Yin Jiu." Recall Yin and give troops to Inspector Zhang Qiao instead. Zhang Qiao crushed the rebels within weeks using local forces. Proof that central generals waste effort while local leaders succeed. Appoint bold, humane men as southern governors and base them in Jiaozhi. Rinan lacks troops and grain—cannot hold or strike. Evacuate civilians north into Jiaozhi until calm, then send them home. Hire tribal allies to fight each other and fund them with treasure. Offer noble rank for defectors who deliver rebel heads. Zhu Liang of Changsha and Zhang Qiao of Nanyang—both proved themselves against barbarians—deserve appointment. Like Emperor Wen promoting Wei Shang on the spot or Emperor Ai naming Gong She—act decisively. Commission Zhu Liang and Zhang Qiao immediately by fast relay.
17
四府悉从固議，即拜祝良為九真太守，張乔為交阯刺史。 乔至，开示慰誘，并皆降散。 良到九真，单车入贼中，設方略，招以威信，降者數萬人，皆為良筑起府寺。 由是岭外復平。
The high ministers adopted Li Gu's plan and named Zhu Liang governor of Jiuzhen and Zhang Qiao inspector of Jiaozhi. Zhang Qiao's reassurances dissolved the rebellion. Zhu Liang rode alone into rebel ranks and won tens of thousands who built him yamen halls. Peace returned south of the ranges.
18
建康元年，日南蠻夷千余人復攻烧縣邑，遂扇动九真，与相連結。 交阯刺史九江夏方开恩招誘，贼皆降服。 時梁太后临朝，美方之功，迁為桂阳太守。 桓帝永寿二年，居風令贪暴無度，縣人硃达等及蠻夷相聚，攻殺縣令，众至四五千人，進攻九真，九真太守□式戰死。 詔賜钱六十萬，拜子二人為郎。 遣九真都尉魏朗討破之，斬首二千級，渠帅犹屯据日南，众转强盛。 延熹三年，詔復拜夏方為交阯刺史。 方威惠素著，日南宿贼聞之，二萬余人相率诣方降。 靈帝建宁三年，郁林太守谷永以恩信招降烏滸人十余萬内屬，皆受冠带，开置七縣。 熹平二年冬十二月，日南徼外國重譯贡献。 光和元年，交阯、合浦烏滸蠻反叛，招誘九真、日南，合數萬人，攻没郡縣。 四年，刺史硃俊擊破之。 六年，日南徼外國復来贡献。
144 C.E.: over a thousand Rinan tribesmen burned towns and stirred Jiuzhen into alliance. Inspector Xia Fang of Jiujiang talked them down. Empress Dowager Liang rewarded Xia Fang with Guiyang. 156 C.E.: a rapacious Jufeng magistrate sparked Zhu Da's rising—four or five thousand tribesmen killed the prefect and stormed Jiuzhen; Governor Shi fell in battle. The court granted six hundred thousand cash and two sons posts as gentlemen. Commandant Wei Lang took two thousand heads yet chiefs still held Rinan and grew stronger. 160 C.E.: Xia Fang returned as Jiaozhi inspector. Twenty thousand veteran rebels surrendered to Xia Fang's reputation. 170 C.E.: Gu Yong of Yulin enrolled over one hundred thousand Wuhu under Han registration across seven new counties. December 173 C.E.: relay envoys from beyond Rinan brought tribute. 178 C.E.: Wuhu tribes in Jiaozhi and Hepu drew Jiuzhen and Rinan into a rising that overran counties. 181 C.E.: Inspector Zhu Jun crushed them. 183 C.E.: overseas kingdoms beyond Rinan resumed tribute.
19
巴郡南郡蠻，本有五姓：巴氏、樊氏、瞫氏，相氏，郑氏。 皆出于武落钟離山。 其山有赤黑二穴，巴氏之子生于赤穴，四姓之子皆生黑穴。 未有君长，俱事鬼神，乃共掷剑于石穴，约能中者，奉以為君。 巴氏子务相乃獨中之，众皆叹。 又令各乘土船，约能浮者，当以為君。 余姓悉沉，唯务相獨浮。 因共立之，是為廪君。 乃乘土船，从夷水至鹽阳。 鹽水有神女，謂廪君曰：“此地廣大，鱼鹽所出，愿留共居。 ”廪君不許。 鹽神暮輒来取宿，旦即化為虫，与諸虫群飞，掩蔽日光，天地晦冥。 积十余日，廪君伺其便，因射殺之，天乃开明。 廪君于是君乎夷城，四姓皆臣之。 廪君死，魂魄世為白虎。 巴氏以虎饮人血，遂以人祠焉。
The Ba and Nan commandery tribes trace five clans: Ba, Fan, Shen, Xiang, and Zheng. All five claimed descent from Mount Wuluo Zhongli. Two caves—red and black—yielded the Ba line from the crimson grotto and the other four from the black. With no chief, they turned to divination: whoever drove a sword into the cave rock would lead. Only Wuxiang of the Ba clan struck true; the rest acclaimed him. Next they raced clay boats—whoever stayed afloat would rule. The rival clans sank; Wuxiang alone rode high. They enthroned him as Lord Lin, the Granary Lord. He sailed the Yishui downstream to Yanyang. A goddess of the salt flats asked Lord Lin to share her bountiful domain. Lord Lin refused. Each dusk she shared his bed; each dawn she became a cloud of insects that eclipsed the sun. After ten days of gloom he shot her at an opening; daylight returned. Lord Lin founded his seat at Yicheng and the four clans submitted. His spirit passed down as a white tiger. The Ba fed the tiger spirit with human blood offerings.
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及秦惠王并巴中，以巴氏以蠻夷君长，世尚秦女，其民爵比不更，有罪得以爵除。 其君长岁出赋二千一十六钱，三岁一出義赋千八百钱。 其民户出幏布八丈二尺，鸡羽三十鍭。 漢興，南郡太守靳强請一依秦時故事。
King Hui of Qin enrolled the Ba as hereditary chiefs married to Qin princesses; commoners held bugeng-equivalent rank and could commute crimes with rank. Chiefs paid 2,016 cash yearly and a special levy of 1,800 every third year. Households owed eight zhang two of tribute cloth and thirty bundles of feathers. Early Han's Governor Jin Qiang of Nan asked to keep Qin-era arrangements.
