Volume 190 Biographies 140: Men of Letters 1

泥婆羅國泥婆羅國，在吐蕃西。其俗翦髮與眉齊，穿耳，揎以竹桶牛角，綴至肩者以為姣麗。食用手，無匕箸。其器皆銅。多商賈，少田作。以銅為錢，面文為人，背文為馬牛，不穿孔。衣服以一幅蔽布身，日數盥浴。以板為屋，壁皆雕畫。俗重博戲，好吹蠡擊鼓。頗解推測盈虛，兼通曆術。事五天神，鐫石為像，每日清水浴神，烹羊而祭。其王那陵提婆，身著真珠、玻璃、車渠、珊瑚、琥珀、瓔珞，耳垂金鉤玉榼，佩寶裝伏突，坐獅子床，其堂內散花燃香。大臣及諸左右並坐於地，持兵數百列侍其側。宮中有七層之樓，覆以銅瓦，欄檻楹栿皆飾珠寶。樓之四角，各懸銅槽，下有金龍，激水上樓，註於槽中，從龍口而出，狀若飛泉。那陵提婆之父，為其叔父所篡，那陵提婆逃難於外，吐蕃因而納焉，克復其位，遂羈屬吐蕃。

The kingdom of Nepal lies west of Tibet. By custom they crop their hair to the brow line and pierce their ears, stretching the lobes with bamboo tubes and ox horns; ornaments that hang to the shoulders are regarded as the height of beauty. They eat with their hands and use neither spoons nor chopsticks. All their utensils are made of bronze. Merchants abound, while farming is scarce. Their currency is bronze coins bearing a human face on one side and horses and cattle on the other, without a central hole. They dress in a single length of cloth wrapped about the body and wash themselves several times daily. Their houses are of timber, and every wall is carved and painted. They are fond of games of chance and love to play reed flutes and beat drums. They are fairly adept at astronomical calculation and understand calendrical science as well. They worship the Five Heavenly Deities, carving their images in stone, bathing the idols daily with fresh water, and sacrificing cooked sheep. Their king Narendradeva was arrayed in pearls, crystal, conch, coral, amber, and jeweled necklaces; gold hooks and jade vessels hung from his ears; he wore gem-studded boots and sat upon a lion throne while flowers were strewn and incense burned in his hall. His ministers and attendants all sat on the floor, while hundreds of armed guards lined both sides of him. The palace contained a seven-tiered tower roofed in bronze tiles, its railings, pillars, and beams all set with pearls and precious stones. At each corner of the tower hung a bronze channel; golden dragons below forced water up into the channels, and it poured from their mouths like cascading fountains. Narendradeva's father had been overthrown by an uncle; Narendradeva fled into exile, and Tibet took him in, restored him to his throne, after which Nepal became a Tibetan dependency.

貞觀中，衛尉丞李義表往使天竺，塗經其國，那陵提婆見之，大喜，與義表同出觀阿耆婆沴池。周回二十餘步，水恆沸，雖流潦暴集，爍石焦金，未嘗增減。以物投之，即生煙焰，懸釜而炊，須臾而熟。其後王玄策為天竺所掠，泥婆羅發騎與吐蕃共破天竺有功。，其王屍利那連陀羅又遣使朝貢。党項羌党項羌，在古析支之地，漢西羌之別種也。魏、晉之後，西羌微弱，或臣中國，或竄山野。自周氏滅宕昌、鄧至之後，党項始強。其界東至松州，西接葉護，南雜舂桑、迷桑等羌，北連吐谷渾，處山谷間，互三千里。其種每姓別自為部落，一姓之中復分為小部落，大者萬餘騎，小者數千騎，不相統一。有細封氏、費聽氏、往利氏、頗超氏、野辭氏、房當氏、米擒氏、拓拔氏，而拓拔最為強族。俗皆土著，居有棟宇，其屋織牦牛尾及羊毛覆之，每年一易。俗尚武，無法令賦役。其人多壽，年一百五六十歲。不事產業，好為盜竊，互相淩劫。尤重復仇，若仇人未得，必蓬頭垢面跣足蔬食，要斬仇人而後復常。男女並衣裘褐，仍被大氈。畜牦牛、馬、驢、羊，以供其食。不知稼穡，土無五谷。氣候多風寒，五月草始生，八月霜雪降。求大麥於他界，醖以為酒。妻其庶母及伯叔母、嫂、子弟之婦，淫穢烝褻，諸夷中最為甚，然不婚同姓。老死者以為盡天年，親戚不哭；少死者則雲夭枉，乃悲哭之。死則焚屍，名為火葬。無文字，但候草木以記歲時。三年一相聚，殺牛羊以祭天。自周及隋，或叛或朝，常為邊患。

During the Zhenguan era, Vice Director of the Imperial Stud Li Yibiao traveled to India and passed through Nepal en route; Narendradeva was delighted to meet him and went out with Yibiao to see the Ajiaposhi hot springs. The pool measured a little over twenty paces around; the water boiled constantly, and though floods might rush in or stones be heated white-hot, its level never rose or fell. Anything thrown in immediately burst into smoke and flame; hung with a pot, it would cook food in moments. Later, when Wang Xuance was seized in India, Nepal sent cavalry and, together with Tibet, defeated the Indians—a deed of great merit. In the second year of Yonghui (651), King Shilinaliantuoluo again dispatched envoys to pay tribute. The Tangut Qiang inhabit the ancient territory of Qizhi and are a distinct offshoot of the Western Qiang known to the Han. After the Wei and Jin periods the Western Qiang declined; some tribes submitted to China, while others took refuge in the mountains. After the Northern Zhou destroyed Dangchang and Dengzhi, the Tangut began to rise in power. Their territory extended east to Songzhou, west to the Yehu lands, south among the Chunsang, Misang, and other Qiang peoples, and north to Tuyuhun—some three thousand li of mountain valleys. Each surname formed its own tribe, and within each surname were smaller sub-tribes—large ones fielded over ten thousand horsemen, small ones a few thousand, with no single authority over all. Among them were the Xifeng, Feiting, Wangli, Pichao, Yeci, Fangdang, Miqin, and Tuoba clans, the Tuoba being the most powerful. They were sedentary by custom, living in framed houses roofed with woven yak tails and wool, renewed each year. They valued martial prowess and knew neither written law nor regular taxation. Many lived to a great age, often a hundred and fifty or sixty years. They did not pursue honest livelihoods but delighted in raiding and robbing one another. Blood vengeance mattered above all: until the enemy was slain, they went unkempt, barefoot, and abstemious, vowing not to resume ordinary life until the killer was dead. Men and women alike wore furs and coarse woolens, wrapped additionally in heavy felt cloaks. They kept yaks, horses, donkeys, and sheep for their sustenance. They did not practice agriculture, for their land yielded none of the staple grains. The climate was harsh and cold; grass appeared only in the fifth month, and frost and snow came in the eighth. They obtained barley from neighboring lands and brewed it into wine. They married stepmothers, uncles' wives, sisters-in-law, and younger relatives' wives—more debauched in this respect than any other frontier people, though they would not marry within the same clan name. When the elderly died of natural causes, kin took it as a full lifespan and did not mourn; but when the young died they called it an untimely end and wept bitterly. The dead were cremated in what they called fire burial. They had no written language and reckoned the seasons only by watching when plants bloomed or withered. Every three years they assembled to slaughter cattle and sheep in sacrifice to Heaven. From the Zhou through the Sui they alternately rebelled and submitted, and were a perennial frontier threat.

，南會州都督鄭元璹遣使招諭，其酋長細封步賴舉部內附，太宗降璽書慰撫之。步賴因來朝，宴賜甚厚，列其地為軌州，拜步賴為刺史。仍請率所部討吐谷渾。其後諸姓酋長相次率部落皆來內屬。請同編戶，太宗厚加撫慰，列其地為崌、奉、巖、遠四州，各拜其首領為刺史。

In the third year of Zhenguan (629), Zheng Yuanshu, regional commander of South Huizhou, sent envoys to win them over; chieftain Xifeng Bulai brought his tribe to submit, and Emperor Taizong sent a sealed edict of reassurance. Bulai then came to court, was lavishly entertained and rewarded, his lands were organized as Guizhou, and he was appointed its prefect. He also asked to lead his people against Tuyuhun. Thereafter chieftains of the other clans brought their tribes to submit one after another. They asked to be registered as ordinary subjects; Taizong treated them generously, organized their territory into the four prefectures of Gui, Feng, Yan, and Yuan, and appointed each chieftain as prefect.

有羌酋拓拔赤辭者，初臣屬吐谷渾，甚為渾主伏允所暱，與之結婚。及貞觀初，諸羌歸附，而赤辭不至。李靖之擊吐谷渾，赤辭屯狼道坡以抗官軍。廓州刺史久且洛生遣使諭以禍福，赤辭曰：「我被渾主親戚之恩，腹心相寄，生死不貳，焉知其他。汝可速去，無令汙我刀也。」洛生知其不悟，於是率輕騎襲之，擊破赤辭於肅遠山，斬首數百級，虜雜畜六千而還。太宗又令岷州都督李道彥說諭之，赤辭從子思頭密送誠款，其黨拓拔細豆又以所部來降。赤辭見其宗黨離，始有歸化之意。後岷州都督劉師立復遣人招誘，於是與思頭並率眾內屬，拜赤辭為西戎州都督，賜姓李氏。自此職貢不絕。其後吐蕃強盛，拓拔氏漸為所逼，遂請內徙，始移其部落於慶州，置靜邊等州以處之。其故地陷於吐蕃，其處者為其役屬，吐蕃謂之「弭藥」。

One Qiang leader, Tuoba Chici, had initially served Tuyuhun and was greatly favored by King Fuyun, who married him to a royal daughter. At the opening of the Zhenguan era, when the other Qiang submitted, Chici did not appear. When Li Jing campaigned against Tuyuhun, Chici held Langdao Slope to block the imperial forces. Guozhou Prefect Jiujie Luosheng sent an envoy to warn him of the consequences; Chici replied, "The Tuyuhun king treated me as kin and trusted me with his innermost affairs. I shall be loyal unto death. What else is there to discuss? Be off at once, lest you stain my blade. Seeing that Chici would not listen, Luosheng led light cavalry in a surprise attack, routed him at Mount Suyuan, took several hundred heads, seized six thousand head of livestock, and withdrew. Taizong then sent Minzhou commander Li Daoyan to negotiate; Chici's nephew Sitou secretly pledged allegiance, and his follower Tuoba Xidou brought his band to surrender. When Chici saw his kin and followers deserting him, he at last considered submission. Later Liu Shili of Minzhou sent envoys again; Chici and Sitou then led their people to submit, and Chici was appointed regional commander of Xirongzhou and given the imperial surname Li. From then on they sent tribute without interruption. As Tibet grew powerful, the Tuoba were increasingly pressured and asked to move inward; their tribes were first resettled in Qingzhou, with Jingbian and other prefectures established to receive them. Their former homeland fell to Tibet; those who stayed behind became Tibetan subjects, whom the Tibetans called the Miyao.

又有黑党項，在於赤水之西。李靖之擊吐谷渾也，渾主伏允奔黑党項，居以空閑之地。及吐谷渾舉國內屬，黑党項酋長號敦善王因貢方物。又有雪山党項，姓破醜氏，居於雪山之下，及白狗、舂桑、白蘭等諸羌，自龍朔已後，並為吐蕃所破而臣屬焉。

There were also the Black Tangut, living west of the Red River. When Li Jing attacked Tuyuhun, King Fuyun fled to the Black Tangut, who settled him on vacant pasturelands. When Tuyuhun submitted en masse, the Black Tangut chieftain known as King Dunshan sent tribute of local goods. There were also the Snow Mountain Tangut of the Pochou clan and the Baigou, Chunsang, Bailan, and other Qiang tribes; from the Longshuo era onward, all were defeated by Tibet and brought under its rule.