21
至建武二十三年，南郡潳山蠻雷迁等始反叛，寇掠百姓，遣武威將軍劉尚將萬余人討破之，徙其种人七千余口置江夏界中，今沔中蠻是也。 和帝永元十三年，巫蠻許圣等以郡收税不均，怀怨恨，遂屯聚反叛。 明年夏，遣使者督荆州諸郡兵萬余人討之。 圣等依凭阻隘，久不破。 諸軍乃分道并進，或自巴郡、鱼復數路攻之，蠻乃散走，斬其渠帅。 乘胜追之，大破圣等。 圣等乞降，復悉徙置江夏。 靈帝建宁二年，江夏蠻叛，州郡討平之。 光和三年，江夏蠻復反，与庐江贼黄穰相連結，十余萬人，攻没四縣，寇患累年。 庐江太守陆康討破之，余悉降散。
Jianwu 47: Lei Qian of Tushan revolted until Liu Shang crushed the rising; seven thousand captives were moved into Jiangxia—the ancestors of the Han-river Man. 101 C.E.: Xu Sheng's Wu tribes rose over unfair assessments. Next summer envoys led ten thousand Jingzhou troops against them. They held the defiles for months. Han columns converged from Ba and Yufu, routed the tribes, and slew their chiefs. The pursuit shattered Xu Sheng's force. They surrendered and were resettled again in Jiangxia. 169 C.E.: Jiangxia tribes rose and were suppressed. 180 C.E.: Jiangxia tribes joined Huang Rang's hundred-thousand host and held four counties for years. Lu Kang of Lujiang broke the coalition and dispersed the rest.
22
板楯蠻夷者，秦昭襄王時，有一白虎，常从群虎數游秦、蜀、巴、漢之境，伤害千余人。 昭王乃重募國中有能殺虎者，赏邑萬家，金百镒。 時，有巴郡阆中夷人，能作白竹之弩，乃登楼射殺白虎。 昭王嘉之，而以其夷人，不欲加封，乃刻石盟要，復夷人顷田不租，十妻不算，伤人者论，殺人者得以□钱赎死。 盟曰：“秦犯夷，輸黄龍一双； 夷犯秦，輸清酒一钟。 ”夷人安之。
The shield-board tribes: under King Zhaoxiang of Qin a white tiger roamed Qin, Shu, Ba, and Han with a pride and killed over a thousand people. The king posted a huge bounty—a ten-thousand-household fief and a hundred yi of gold—for the tiger’s head. A Langzhong tribesman built white-bamboo crossbows, took a high vantage, and slew the beast. The king honored him but withheld a Chinese noble title, recording instead a stone pact: rent-free fields, extra wives exempt from head tax, standard penalties for wounding, and commutation of execution for homicide by cash payment. The treaty ran: if Qin broke faith with the tribes, Qin owed a pair of yellow dragons. If the tribes wronged Qin, they owed a jar of clear wine. The tribes found the terms acceptable.
23
至高祖為漢王，发夷人还伐三秦。 秦地既定，乃遣还巴中，復其渠帅罗、朴、督、鄂、度、夕、龚七姓，不輸租赋，余户乃岁入賨钱，口四十。 世号為板楯蠻珍。 阆中有渝水，其人多居水左右，天性劲勇，初為漢前锋，數陷陳。 俗喜歌舞，高祖观之，曰：“此武王伐纣之歌也。 ”乃命乐人习之，所謂《巴渝舞》也。 遂世世服从。
As King of Han, Liu Bang drafted the Ba tribesmen for the campaign that broke the Three Qins. After the Guanzhong settlement he returned them to Ba, restored the seven hereditary chief lineages tax-free, and taxed everyone else forty cash per capita annually. Henceforth they were prized as the shield-board tribes. Along the Yu in Langzhong lived fierce fighters who spearheaded Han assaults and shattered enemy lines. Gaozu watched their dancing and declared it the martial hymn of King Wu’s war on the Shang. Court musicians rehearsed the piece that became the famous Bayu Dance. They remained loyal subjects for generations.
24
至于中興，郡守常率以征伐。 桓帝之世，板楯數反，太守蜀郡趙温以恩信降服之。 靈帝光和二年，巴郡板楯復叛，寇掠三蜀及漢中諸郡。 靈帝遣御史中丞萧瑗督益州兵討之，連年不能克。 帝欲大发兵，乃问益州計吏，考以征討方略。 漢中上計程包对曰：“板楯七姓，射殺白虎，立功先世，復為義人。 其人勇猛，善于兵戰。 昔永初中，羌入漢川，郡縣破坏，得板楯救之，羌死败殆尽，故号為神兵。 羌人畏忌，传語种辈，勿復南行。 至建和二年，羌復大入，實赖板楯連摧破之。 前车骑將軍冯绲，南征武陵，雖受丹阳精兵之锐，亦倚板楯以成其功。 近益州郡亂，太守李颙，亦以板楯討而平之。 忠功如此，本無恶心。 长吏乡亭，更赋至重，僕役□楚，过于奴虏，亦有嫁妻賣子，或乃至自刭割。 雖陳冤州郡，而牧守不為通理。 阙庭悠遠，不能自聞。 含怨呼天，叩心穷谷。 愁苦赋役，困罹酷刑。 故邑落相聚，以致叛戾。 非有谋主僭号，以图不轨。 今但选明能牧守，自然安集，不烦征伐也。 ”帝从其言，遣太守曹谦宣詔赦之，即皆降服。 至中平五年，巴郡黄巾贼起，板楯蠻夷因此復叛，寇掠城邑，遣西園上軍别部司馬趙瑾討平之。
Under Later Han, prefects routinely led them into battle. Emperor Huan’s day saw repeated shield-board revolts until Zhao Wen of Shu won them over by trust. 179 C.E.: Ba’s shield-board warriors swept Shu and Hanzhong. Xiao Yuan’s Yizhou columns stalled for years. Planning a major surge, the court quizzed Yizhou’s fiscal envoy on how to fight. Cheng Bao of Hanzhong answered: ‘Those seven clans slew the white tiger for Qin and have since served in good faith.’ They are veteran fighters. In the Yongchu troubles they crushed the Qiang incursion and earned the name ‘spirit soldiers.’ Terrified Qiang riders warned one another not to advance south. When the Qiang returned in 148, only the shield-board auxiliaries broke their strength. Feng Huan’s southern campaign leaned on them even beside Danyang’s elite. Li Yong recently used them to crush unrest in Yizhou commandery. They have never lacked loyalty. Now petty officials bleed them with surcharges and brutal labor—worse than keeping slaves—until families sell kin or take their own lives. Provincial benches ignore their petitions. The capital is too far for their voices to reach. They curse Heaven in empty ravines. Taxes, labor, and torture have driven them to despair. Villages band together and rise—not from ambition. No pretender leads them; they seek relief, not empire. Appoint honest prefects and they will quiet down without another expedition. The throne agreed; Cao Qian’s amnesty brought instant submission. 188 C.E.: Turban troubles in Ba sparked another shield-board rising until Zhao Jin crushed it.