其在西北邊者，內附，凡二十萬口，分其地置朝、吳、浮、歸等十州，仍散居靈、夏等界內。自至德已後，常為吐蕃所誘，密以官告授之，使為偵道，故時或侵叛，尋亦底寧。寶應初，其首領來朝，請助國供靈州軍糧，優詔褒美。

Those on the northwest frontier who submitted numbered two hundred thousand souls; their territory was divided into ten prefectures including Chao, Wu, Fu, and Gui, and they were settled scattered within the Ling and Xia regions. After the Zhide era they were often lured by Tibet, which secretly issued them official commissions as spies, so they sometimes raided or rebelled, though calm was usually restored before long. Early in the Baoying era their leaders came to court offering to supply grain for the Lingzhou garrison; the emperor issued a commendatory edict in reply.

其在涇、隴州界者，率其眾十餘萬，詣鳳翔節度使崔光遠請降。十二月，其歸順州部落、乾封州部落、歸義州部落、順化州部落、和寧州部落、和義州部落、保善州部落、寧定州部落、羅雲州部落、朝鳳州部落，並詣山南西道都防禦使、梁州刺史臧希讓請州印。希讓以聞，許之。

Those in the Jing and Long region, numbering over a hundred thousand, went to Fengxiang commissioner Cui Guangyuan to surrender. In the twelfth month the tribes of Guishun, Qianfeng, Guiyi, Shunhua, He'ning, Heyi, Baoshan, Ningding, Luoyun, and Chaofeng all went to Zang Xirang, defender of southwestern Shannan and prefect of Liangzhou, to request official prefectural seals. Xirang reported this to the throne, and permission was granted.

十二月，初禁商賈以牛、馬、器械於党項部落貿易。十五年二月，六州党項自石州奔過河西。党項有六府部落，曰野利越詩、野利龍兒、野利厥律、兒黃、野海、野窣等。居慶州者號為東山部落，居夏州者號為平夏部落。永泰、大歷已後，居石州，依水草。至是永安城鎮將阿史那思昧擾其部落，求取駝馬無厭，中使又贊成其事，党項不堪其弊，遂率部落奔過河。五月，復置宥州以護党項。

In the twelfth month a ban was first imposed on merchants trading cattle, horses, and weapons with Tangut tribes. In the second month of the fifteenth year, the six-prefecture Tangut fled from Shizhou across the Yellow River to the west. The Tangut comprised six fu tribes: Yeliyueshi, Yelilong'er, Yelijuelü, Erhuang, Yehai, Yesu, and the like. Those in Qingzhou were known as the Eastern Mountain tribes; those in Xiazhou as the Pingxia tribes. After the Yongtai and Dali eras they lived in Shizhou, following pasture and water. By then the Yong'an garrison commander Ashina Simo was harassing them, demanding camels and horses without limit, abetted by court eunuchs; unable to endure the exactions, the Tangut led their tribes across the river. In the fifth month Youzhou was re-established to oversee the Tangut.

十五年十一月，命太子中允李寮為宣撫党項使。以部落繁富，時遠近商賈，賫繒貨入貿羊馬。至太和、開成之際，其籓鎮統領無緒，恣其貪婪，不顧危亡，或強市其羊馬，不酬其直，以是部落苦之，遂相率為盜，靈、鹽之路小梗。會昌初，上頻命使安撫之，兼命憲臣為使，分三印以統之。在邠、寧、延者，以侍御史、內供奉崔君會主之；在鹽、夏、長、澤者，以侍御史、內供奉李鄠主之；在靈、武、麟、勝者，以侍御史、內供奉鄭賀主之，仍各賜緋魚以重其事。久而無狀，尋皆罷之。高昌高昌者，漢車師前王之庭，後漢戊己校尉之故地。在京師西四千三百里。其國有二十一城，王都高昌。其交河城，前王庭也；田地城，校尉城也。勝兵且萬人。厥土良沃，谷麥歲再熟；有蒲萄酒，宜五果；有草名白疊，國人采其花，織以為布。有文字，知書計，所置官亦采中國之號焉。其王麹伯雅，即後魏時高昌王嘉之六世孫也。隋煬帝時入朝，拜左光祿大夫、車師太守、封弁國公，仍以戚屬宇文氏女為華容公主以妻之。

In the eleventh month of the fifteenth year Li Liao, attendant to the crown prince, was appointed commissioner to pacify the Tangut. As the tribes prospered, merchants from far and near brought silks and goods to trade for sheep and horses. By the Taihe and Kaicheng eras frontier commanders ruled without discipline, greedily forcing purchases of sheep and horses without fair payment; the tribes suffered and turned to banditry, briefly disrupting traffic on the Ling and Yan routes. Early in the Huichang reign the emperor repeatedly sent pacification envoys and appointed censorial commissioners, dividing authority among three seals. The Bin, Ning, and Yan groups were assigned to Attending Censor and Inner Attendant Cui Junhui; those in Yan, Xia, Chang, and Ze to Attending Censor and Inner Attendant Li E; and those in Ling, Wu, Lin, and Sheng to Attending Censor and Inner Attendant Zheng He—each granted a crimson fish pouch to mark the importance of the mission. After long service with little to show for it, all were soon dismissed. Gaochang was the seat of the Former Cheshi King under the Han and the former domain of the Later Han Wuji commandant. It lay four thousand three hundred li west of the capital. The kingdom comprised twenty-one cities, with Gaochang as its capital. Jiaohe was the former royal seat; and Tiandicheng the commandant's garrison. Its fighting strength was nearly ten thousand men. The soil was rich and grain ripened twice yearly; grape wine was produced and all manner of fruit thrived; and a plant called baidie whose flowers the people wove into cloth. They had a written language and kept accounts, and their official titles followed Chinese usage. Their king Qu Boya was the sixth-generation descendant of Gaochang King Jia of the Northern Wei. During the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui he visited the court and was appointed Left Grand Master of Splendid Happiness and Commandant of Cheshi, enfeoffed as Duke of Bianguo, and given Princess Huarong, a daughter of the Yuwen imperial clan, as his wife.

，伯雅死，子文泰嗣，遣使來告哀，高祖遣前河州刺史硃惠表往吊之。七年，文泰又獻狗雄雌各一，高六寸，長尺餘，性甚慧，能曳馬銜燭，雲本出拂菻國。中國有拂菻狗，自此始也。太宗嗣位，復貢玄狐裘，因賜其妻宇文氏花鈿一具。宇文氏復貢玉盤。西域諸國所有動靜，輒以奏聞。冬，文泰來朝，及將歸蕃，賜遺甚厚。其妻宇文氏請預宗親，詔賜李氏，封常樂公主，下詔慰諭之。

In the second year of Wude (619), when Boya died his son Wentai succeeded him; envoys announced the death, and Gaozu sent former Hezhou prefect Zhu Huibiao to offer condolences. In the seventh year Wentai presented a male and female dog, six inches tall and just over a foot long, remarkably clever and able to lead a horse by the bridle while carrying a candle—said to be native to Fulin (Byzantium). From this time China first had Fulin dogs. When Taizong took the throne, Wentai again sent a black-fox fur robe, and the emperor in turn gave Lady Yuwen a set of floral forehead ornaments. Lady Yuwen reciprocated with a gift of a jade platter. He reported every development among the Western Region kingdoms to the court. That winter Wentai came to court, and when he prepared to return home he was sent off with lavish gifts. His wife Lady Yuwen asked to be enrolled among the imperial clan; she was granted the surname Li, created Princess Changle, and an edict of reassurance was issued.

時西戎諸國來朝貢者，皆塗經高昌，文泰後稍壅絕之。伊吾先臣西突厥，至是內屬，文泰又與葉護連結，將擊伊吾。太宗以其反覆，下書切讓，徵其大臣冠軍阿史那矩入朝，將與議事。文泰竟不遣，乃遣其長史麹雍來謝罪。

Western Region envoys bound for court all passed through Gaochang, but Wentai gradually began intercepting them. Yiwu had once served the Western Turks but now submitted to China; Wentai allied with the Yabghu and prepared to attack it. Taizong rebuked him sharply in writing for his duplicity and summoned his minister Champion Ashina Ju to court for consultations. Wentai refused to send Ju and instead dispatched chief clerk Qu Yong to apologize.

初，大業之亂，中國人多投於突厥。及頡利敗，或有奔高昌者，文泰皆拘留不遣。太宗詔令括送，文泰尚隱蔽之。又尋與西突厥乙毗設擊破焉耆三城，虜其男女而去。焉耆王上表訴之，太宗遣虞部郎中李道裕往問其狀。十三年，太宗謂其使曰：「高昌數年來朝貢脫略，無籓臣禮，國中署置官號，準我百僚，稱臣於人，豈得如此！今茲歲首，萬國來朝，而文泰不至。增城深塹，預備討伐。日者我使人至彼，文泰云：『鷹飛於天，雉竄於蒿，貓遊於堂，鼠安於穴，各得其所，豈不活耶！』又西域使欲來者，文泰悉拘留之。又遣使謂薛延陀云：『既自為可汗，與漢天子敵也，何須拜謁其使。』事人闕禮，離間鄰好，惡而不誅，善者何勸？明年，當發兵馬以擊爾。」是時薛延陀可汗表請為軍向導，以擊高昌，太宗許之。令民部尚書唐儉至延陀，與謀進取。太宗冀其悔過，復下璽書，示以禍福，徵之入朝。文泰稱疾不至。太宗乃命吏部尚書侯君集為交河道大總管，率左屯衛大將軍薛萬均及突厥、契、苾之眾，步騎數萬眾以擊之。時公卿近臣，皆以行經沙磧，萬里用兵，恐難得志；又界居絕域，縱得之，不可以守，競以為諫。太宗皆不聽。文泰謂所親曰：「吾往者朝覲，見秦、隴之北，城邑蕭條，非復有隋之比。設今伐我，發兵多則糧運不給；若發三萬以下，吾能制之。加以磧路艱險，自然疲頓，吾以逸待勞，坐收其弊，何足為憂也？」及聞王師臨磧口，惶駭計無所出，發病而死。

During the chaos of the Daye era, many Chinese had fled to the Turks. After Jieli's defeat, some fled to Gaochang, and Wentai detained them all. Taizong ordered them rounded up and returned, but Wentai still hid them. He soon joined the Western Turk Yipiqie in attacking three Yanqi cities and carried off their people. The king of Yanqi petitioned in protest, and Taizong sent Director Li Daoyu of the Palace Workshops to investigate. In the thirteenth year Taizong told their envoy: "For years Gaochang has sent tribute in a negligent manner, without proper vassal courtesy. You have established offices modeled on our bureaucracy, yet you also call yourselves subjects of others—how can this be tolerated? At this New Year all nations came to court, yet Wentai did not appear. You have strengthened your walls and moats in preparation for war. When my envoy recently reached you, Wentai said: 'The hawk soars in the sky, the pheasant hides in the weeds, the cat roams the hall, the rat nests in its hole—each in its place; are they not content? Moreover, he detained every Western Region envoy who wished to come to our court. He also told the Xueyantuo: 'Since you have made yourself qaghan, you are the equal of the Han emperor—why bow to his envoys? He lacks courtesy toward his superiors and sows discord among neighbors. If the wicked go unpunished, what incentive is there for the good? Next year I shall send an army against you." At this time the Xueyantuo qaghan offered to guide the army against Gaochang, and Taizong agreed. He sent Minister of Revenue Tang Jian to the Xueyantuo to coordinate the campaign. Hoping Wentai would repent, Taizong again sent a sealed edict explaining the consequences and summoning him to court. Wentai pleaded illness and refused to come. Taizong then appointed Minister of Personnel Hou Junji grand commander of the Jiaohe campaign, with Left Garrison Guard General Xue Wanjun and tens of thousands of Turkish, Qibi, and Tiele infantry and cavalry. Court officials argued that marching across the desert to fight a war ten thousand li away was unlikely to succeed; and that even if conquered, the remote territory could not be held—they all urged against the campaign. Taizong would hear none of it. Wentai told his intimates: "When I last visited court, I saw that north of Qin and Long the cities were desolate—nothing like the Sui era. If they attack now, a large army cannot be supplied; if they send fewer than thirty thousand, I can handle them. The desert route is arduous and will wear them down; I shall meet their fatigue with rested troops—what is there to fear?" When he learned the imperial army had reached the desert pass, terror left him helpless; he fell ill and died.