25
西南夷
Southwestern Tribes
26
西南夷者，在蜀郡徼外。 有夜郎國，东接交阯，西有滇國，北有邛都國，各立君长。 其人皆椎結左衽，邑聚而居，能耕田。 其外又有巂、昆明諸落，西极同師，东北至叶榆，地方數千里。 無君长，辫发，隨畜迁徙無常。 自巂东北有莋都國，东北有冉駹國，或土著，或隨畜迁徙。 自冉駹东北有白馬國，氐种是也。 此三國亦有君长。
These peoples lived south and west of Shu commandery’s border marches. Yelang bordered Jiaozhi, Dian lay to its west, Qiongdu to its north—each with its own ruler. They wore topknots and left-lapped robes, lived in clustered villages, and farmed. Beyond lay Xi and Kunming bands stretching thousands of li from Tongshi west to Yeyu northeast. Without chiefs, they braided their hair and followed herds seasonally. Zuodu and Ranmao lay northeast of Xi—some sedentary, some pastoral. Northeast of Ranmao stood White Horse Di country. Those three polities also had recognized rulers.
27
夜郎者，初有女子浣于遁水，有三节大竹流入足間，聞其中有号声，剖竹视之，得一男兒，歸而养之。 及长，有才武，自立為夜郎侯，以竹為姓。 武帝元鼎六年，平南夷，為牂柯郡，夜郎侯迎降，天子賜其王印绶。 后遂殺之。 夷獠咸以竹王非血气所生，甚重之，求為立后。 牂柯太守吳霸以聞，天子乃封其三子為侯。 死，配食其父。 今夜郎縣有竹王三郎神是也。
Legend says a washerwoman on the Dun River heard an infant inside a bamboo tube and raised the boy who founded Yelang. He grew into a warrior-king, styled himself Marquis of Yelang, and adopted the surname Zhu (‘bamboo’). In 111 B.C. Han annexed the south as Zangke commandery; the Yelang ruler surrendered and received an imperial seal. The court later executed him. Local tribes revered the bamboo-born king as divine and petitioned for cult honors. Governor Wu Ba relayed the plea; the emperor ennobled the king’s three sons. At death they shared altar offerings with their father. Yelang county still honors the Third Sons of the Bamboo King.
28
初，楚顷襄王時，遣將庄豪从沅水伐夜郎，軍至且兰，椓船于岸而步戰。 既灭夜郎，因留王滇池。 以且兰有椓船牂柯處，乃改其名為牂柯。 牂柯地多雨潦，俗好巫鬼禁忌，寡畜生，又無蚕桑，故其郡最贫。 句町縣有□桹木，可以為面，百姓資之。 公孫述時，大姓龍、傅、尹、董氏，与郡功曹谢暹保境為漢，乃遣使从番禺江奉贡。 光武嘉之，并加褒赏。 桓帝時，郡人尹珍自以生于荒裔，不知礼義，乃从汝南許慎、应奉受经書图纬，学成，还乡里教授，于是南域始有学焉。 珍官至荆州刺史。
Chu’s Zhuang Hao sailed the Yuan to Qielan, beached his fleet, and marched inland against Yelang. After crushing Yelang he stayed to rule the Dianchi basin. Qielan’s boat landing on the Zangke rapids gave the district its new name. Zangke’s rains, spirit cults, few herds, and no sericulture made it Han’s poorest commandery. Juding’s lang fruit sustained the poor as a grain substitute. Under the warlord Gongsun Shu, leading families and Xie Xian kept Zangke loyal to Han and sent tribute down the Pearl River. Emperor Guangwu rewarded their loyalty handsomely. Yin Zhen studied under Xu Shen and Ying Feng, then brought classical learning to the far south. He rose to governor of Jingzhou.
29
滇王者，庄蹻之后也。 元封二年，武帝平之，以其地為益州郡，割牂柯、越巂各數縣配之。 后數年，復并昆明地，皆以屬之此郡。 有池，周回二百余里，水源深廣，而末更浅狭，有似倒流，故謂之滇池。 河土平敞，多出鹦鹉、孔雀，有鹽池田渔之饶，金銀畜产之富。 人俗豪忲。 居官者皆富及累世。
The kings of Dian traced their line to the general Zhuang Qiao. 109 B.C. Han organized Dian as Yizhou commandery, attaching counties from Zangke and Yuexi. A few years later Kunming lands were folded into the same prefecture. Lake Dian spans two hundred li; its deep headwaters taper like a reversed stream—hence the name. Broad valleys yield parrots and peacocks, salt pans and fisheries, and glittering herds and mines. The folk were proud and extravagant. Officeholders grew rich for generations.
30
及王莽政亂，益州郡夷栋蚕、若豆等起兵殺郡守，越巂姑復夷人大牟亦皆叛，殺略吏人。 莽遣宁始將軍廉丹，发巴蜀吏人及转兵谷卒徙十余萬擊之。 吏士饥疫，連年不能克而还。 以廣漢文齐為太守，造起陂池，开通溉灌，垦田二千余顷。 率厉兵馬，修障塞，降集群夷，甚得其和。 及公孫述据益土，齐固守拒險，述拘其妻子，許以封侯，齐遂不降。 聞光武即位，乃間道遣使自聞。 蜀平，征為镇遠將軍，封成義侯。 于道卒，詔為起祠堂，郡人立庙祀之。
Under Wang Mang’s collapse, Dongcan and Ruoduo slew the Yizhou governor while Damou’s Gufu tribes in Yuexi murdered officials. Mang sent Lian Dan with over a hundred thousand Ba-Shu troops and supply columns. Hunger and epidemic stalled the campaign until Han withdrew. Governor Wen Qi of Guanghan terraced ponds and canals and opened two thousand qing of new farmland. He drilled troops, patched the frontier forts, and brought the Yi to peace. Gongsun Shu seized his family and offered a marquisate, but Wen Qi held the passes for Han. When Liu Xiu took the throne, Wen Qi sent secret messengers to Luoyang. After Shu fell he became General Who Guards the Distance and Marquis of Cheng Righteousness. He died en route; the court authorized a shrine and locals built a temple in his honor.