其子智盛嗣立。既而君集兵奄至柳谷，進趨田地城，將軍契苾何力為前軍，與之接戰而退。大軍繼之，攻拔其城，虜男女七千餘口。進逼其都。智盛移君集書曰：「有罪於天子者，先王也，咎深譴積，身已喪亡。智盛襲位無幾，君其赦諸？」君集謂曰：「若能悔禍，當面縛軍門也。」又命諸軍引沖車、拋車以逼之，飛石雨下，城中大懼。智盛窮蹙，出城降。君集分兵掠地，下其三郡、五縣、二十二城。戶八千，口三萬七千七百，馬四千三百匹。其界東西八百里，南北五百里。先是，其國童謠云：「高昌兵馬如霜雪，漢家兵馬如日月。日月照霜雪，回手自消滅。」文泰使人捕其初唱者，不能得。

His son Zhicheng succeeded to the throne. Junji's army soon reached Liugu and advanced on Tiandicheng; General Qibi Heli led the vanguard, skirmished, and withdrew. The main force followed, stormed the city, and took more than seven thousand captives. They then pressed on the capital. Zhicheng wrote to Junji: "The offense against the Son of Heaven was my father's; his guilt was deep and he is already dead. I have only just succeeded—will you not show mercy?" Junji replied: "If you repent, come bound before the camp gate." He ordered battering rams and catapults forward; stones rained down and panic gripped the city. Zhicheng, trapped, came out and surrendered. Junji sent detachments to overrun the territory, taking three commanderies, five counties, and twenty-two cities. The tally was eight thousand households, thirty-seven thousand seven hundred people, and four thousand three hundred horses. Its territory measured eight hundred li east to west and five hundred li north to south. Earlier a children's song had run: "Gaochang's armies are frost and snow; the Han armies are sun and moon. When sun and moon shine on frost and snow, it melts away at a turn of the hand." Wentai sent men to seize whoever first sang it but could not find them.

初，文泰與西突厥欲谷設通和，遺其金帛，約有急相為表裏。及聞君集兵至，欲谷設懼而西走，不敢救。君集尋遣使告捷，太宗大悅，宴白僚，班賜各有差。曲赦高昌部內從軍兵士已上，父子犯死罪已下，期親犯流已下，大功犯徒已下，小功緦麻犯杖罪，悉原之。

Wentai had allied with the Western Turk Yugu She, sending him gold and silks with a pact of mutual aid in crisis. When he heard Junji was coming, Yugu She fled west in fear and dared not intervene. Junji soon reported victory; Taizong was delighted, feasted the officials, and distributed rewards by rank. A partial amnesty was proclaimed for Gaochang soldiers and above, pardoning capital crimes between fathers and sons, exile among close kin, penal servitude among those of great-achievement mourning, and beating among lesser and distant kin.

時太宗欲以高昌為州縣，特進魏徵諫曰：「陛下初臨天下，高昌夫婦先來朝謁。自後數月，商胡被其遏絕貢獻，加之不禮大國，遂使五誅載加。若罪止文泰，斯亦可矣，未若撫其人而立其子，所謂伐罪吊民，威德被於遐外，為國之善者也。今若利其土壤，以為州縣，常須千餘人鎮守，數年一易，每及交蕃，死者十有三四，遣辦衣資，離別親戚，十年之後，隴右空虛。陛下終不得高昌撮谷尺布以助中國，所謂散有用而事無用，臣未見其可。」太宗不從，竟以其地置西州，又置安西都護府，留兵以鎮之。初，西突厥遣其葉護，屯兵於可汗浮圖城，與高昌相影響，至是懼而來降，以其地為庭州。於是勒石紀功而旋。其智盛君臣及其豪右，皆徙中國。

Taizong wished to convert Gaochang into prefectures and counties; Wei Zheng remonstrated: "When Your Majesty first took the throne, the Gaochang king and queen were among the first to pay court. Within months, merchant envoys were blocked from tribute, and discourtesy toward the empire brought the five punishments upon him. Punishing Wentai alone would suffice; better still to comfort the people and install his son—punishing the guilty while succoring the people, spreading authority to distant lands—is the wise policy. If you seize their land for prefectures and counties, you will need a thousand garrison troops rotated every few years; three or four in ten die crossing the frontier, leaving families behind—within ten years Longyou will be drained. Your Majesty will never receive even a pinch of grain from Gaochang to aid the empire—scattering useful resources on a useless enterprise. I see no merit in this." Taizong rejected the advice, established Xizhou on the conquered land, set up the Anxi Protectorate, and left a garrison. The Western Turks had stationed their Yabghu at Qaghan Stupa City in support of Gaochang; now they surrendered in fear, and their territory became Tingzhou. A stone monument was erected to record the victory, and the army returned. Zhicheng, his court, and the leading families were all relocated to China.