31
建武十八年，夷渠帅栋蚕与姑復、楪榆、梇栋、連然、滇池、建伶、昆明諸种反叛，殺长吏。 益州太守繁胜与戰而败，退保硃提。 十九年，遣武威將軍劉尚等发廣漢、犍為、蜀郡人及硃提夷，合萬三千人擊之。 尚軍遂度泸水，入益州界。 群夷聞大兵至，皆弃垒奔走，尚获其赢弱、谷、畜。 二十年，進兵与栋蚕等連戰數月，皆破之。 明年正月，追至不韦，斬栋蚕帅，凡首虏七千余人，得生口五千七百人，馬三千匹，牛羊三萬余頭，諸夷悉平。
In the eighteenth year of Jianwu, the barbarian leader Dongcan, together with the various groups of Gufu, Dieyu, Longdong, Lianran, Dianchi, Jianling, and Kunming, rebelled and killed the senior officials. Governor Fan Sheng lost and fell back to Zhuti. 43 C.E.: Liu Shang led thirteen thousand from three commanderies and Zhuti tribes. They crossed the Lu into Yizhou. The tribes fled their forts; Han seized grain, stock, and stragglers. 44 C.E.: Months of fighting crushed each band. At Buwei they slew Dongcan, took seven thousand heads and booty, and ended the rising.
32
肃宗元和中，蜀郡王追為太守，政化尤异。 有神馬四匹出滇池河中，甘露降，白烏见，始興起学校，漸迁其俗。 靈帝熹平五年，諸夷反叛，执太守雍陟。 遣御史中丞硃龟討之，不能克。 朝議以為郡在边外，蠻夷喜叛，劳師遠役，不如弃之。 太尉椽巴郡李颙建策討伐，乃拜颙益州太守，与刺史庞芝发板楯蠻擊破平之。 还，得雍陟。 颙卒后，夷人復叛，以廣漢景毅為太守，討定之。 毅初到郡，米斛萬钱，漸以仁恩，少年間，米至數十云。
Mid-reign Emperor Zhang: Governor Wang Zhui of Shu was an exemplary ruler. Portents blessed his schools and quietly reformed frontier manners. 176 C.E.: Tribes captured Governor Yong Zhi. Zhu Gui’s expedition failed. Ministers argued the distant prefecture was not worth another army. Li Yong urged a counterstroke; as governor he and Inspector Pang Zhi used shield-board auxiliaries to win. They freed Yong Zhi on the march home. After Li Yong’s death Jing Yi of Guanghan suppressed the next rising. Grain had cost ten thousand cash per hu until his humane rule dropped it to a few dozen.
33
哀牢夷者，其先有妇人名沙壹，居于牢山。 尝捕鱼水中，触沉木若有感，因怀妊，十月，产子男十人。 反沉木化為龍，出水上。 沙壹忽聞龍語曰：“若為我生子，今悉何在？ ”九子见龍惊走，獨小子不能去，背龍而坐，龍因舐之。 其母鸟語，謂背為九，謂坐為隆，因名子曰九隆。 及后长大，諸兄以力隆能為父所舐而黠，遂共推以為王。 后牢山下有一夫一妇，復生十女子，九隆兄弟皆聚以為妻，后漸相滋长。 种人皆刻画其身，象龍文，衣皆着尾。 九隆死，世世相继。 乃分置小王，往往邑居，散在溪谷。 絕域荒外，山川阻深，生人以来，未尝交通中國。
The Ailao trace a mother named Shayi of Mount Lao. Fishing, she touched a submerged log and conceived ten sons. The log became a dragon that broke the surface. The dragon demanded, ‘Where are the sons you bore for me?’ Nine sons fled; the youngest sat still and let the dragon lick his back. In their tongue ‘back’ sounded like jiu and ‘sit’ like long—hence the boy’s name Jiulong. His brothers took the dragon’s blessing as a mandate and enthroned Jiulong. Ten maidens born below the mountain married Jiulong’s brothers, and the tribe grew. They tattooed dragon patterns and wore skirts like tails. Jiulong’s line ruled in turn. Petty kings ruled scattered valley towns. Beyond remote ranges they had never dealt with China.
34
建武二十三年，其王贤栗遣兵乘箄船，南下江、漢，擊附塞夷鹿茤，鹿茤人弱，為所擒获。 于是震雷疾雨，南風飘起，水為逆流，翻涌二百余里，箄船沉没，哀牢之众，溺死數千人。 贤栗復遣其六王將萬人以攻鹿茤，鹿茤王与戰，殺其六王。 哀牢耆老共埋六王，夜虎復出其尸而食之，余众惊怖引去。 贤栗惶恐，謂其耆老曰：“我曹入边塞，自古有之，今攻鹿茤，輒被天诛，中國其有圣帝乎？ 天祐助之，何其明也！ ”二十七年，贤栗等遂率种人户二千七百七十，口萬七千六百五十九，诣越巂太守郑鸿降，求内屬，光武封贤栗等為君长。 自是岁来朝贡。
47 C.E.: King Xianli rafted down the Yang and Han and seized the weak Ludu tribesmen. Storms reversed the current two hundred li and sank the rafts; thousands of Ailao warriors drowned. Xianli sent six kings with ten thousand men; the Ludu ruler slew all six. Elders buried the kings until tigers exhumed the bodies; the army fled in horror. Xianli asked whether Heaven was defending a sage emperor in China. Heaven’s favor blazes plain. 51 C.E.: Xianli brought seventeen thousand followers to Zheng Hong of Yuexi and asked to submit; Guangwu recognized him as chief. Annual tribute followed.
35
永平十二年，哀牢王柳貌遣子率种人内屬，其种邑王者七十七人，户五萬一千八百九十，口五十五萬三千七百一十一。 西南去洛阳七千里，显宗以其地置哀牢、博南二縣，割益州郡西部都尉所领六縣，合為永昌郡。 始通博南山，度兰仓水。 行者苦之。 歌曰：“漢德廣，开不宾。 度博南，越兰津。 度兰仓，為它人。”
69 C.E.: Liumao’s son led over half a million people and seventy-seven petty kings to submit. Mingdi organized Yongchang commandery from western Yizhou counties plus new Ailao and Bonan seats. Han engineers cut the Bonan range and bridged the Lancang. The route broke countless laborers. Laborers sang of Han’s virtue winning over the unsubmissive. Cross Bonan; ford the Lan crossing. Cross the Lancang—we toil for strangers.
36
哀牢人皆穿鼻儋耳，其渠帅自謂王者，耳皆下肩三寸，庶人則至肩而已。 土地沃美，宜五谷、蚕桑。 知染采文绣，罽毲帛叠，兰干细布，織成文章如绫锦。 有梧桐木华，績以為布，幅廣五尺，洁白不受垢污。 先以覆亡人，然后服之。 其竹节相去一丈，名曰濮竹。 出铜、铁、铅、锡、金、銀、光珠、虎魄、水精、琉璃、轲虫、蚌珠、孔雀、翡翠、犀、象、猩猩、貊兽。 云南縣有神鹿两頭，能食毒草。
Pierced noses and stretched lobes marked status—kings’ ears dangled three inches past the shoulder, commoners’ to the shoulder only. Rich soil supported grain and silk. They dyed embroidery, stacked wool felts, and wove Lan linen rivaling brocade. Parasol floss wove into five-chi snow-white cloth that stayed clean. They shrouded the dead in new cloth before wearing it themselves. Pu bamboo had joints a full zhang apart. Mines and forests yielded metals, gems, glass, shell, feathers, ivory, and exotic pelts. Yunnan county kept sacred deer that grazed on toxic herbs.
37
先是，西部都尉廣漢郑纯，為政清洁，化行夷貊，君长感慕，皆献土珍，颂德美。 天子嘉之。 即以為永昌太守。 纯与哀牢夷人约，邑豪岁輸布贯頭衣二领，鹽一斛，以為常赋，夷俗安之。 纯自為都尉、太守，十年卒官。 建初元年，哀牢王类牢与守令忿争，遂殺守令而反叛，攻巂唐城。 太守王尋奔楪榆。 哀牢三千余人攻博南，燔烧民舍。 肃宗募发越巂、益州、永昌夷漢九千人討之。 明年春，邪龍縣昆明夷卤承等应募，率种人与諸郡兵擊类牢于博南，大破斬之。 传首洛阳，賜卤承帛萬匹，封為破虏傍邑侯。
Earlier Commandant Zheng Chun’s honest rule moved tribes to send tribute and sing his praise. The emperor commended him. He was promoted governor of Yongchang. He fixed a light levy—two tunics and one hu of salt yearly—and the tribes accepted it. He served ten years as commandant-governor and died in post. 76 C.E.: King Leilao slew his magistrate and stormed Gutang. Governor Wang Xun fled to Yeyu. Three thousand warriors burned Bonan’s outskirts. Emperor Zhang drafted nine thousand frontier troops against them. Next spring Lu Cheng’s Kunming tribes joined Han columns at Bonan and executed Leilao. Leilao’s head reached Luoyang; Lu Cheng gained silk and a marquisate.
38
永元六年，郡徼外敦忍乙王莫延慕，遣使譯献犀牛、大象。 九年，徼外蠻及掸國王雍由调遣重譯奉國珍寶，和帝賜金印紫绶，小君长皆加印绶、钱帛。
94 C.E.: Moyanmu of Dunrenyi sent rhinos and elephants through interpreters. 97 C.E.: Dian’s Yong Youdiao offered tribute through chained interpreters; Emperor He granted gold seals to kings and chiefs.
39
邛都夷者，武帝所开，以為邛都縣。 無几而地陷為污澤，因名為邛池，南人以為邛河。 后復反叛。 元鼎六年，漢兵自越巂水伐之，以為越巂郡。 其土地平原，有稻田。 青蛉縣禺同山有碧鸡金馬，光景時時出见。 俗多游荡而喜讴歌，略与牂柯相类。 豪帅放纵，难得制御。
Emperor Wu annexed the Qiongdu tribes as a county. The ground soon sank into Qiong Lake—locals call it the Qiong River. They rose again. 111 B.C.: Han forces ascended the Yuexi River and organized Yuexi commandery. Flat land supported rice paddies. Yutong Mountain near Qingling flashed the legendary Azure Cock and Gold Horse. Their wandering songs recalled Zangke’s frontier ways. Strongmen defied easy control.
40
王莽時，郡守枚根调邛人长貴，以為軍候。 更始二年，长貴率种人攻殺枚根，自立為邛穀王。 领太守事。 又降于公孫述。 述败，光武封长貴為邛穀王。 建武十四年，长貴遣使上三年計，天子即授越巂太守印绶。 十九年，武威將軍劉尚擊益州夷，路由越巂。 长貴聞之，疑尚既定南边，威法必行，己不得自放纵，即聚兵起营台，招呼諸君长，多酿毒酒，欲先以劳軍，因袭擊尚。 尚知其谋，即分兵先据邛都，遂掩长貴诛之，徙其家屬于成都。
Governor Mei Gen enrolled Changgui as a colonel under Wang Mang. 24 C.E.: Changgui killed Mei Gen and styled himself king of Qiong Valley. He assumed civil authority. He then submitted to Gongsun Shu. After Shu’s fall Guangwu confirmed Changgui as king. 38 C.E.: His census mission earned him the Yuexi governor’s seal. 43 C.E.: Liu Shang’s Yizhou campaign marched through Yuexi. Fearing Liu Shang would curb him, Changgui staged a poisoned banquet ambush. Liu Shang seized Qiongdu first, executed Changgui, and sent his kin to Chengdu.
41
永平元年，姑復夷復叛，益州刺史发兵討破之，斬其渠帅，传首京師。 后太守巴郡張翕，政化清平，得夷人和。 在郡十七年，卒，夷人爱慕，如丧父母。 苏祈叟二百余人，赍牛、羊送丧，至翕本縣安漢，起坟祭祀。 詔書嘉美，為立祠堂。
58 C.E.: Gufu tribes rose until the inspector slew their chief and sent his head to Luoyang. Governor Zhang Xi of Ba ruled fairly and won the tribes. After seventeen years the tribes mourned him like kin. Two hundred elders drove cattle to Anhan for his burial rites. An edict authorized his shrine.