麹氏有國，至智盛凡九世，一百三十四年而滅。尋拜智盛為左武衛將軍，封金城郡公；弟智湛為右武衛中郎將，天山縣公。及太宗崩，刊石像智盛之形，列於昭陵玄闕之下。智湛，麟德中終於左驍衛大將軍、西州刺史。天授初，其子崇裕授左武衛大將軍，交阿郡王。卒，封襲遂絕。吐谷渾吐谷渾，其先居於徒河之清山，屬晉亂，始度隴，止於甘松之南，洮水之西，南極白蘭，地數千里。有城郭而不居，隨逐水草，廬帳為室，肉酪為糧。其官初有長史、司馬、將軍。近代已來，有王公、僕射、尚書、郎中。其俗頗識文字。男子通服長裙繒帽，或戴冪苾，婦人以金花為首飾，辮髮縈後，綴以珠貝。其婚姻富家厚出聘財，貧人竊女而去。父卒，妻其庶母；兄亡，妻其諸嫂。喪有服制，葬訖而除。國無常稅，用度不給，輒斂富室商人，以取足而止。殺人及盜馬者罪死，他犯則徵物以贖罪。氣候多寒，土宜大麥、蔓菁，頗有菽粟。出良馬、牦牛、銅、鐵、硃砂之類。有青海，周回八百里，中有小山，至冬，放牝馬於其上，言得龍種。嘗得波斯馬，放入海，因生驄駒，能日行千里，故代稱「青海驄」焉。地兼鄯善、且沫。西北有流沙數百里，夏有熱風，傷弊行旅，風之將至，老駝便知之，則引項而鳴，以口鼻埋沙中。人以為候，即以氈擁蔽口鼻而避其患。

The Qu dynasty ruled for nine generations and one hundred thirty-four years until Zhicheng's fall. Zhicheng was soon appointed General of the Left Martial Guard and created Duke of Jincheng; his brother Zhizhan was made Middle General of the Right Martial Guard and Duke of Tianshan County. When Taizong died, a stone statue of Zhicheng was carved and placed below the Dark Gate of Zhaoling. Zhizhan died in the Linde era as Grand General of the Left Valiant Cavalry and prefect of Xizhou. Early in the Tianshou era his son Chongyu was appointed Grand General of the Left Martial Guard and Prince of Jiao'a. When he died, the line of enfeoffment ended. Tuyuhun—Tuyuhun's ancestors lived at Clear Mountain on the Tuo River; during the Jin disorders they crossed Long into the region south of Gansong and west of the Tao River, extending south to Bailan over several thousand li. They had walled towns but did not live in them, following pasture and water; felt tents were their homes, meat and dairy their food. Their government at first had chief clerks, marshals, and generals. In recent times they have had princes, dukes, grand masters, ministers, and directors. They have some knowledge of writing. Men generally wore long robes and silk caps or felt hoods; women wore golden floral head ornaments, braided hair wound behind, and strings of pearls and shells. Wealthy families gave lavish betrothal gifts; poor men abducted brides. When a father died, sons married his concubines; when an elder brother died, younger brothers married his widows. They observed mourning garments, which were laid aside after burial. There were no regular taxes; when funds ran short they levied wealthy households and merchants until enough was raised. Murder and horse theft were capital crimes; other offenses were redeemed with goods. The climate was cold; barley and turnips grew well, and beans and millet were plentiful. They produced fine horses, yaks, copper, iron, cinnabar, and similar goods. Qinghai Lake measured eight hundred li around; on a small island within it, brood mares were turned loose each winter, said to breed with dragons. Persian stallions were once turned loose in the lake, producing zong foals said to run a thousand li a day—hence the famed Qinghai zong horses. Their territory included Shanshan and Qiemo. To the northwest lay drifting sands hundreds of li across; in summer hot winds killed travelers. Old camels sensed the wind's approach, stretched their necks and cried, and buried their muzzles in the sand. Travelers took this as a warning and wrapped felt over their faces to survive.

隋煬帝時，其王伏允來犯塞，煬帝親總六軍以討之，伏允以數十騎潛於泥嶺而遁，其仙頭王率男女十餘萬口來降。煬帝立其質子順為王，送之本國，令統餘眾，尋復追還。大業末，伏允悉收故地，復為邊患。高祖受禪，順自江都來歸長安。時李軌猶據涼州，高祖遣使與伏允通和，令擊軌以自效，當放順返國。伏允大悅，興兵擊之，戰於庫門，交綏而退。頻遣使朝貢，以順為請，高祖乃遣之。

Under Emperor Yang, King Fuyun raided the frontier; the emperor personally led the Six Armies against him. Fuyun escaped with a few dozen horsemen at Niling, while his Xiandou king surrendered with more than a hundred thousand people. Emperor Yang installed his hostage Shun as king and sent him home to rule the remnant people, but soon recalled him. By the end of the Daye era Fuyun had recovered all his former territory and again threatened the frontier. When Gaozu took the throne, Shun returned from Jiangdu to Chang'an. Li Gui still held Liangzhou; Gaozu sent envoys to Fuyun offering peace if he attacked Li Gui, promising to return Shun. Fuyun gladly raised troops, fought Li Gui at Kumen, skirmished, and withdrew. He sent tribute repeatedly, asking for Shun's return, and Gaozu sent him home.

太宗即位，伏允遣其洛陽公來朝。使未返，大掠鄯州而去。太宗遣使責讓之，徵伏允入朝，稱疾不至。仍為其子尊王求婚，於是責其親迎以羈縻之。尊王又稱疾不肯入朝，有詔停婚，遣中郎將康處直諭以禍福。伏允遣兵寇蘭、廓二州。

When Taizong took the throne, Fuyun sent his Duke of Luoyang to court. Before the envoy returned, Fuyun launched a major raid on Qinzhou. Taizong sent envoys to rebuke him and summon Fuyun to court; he pleaded illness and refused. Fuyun still sought a marriage alliance through his son Lord Zun; the court then required him to come in person to fetch the bride, intending to bind him by marriage ties. Lord Zun again pleaded illness and refused to attend court; the emperor canceled the marriage and sent Palace Gentleman Kang Chuzhi to warn him of the consequences. Fuyun sent troops to raid Lan and Kuo prefectures.