42
安帝元初三年，郡徼外夷大羊等八种，户三萬一千，口十六萬七千六百二十，慕義内屬。 時郡縣赋敛烦數，五年，卷夷大牛种封離等反畔，殺遂久令。 明年，永昌、益州及蜀郡夷皆叛应之，众遂十余萬，破坏二十余縣，殺长吏，燔烧邑郭，剽略百姓，骸骨委积，千里無人。 詔益州刺史張乔选堪能从事討之。 乔乃遣从事杨竦將兵至□榆擊之，贼盛未敢進，先以詔書告示三郡，密征求武士，重其購赏。 乃進軍与封離等戰，大破之，斬首三萬余級，获生口千五百人，資财四千余萬，悉以赏軍士。 封離等惶怖，斬其同谋渠帅，诣竦乞降，竦厚加慰纳。 其余三十六种皆来降附。 竦因奏长吏奸猾、侵犯蠻夷者九十人，皆减死。 州中论功未及上，会竦病创卒，張乔深痛惜之，乃刻石勒铭，图画其像。 天子以張翕有遗爱，乃拜其子湍為太守。 夷人欢喜，奉迎道路。 曰：“郎君儀貌类我府君。 ”后湍颇失其心，有欲叛者，諸夷耆老相晓語曰：“当為先府君故。 ”遂以得安。 后顺、桓間，廣漢冯颢為太守，政化尤多异迹云。
116 C.E.: Eight tribes beyond the march—over 167,000 people—petitioned to submit. Heavy taxes sparked revolt: Feng Li’s Big-Ox clan killed the Suojiu magistrate in 118 C.E. Next year a hundred-thousand-strong coalition ravaged twenty counties and left borderlands empty. The court told Inspector Zhang Qiao to appoint able staff to suppress the rising. Inspector Zhang Qiao sent Yang Song toward Yeyu but held back until edicts mobilized three commanderies and raised bounties for fighters. He smashed Feng Li’s host—thirty thousand heads, fifteen hundred captives, forty million in loot—all paid out to the troops. The rebels executed their own ringleaders and surrendered to Yang Song, who treated them generously. Thirty-six other tribes submitted. Yang Song impeached ninety abusive Han officials and won commutations. Before his memorial reached court Yang Song died of wounds; Zhang Qiao carved his epitaph and commissioned his portrait. Honoring Zhang Xi’s legacy, the emperor named his son Tuan governor. Tribes lined the roads to welcome him. They cried that the son looked just like their old prefect. When Tuan alienated them, elders restrained hotheads out of loyalty to his father. Peace held. Under Emperors Shun and Huan, Feng Hao of Guanghan reportedly worked wonders as governor.
43
莋都夷者，武帝所开，以為莋都縣。 其人皆被发左衽，言語多好譬类，居處略与汶山夷同。 土出长年神药，仙人山图所居焉。 元鼎六年，以為沈黎郡。 至夭漢四年，并蜀為西部，置两都尉：一居旄牛，主徼外夷； 一居青衣，主漢人。
Emperor Wu organized the Zuodu tribes as a county. They wore hair loose and robes left-lapped, spoke in vivid analogies, and lived like the Wenshan tribes. The hills yielded longevity herbs and legend placed immortals there. 111 B.C.: Han organized Shenli commandery. 97 B.C.: The west was split between two command posts—Maoniu handled frontier tribes; Qingyi supervised Han settlers.
44
永平中，益州刺史梁國硃輔，好立功名，慷慨有大略。 在州數岁，宣示漢德，威怀遠夷。 自汶山以西，前世所不至，正朔所未加。 白狼、槃木、唐菆等百余國，户百三十余萬，口六百萬以上，舉种奉贡，种為臣僕。 輔上疏曰：“臣聞《詩》云：‘彼徂者岐，有夷之行。 ’传曰：‘岐道雖僻，而人不遠。 ’詩人诵咏，以為符验。 今白狼王唐菆等慕化歸義，作詩三章。 路经邛来大山零高坂，峭危峻險，百倍岐道。 襁負老幼，若歸慈母。 遠夷之語，辞意难正。 草木异种，鸟兽殊类。 有犍為郡掾田恭与之习狎，颇晓其言，臣輒令訊其風俗，譯其辞語。 今遣从事史李陵与恭护送诣阙，并上其乐詩。 昔在圣帝，舞四夷之乐； 今之所上，庶备其一。 ”帝嘉之，事下史官，錄其歌焉。
Yongping-era Inspector Zhu Fu was ambitious and strategically bold. For years he showcased Han virtue and won distant tribes. West of Wenshan lay lands Han calendars had never reached. Over a hundred polities—more than six million people—sent tribute and accepted subject status. Zhu Fu quoted the ‘Qi’ ode on civilization reaching barbarians. Commentators say even remote Qi drew people in. Poets took it as proof. King Tangcou of the Bailang composed three hymns of submission. Their route over Qionglai’s cliffs dwarfed the old Qi road in danger. They bore children to court like pilgrims to a mother. Frontier languages resist literal glosses. Their flora and fauna differ utterly from China. Clerk Tian Gong knew their tongue; I had him translate custom and idiom. Li Ling and Tian Gong escort the envoys and deliver the songs. Ancient sage-kings staged barbarian dances; these hymns may add one strain. The emperor approved and ordered the songs archived.
45
《遠夷乐德歌詩》曰：
Song of the Distant Yi on Delighting in Virtue (title)
46
大漢是治，堤官隗构。 与天合意。 魏冒逾糟。 吏譯平端，罔驿劉脾。 不从我来。 旁莫支留。 聞風向化，征衣隨旅。 所见奇异。 知唐桑艾。 多賜缯布，邪毘纟甚纟甫。 甘美酒食。 推潭僕遠。 昌乐肉飞，拓拒苏便。 屈申悉备。 局后仍離。 蠻夷贫薄，偻让龍洞。 無所報嗣。 莫支度由。 愿主长寿，阳雒僧鳞。 子孫昌炽。 莫稚角存。
Great Han rules in peace; the emperor matches Heaven’s pattern. His mind accords with Heaven. His grace overflows like rivers crossing brine. Magistrates and interpreters deal fairly—none cheat the frontier. Whoever refuses to follow us— —finds nowhere to hide. Hearing your virtue we turned to civilization and packed our cloaks for the journey. What we saw amazed us. We knew King Tangcou’s kindness. You piled silk and fine cloth on us. Sweet wine and rich food. Our gratitude runs deep from afar. Festive platters and piping music rose together. Every flavor—sour and sweet—was spread. Yet after the banquet we must leave. We poor barbarians in bamboo huts— —have no way to repay you. We bring no worthy gift in return. We pray our lord lives many years— —and sons and grandsons flourish forever. May none of your house lack grain.
47
《遠夷慕德歌詩》曰：
Song of the Distant Yi on Admiring Virtue (title)
48
蠻夷所處，偻让皮尼。 日入之部。 且交陵悟。 慕義向化，绳动隨旅。 歸日出主。 路旦拣雒。 圣德深恩，圣德渡诺。 与人富厚。 魏菌度洗。 冬多霜雪，综邪流籓。 夏多和雨。 莋邪尋螺。 寒温時适，藐浔沪漓。 部人多有。 菌补邪推。 涉危历險，辟危歸險。 不遠萬里。 莫受萬柳。 去俗歸德，术叠附德。 心歸慈母。 仍路孳摸。
We barbarians live where the sun sets— —in the sunset lands. Mountains pile ridge upon ridge. Yearning for Han righteousness we harnessed horses and joined your envoys. We turned toward the rising-sun sovereign. Long roads wound toward Luoyang. Sage virtue grants boundless grace—boundless as a ford. You enrich every household. Your mercy washes us clean. Winters heap frost and snow on our ranges. Summers bring gentle rains. Cold and heat arrive in season. Seasons suit sowing and harvest. Our people multiply. Blessings crowd every valley. We braved cliffs and rapids—yet pressed on toward grace. Ten thousand li did not deter us. No hardship turned us back. We shed barbarous ways and clung to Han virtue. Our hearts flew to a loving mother. We traced the road ever homeward to Han.
49
《遠夷怀德歌》曰：
Song of the Distant Yi on Cherishing Virtue (title)
50
荒服之外，荒服之儀。 土地墝埆。 犁籍怜怜。 食肉衣皮，阻苏邪犁。 不见鹽谷。 莫砀粗沐。 吏譯传風，罔譯传微。 大漢安乐。 是漢夜拒。 携負歸仁，踪优路仁。 触冒險陕。 雷折險龍。 高山岐峻，伦狼藏幢。 缘崖磻石。 扶路側禄。 木薄发家，息落服淫。 百宿到洛。 理历髭雒。 父子同賜，捕顡菌毘。 怀抱匹帛。 怀稿匹漏。 传告种人，传室呼敕。 长愿臣僕。 陵阳臣僕。
Beyond the wild outer march—yet we observe ceremony. Our soil is barren rock. Fields cling to steep slopes. We ate flesh and wore hides against the cold. We knew neither salt pans nor grain valleys. We rarely tasted grain or bath. Your clerks and interpreters carried word of civilization. Great Han is peace and joy. This is the Han that welcomes night wanderers. We bore packs toward benevolence—every road led to grace. We climbed deadly passes. Thunder split the ridge-dragons. Peaks forked like wolves guarding banners. We edged cliffs on stepping stones. We hugged the trails along the slope. Brush broke through hovels—we laid hardship aside. A hundred halts brought us to Luoyang. At last we looked upon the Luo’s shores. Fathers and sons shared your gifts together. We clasp bolts of silk to our breasts. We tuck drafts of tribute beneath our arms. Word passes tribe to tribe—every hearth hears the summons. Forever we choose servitude to Han. May we remain loyal servants under the sun.
51
肃宗初，輔坐事免。 是時郡尉府舍皆有雕飾，画山神海靈、奇禽异兽，以眩耀之，夷人益畏惮焉。 和帝永元十二年，旄牛徼外白狼、楼薄蠻夷王唐缯等，遂率种人十七萬口，歸義内屬。 詔賜金印紫绶，小豪钱帛各有差。
Early in Emperor Zhang’s reign Zhu Fu lost his post over a charge. Prefectural command posts boasted murals of spirits and beasts that awed the tribes. In the twelfth year of Yongyuan under Emperor He, Tang Zeng and the other kings of the Bailang and Loubo Man and Yi beyond the Maoniu frontier then led 170,000 members of their peoples to submit to righteousness and become inner dependents. The court granted gold seals and graded gifts of silk to lesser chiefs.
52
安帝永初元年，蜀郡三襄种夷与徼外污衍种并兵三千余人反叛，攻蚕陵城，殺长吏。 二年，青衣道夷邑长令田，与徼外三种夷三十一萬口，赍黄金、旄牛毦，舉土内屬。 安帝增令田爵号為奉通邑君。 延光二年春，旄牛夷叛，攻零关，殺长吏，益州刺史張乔与西部都尉擊破之。 于是分置蜀郡屬國都尉，领四縣如太守。 桓帝永寿二年，蜀郡夷叛，殺略吏民。 延熹二年，蜀郡三襄夷寇蚕陵，殺长吏。 四年，犍為屬國夷寇郡界，益州刺史山昱擊破之，斬首千四百級，余皆解散。 靈帝時，以蜀郡屬國為漢嘉郡。
107 C.E.: Three-Xiang and Wuyan tribes took Canling and slew Han officers. 108 C.E.: Chief Ling Tian brought 310,000 tribesmen and tribute of gold and yak felt to submit. Emperor An ennobled him as Lord of Fengtong. 123 C.E.: Maoniu tribes stormed Ling Pass until Zhang Qiao and the western commandant crushed them. Han created a dependent-state commandant over four counties with governor-like powers. 156 C.E.: Shu tribes raided officials and settlers. 159 C.E.: Three-Xiang tribes struck Canling again. 161 C.E.: Shan Yu killed 1,400 raiders and dispersed the rest. Under Emperor Ling the dependent state became Hanjia commandery.