時鄯州刺史李玄運上言：「吐谷渾良馬悉牧青海，輕兵掩之，可致大利。」於是遣左驍衛大將軍段志玄率邊兵及契苾、党項之眾以擊之。去青海三十里，志玄與左驍衛將軍梁洛仁不欲戰，頓軍遲留不進，吐谷渾遂驅青海牧馬而遁。亞將李君羨率精騎別路，及賊於青海之南懸水鎮，擊破之，虜牛羊二萬餘頭而還。時伏允年老昏耄，其邪臣天柱王惑亂之，拘我行人鴻臚丞趙德楷。太宗頻遣宣諭，使者十餘返，竟無悛心。

Qinzhou Prefect Li Xuanyun memorialized: "Tuyuhun's finest horses graze around Qinghai. A light raid would yield great spoils. The court dispatched Left Xiaoqiwei Grand General Duan Zhixuan with frontier troops and Qibi and Tangut allies to attack them. Thirty li from Qinghai, Duan Zhixuan and Left Xiaoqiwei General Liang Luoren held back and would not fight; Tuyuhun drove off the Qinghai herds and escaped. Deputy General Li Junxian took elite cavalry by another route, caught the enemy at Xuanshui south of Qinghai, routed them, and returned with more than twenty thousand head of livestock. By then Fuyun was old and feeble; his corrupt minister the Tianzhu King misled him and seized our envoy, Honglu Vice Director Zhao Dekai. Taizong sent repeated admonitions; more than ten envoys went back and forth, but Fuyun showed no sign of repentance.

，詔特進李靖為西海道行軍大總管；兵部尚書侯君集為積石道行軍總管，任城王道宗為鄯州道行軍總管，仍為靖副；涼州都督李大亮為且沫道行軍總管，岷州都督李道彥為赤水道行軍總管，利州刺史高甑生為鹽澤道行軍總管，並突厥、契苾之眾以擊之。諸將頻與賊遇，連戰破之，獲其高昌王慕容孝雋。孝雋有雄略，伏允心膂之臣也。靖等進至赤海，遇其天柱三部落，擊大破之，遂歷於河源。李大亮又俘其名王二十人，雜畜數萬，至且沫西境，或傳伏允西走，渡圖倫磧，欲入於闐。將軍薛萬均率輕銳追奔，入磧數百里，及其餘黨，破之。磧中乏水，將士皆刺馬血而飲之。侯君集與江夏王道宗趣南路，登漢哭山，飲馬烏海，獲其名王梁屈忽，經塗二千餘里空虛之地，盛夏降霜，多積雪，其地乏水草，將士啖冰，馬皆食雪。又達於柏梁，北望積石山，觀河源之所出焉。兩軍會於大非川，至破邏貞谷，伏允子大寧王順窮蹙，斬其國相天柱王，舉國來降。伏允大懼，與千餘騎遁於磧中，眾稍亡散，能屬之者才百餘騎，乃自縊而死。國人乃立順為可汗，稱臣內附。

In the ninth year of Zhenguan, an edict appointed Li Jing, Special Advance, grand commander of the Xihai Route army; Minister of War Hou Junji as commander of the Jishi Route army, Prince Daizong of Rencheng as commander of the Qinzhou Route army and Li Jing's deputy; Liangzhou Protector-General Li Daliang as commander of the Qiemom Route army, Minzhou Protector-General Li Daoyan of the Chishui Route, Lizhou Prefect Gao Zengsheng of the Yanzhe Route, together with Turkic and Qibi forces to attack Tuyuhun. The generals met the enemy again and again, winning successive victories and capturing their Gaochang king, Murong Xiaojun. Xiaojun was a man of bold strategy and one of Fuyun's closest advisers. Li Jing's forces advanced to Chihai, routed the Tianzhu confederation in a great victory, and pressed on to the Yellow River headwaters. Li Daliang also took twenty noble captives and tens of thousands of livestock; at the western edge of Qiemom, reports said Fuyun had fled west across the Tulun Desert toward Khotan. General Xue Wanjun pursued with light cavalry, rode several hundred li into the desert, overtook the remnant force, and destroyed it. Water ran out in the desert, and the men pierced their horses' veins and drank the blood. Hou Junji and Prince Daizong of Jiangxia took the southern route, climbed Hanku Mountain, watered their horses at Wu Sea, and captured the noble Liang Quhu. They crossed more than two thousand li of empty country where frost fell in midsummer and snow lay deep; with no water or grass, the men ate ice and the horses ate snow. They reached Bailiang, gazed north toward Jishi Mountain, and looked upon the source of the Yellow River. The two armies met at the Dafei River and pushed into Poluozhen Valley; Fuyun's son Daining King Shun, hard pressed, killed his chancellor the Tianzhu King and surrendered with the whole realm. Fuyun fled in terror with a thousand riders into the desert; his followers dwindled until barely a hundred remained, and he hanged himself. The Tuyuhun then enthroned Shun as khan and submitted to Tang rule.

順，即伏允之嫡子也。初為侍子於隋，拜金紫光祿大夫，久不得歸，伏允遂立他子為太子，及得返國，意常怏怏。會李靖等諸軍所向克捷，自以失位，欲因此立功，由是遂降。乃詔曰：

Shun was Fuyun's eldest son by his principal wife. He had long served as a hostage at the Sui court, where he held the title Grand Master for Splendid Happiness with Golden Seal and Purple Ribbon; unable to return for years, he watched Fuyun install another son as heir. When he finally came home, he remained resentful. When Li Jing's armies swept to victory on every front, Shun saw his chance to recover standing by a timely surrender, and so he submitted. Taizong thereupon issued an edict:

太宗恐順不能靜其國，仍遣李大亮率精兵數千，為其聲援。順既久質於隋，國人不附，未幾為臣下所殺。其子燕王諾曷缽嗣立。

Fearing Shun could not stabilize the realm, Taizong sent Li Daliang with several thousand elite troops to support him. Shun had spent so many years as a hostage at the Sui court that his people never rallied to him, and before long his own officials killed him. His son, the Yan Prince Nuohebo, succeeded him.