53
冉駹夷者，武帝所开，元鼎六年，以為汶山郡。 至地节三年，夷人以立郡赋重，宣帝乃省并蜀郡為北部都尉。 其山有六夷七羌九氐，各有部落。 其王侯颇知文書，而法严重。 貴妇人，党母族。 死則烧其尸。 土气多寒，在盛夏冰犹不释，故夷人冬則避寒，入蜀為佣，夏則違暑，反其邑。 众皆依山居止，累石為室，高者至十余丈，為邛笼。 又土地刚卤，不生谷粟麻菽，唯以麦為資，而宜畜牧。 有旄牛，無角，一名童牛，肉重千斤，毛可為毦。 出名馬。 有靈羊，可疗毒。 又有食药鹿，鹿鏖有胎者。 其肠中粪亦疗毒疾。 又有五角羊、麝香、轻毛<曷毛>鸡、牲牲。 其人能作旄氈、班罽、青顿、毞毲、羊羧之屬。 特多杂药。 地有咸土，煮以為鹽。 麡羊牛馬，食之皆肥。
Emperor Wu organized the Ranmao lands as Wenshan commandery in 111 B.C. 67 B.C.: Heavy taxes prompted Emperor Xuan to fold Wenshan into Shu as a northern commandant. Six Yi, seven Qiang, and nine Di bands held the range. Chiefs could read documents but enforced harsh law. They honored women and maternal clans. They cremated the dead. Perpetual snow sent them to Shu as winter laborers and home for summer. They stacked stone towers—qionglong—ten zhang high on the slopes. Barren soil grew only barley but fed vast herds. Hornless yak weighed a thousand jin—felt from their wool. The range bred famed horses. Spirit sheep yielded antidotes. Drug-grazing hinds carried valued pregnancies. Even dung from their guts countered venom. Five-horned sheep, musk, silky fowl, and mountain apes entered trade. They wove yak felt, patterned rugs, and piled woolens. Medicinal herbs abounded. Brine earth boiled into salt. Argali, cattle, and horses fattened on the grass and salt.
54
其西又有三河、槃于虏，北有黄石、北地、卢水胡，其表乃為徼外。 靈帝時，復分蜀郡北部為汶山郡云。
West lay Sanhe and Panyulu; north lay Hu bands—the outer zone lay beyond the pale. Emperor Ling restored Wenshan commandery from northern Shu.
55
白馬氐者，武帝元鼎六年开，分廣漢西部，合以為武都。 土地險阻，有麻田，出名馬、牛、羊、漆、蜜。 氐人勇戆抵冒，贪货死利。 居于河池，一名仇池，方百顷，四面斗絕。 數為边寇，郡縣討之，則依固自守。 元封三年，氐人反叛，遣兵破之，分徙酒泉郡。 昭帝元凤元年，氐人復叛，遣执金吾馬適建、龍<名页>侯韩增、大鸿胪田廣明，將三輔、太常徒討破之。
White Horse Di became Wudu commandery in 111 B.C. from western Guanghan. Steep land grew hemp and famed herds plus lacquer and honey. The Di were reckless fighters who chased profit without fear. They held Qiu Pool—a hundred-qing basin walled by cliffs. They raided the frontier yet holed up in their fortress whenever attacked. 108 B.C.: Han crushed a Di rising and deported clans to Jiuquan. 80 B.C.: Ma Shijian, Han Zeng, and Tian Guangming led capital levies against another Di revolt.
56
及王莽篡亂，氐人亦叛。 建武初，氐人悉附陇蜀，及隗嚣灭，其酋豪乃背公孫述降漢，陇西太守馬援上復其王侯君长，賜以印绶。 后嚣族人隗茂反，殺武都太守。 氐人大豪齐钟留為种类所敬信，威服諸豪，与郡丞孔奋擊茂，破斬之。 后亦時為寇盗，郡縣討破之。
Wang Mang’s coup sparked Di risings. After Wei Xiao fell, Ma Yuan restored Di titles when they abandoned Gongsun Shu for Han. Wei Mao later murdered the Wudu governor. Magnate Qi Zhongliu rallied the Di behind Kong Fen and executed Wei Mao. Later raids were crushed piecemeal.
57
论曰：漢氏征伐戎狄，有事边遠，盖亦与王业而终始矣。 至于倾没疆垂，丧師败將者，不出時岁，卒能开四夷之境，款殊俗之附。 若乃文约之所沾漸，風声之所周流，几將日所出入處也。 著自山经、水志者，亦略及焉。 雖服叛难常，威澤時曠，及其化行，則缓耳雕脚之伦，兽居鸟語之类，莫不舉种尽落，回面而請吏，陵海越障，累譯以内屬焉。 故其錄名中郎、校尉之署，編數都护、部守之曹，动以數百萬計。 若乃藏山隐海之靈物，沉沙栖陆之玮寶，莫不呈表怪丽，雕被宫幄焉。 又其賨幏火毳、驯禽封兽之赋，軨积于内府； 夷歌巴舞、殊音异节之技，列倡于外门。 岂柔服之道，必足于斯？ 然亦云致遠者矣。 蠻夷雖附阻岩谷，而类有土居，連涉荆、交之区，布护巴、庸之外，不可量极。 然其凶勇狡算，薄于羌狄，故陵暴之害，不能深也。 西南之徼，尤為劣焉。 故关守永昌，肇自遠離，启土立人，至今成都焉。
Commentary: Han’s frontier wars against Rong and Di shadowed the dynasty from rise to fall. Though borders sank and generals fell almost yearly, Han still opened four quarters and drew distant peoples in. Han prestige and rumor reached nearly every place under the sun. Even mountain and water gazetteers sketch these lands. Despite fitful loyalty, when civilization took hold even tattooed tribes turned to ask for magistrates—crossing seas and interpreters to submit. Hence attendant and colonel registers and protector rolls numbered in the millions. Marvelous beasts and sunken treasures adorned the palace—all tribute from afar. Tribute wool, feathers, and captive beasts filled the imperial vaults; frontier songs and Ba dances lined the outer courts. Was gentle rule nothing more than spectacle? Yet Han truly reached the ends of the earth. Tribes clung to ravines yet formed settlements—stretching from Jing and Jiao past Ba and Yong beyond reckoning. They were less fierce than Qiang or Di—so their raids rarely cut deep. The southwest marches were weaker still. Thus Yongchang’s garrison—opened from distant lands—still anchors Chengdu.
58
赞曰：百蠻蠢居，仞彼方徼。 镂体卉衣，凭深阻峭。 亦有别夷，屯彼蜀表。 参差聚落，纡余岐道。 往化既孚，改襟輸寶。 俾建永昌，同編亿兆。
Eulogy: Myriad tribes thronged those distant marches. Tattooed skin and grass robes clung to sheer defiles. Other tribes camped beyond Shu’s rim. Scattered hamlets threaded winding passes. Once trust bloomed they turned lapels and sent tribute. Yongchang rose to share in the myriad subjects of Han.