諾曷缽既幼，大臣爭權，國中大亂。太宗遣兵援之，封為河源郡王。仍授烏地也拔勒豆可汗，遣淮陽王道明持節冊拜，賜以鼓纛。諾曷缽因入朝請婚。十四年，太宗以弘化公主妻之，資送甚厚。十五年，諾曷缽所部丞相王專權，陰謀作難。將征兵，詐言祭山神，因欲襲擊公主，劫諾曷缽奔於吐蕃，期有日矣。諾曷缽知而大懼，率輕騎走鄯善城，其威信王以兵迎之。鄯州刺史杜鳳舉與威信王合軍擊丞相王，破之，殺其兄弟三人，遣使言狀。太宗命民部尚書唐儉持節撫慰之。太宗崩，刻石圖諾曷缽之形，列於昭陵之下。

Nuohebo was still a child; rival ministers fought for power and the realm fell into chaos. Taizong sent troops to support him and enfeoffed him as Prince of Heyuan Commandery. He was also invested as Wudiyebaledou Khan; Prince Daoming of Huaiyang was sent with credentials to confirm the title and was given drums and battle standards. Nuohebo then came to court to request a marriage alliance. In the fourteenth year, Taizong gave him Princess Honghua in marriage with a lavish dowry. In the fifteenth year, Chancellor Wang of Nuohebo's court seized power and secretly plotted rebellion. He was about to mobilize troops under the pretense of offering sacrifice to a mountain god, planning to seize the princess, abduct Nuohebo, and flee to Tibet; the day was already fixed. When Nuohebo learned of the plot he fled in terror with a light escort to Shanshan, where the Weixin King met him with troops. Qinzhou Prefect Du Fengju combined forces with the Weixin King, defeated Chancellor Wang, killed him and his three brothers, and reported the affair to the court. Taizong sent Minister of Revenue Tang Jian with credentials to reassure them. When Taizong died, a stone carving of Nuohebo was placed among the figures below Zhaoling.

高宗嗣位，以其尚主，拜駙馬都尉，賜物四十段。其後與吐蕃互相攻伐，各遣使請兵救援，高宗皆不許之。吐蕃大怒，率兵以擊吐谷渾。諾曷缽既不能禦，脫身及弘化公主走投涼州。高宗遣右威衛大將軍薛仁貴等救吐谷渾，為吐蕃所敗，於是吐谷渾遂為吐蕃所並。諾曷缽以親信數千帳來內屬，詔左武衛大將軍蘇定方為安置大使，始徙其部眾於靈州之地，置安樂州，以諾曷缽為刺史，欲其安而且樂也。

When Gaozong succeeded to the throne, Nuohebo was made Chief Commandant of the Empress's Relatives because he had married a Tang princess, and was granted forty bolts of goods. Thereafter Tuyuhun and Tibet fought each other repeatedly; both sides asked Gaozong for military aid, and he refused each request. Enraged, Tibet marched against Tuyuhun in force. Unable to resist, Nuohebo fled with Princess Honghua to Liangzhou. Gaozong sent Right Weiwuwei Grand General Xue Rengui to relieve Tuyuhun, but Tibet defeated him, and Tuyuhun was absorbed by Tibet. Nuohebo submitted with several thousand loyal households; Su Dingfang, Left Wuweiwei Grand General, was appointed commissioner to resettle them. His people were moved for the first time to Lingzhou, where Anle Prefecture was created with Nuohebo as prefect—a name chosen so they might live in peace and contentment.

，諾曷缽卒，子忠嗣。忠卒，子宣趙嗣。，授宣趙左豹韜衛員外大將軍，仍襲父烏地也拔勒豆可汗。宣趙卒，子曦皓嗣。曦皓卒，子兆嗣，及吐蕃陷我安樂州，其部眾又東徙，散在朔方、河東之境。今俗多謂之退渾，蓋語急而然。十二月，以朔方節度副使、左金吾衛大將軍同正慕容復為襲長樂州都督、青海國王、烏地也拔勒豆可汗。未幾，卒，其封襲遂絕。

In the fourth year of Chuigong, Nuohebo died and was succeeded by his son Zhong. When Zhong died, his son Xuanzhao succeeded him. In the third year of Shenglong, Xuanzhao was made Outside Grand General of the Left Baotao Guard and inherited his father's title of Wudiyebaledou Khan. When Xuanzhao died, his son Xihao succeeded him. When Xihao died, his son Zhao succeeded him; after Tibet overran Anle Prefecture, the Tuyuhun moved east again and scattered across Shuofang and Hedong. Today people often call them Tuihun—a shortened form of the name in quick speech. In the twelfth month, Murong Fu, deputy commissioner of Shuofang and Left Jinwuwei Grand General, was appointed to inherit the titles of Protector-General of Changle, King of Qinghai, and Wudiyebaledou Khan. He died soon afterward, and the hereditary titles lapsed.

葉谷渾自晉永嘉之末，始西渡洮水，建國於群羌之故地，至為吐蕃所滅，凡三百五十年。焉耆國焉耆國，在京師西四千三百里，東接高昌，西鄰龜茲，即漢時故地。其王姓龍氏，名突騎支。勝兵二千餘人，常役屬於西突厥。其地良沃，多蒲萄，頗有魚鹽之利。

Tuyuhun first crossed the Tao River westward at the end of the Jin Yongjia era and founded a state in the old Qiang territories; from that beginning until Tibet destroyed them, the kingdom lasted three hundred and fifty years. The state of Yanqi lies four thousand three hundred li west of the capital, bordered by Gaochang on the east and Kucha on the west—the same lands known in Han times. The king belongs to the Long clan; his name is Tuqizhi. It could field a little over two thousand soldiers and usually served the Western Turks. The land is fertile and rich in grapes, with good profits from fishing and salt.

，突騎支遣使貢方物，復請開大磧路以便行李，太宗許之。自隋末罹亂，磧路遂閉，西域朝貢者皆由高昌。及是，高昌大怒，遂與焉耆結怨，遣兵襲焉耆，大掠而去。西突厥莫賀設與咄陸、弩失畢不協，奔於焉耆，咄陸復來攻之。

In the sixth year of Zhenguan, Tuqizhi sent tribute and again asked that the great desert road be reopened for travelers; Taizong agreed. Since the chaos at the end of the Sui, the desert route had been closed and envoys from the Western Regions all traveled through Gaochang. Gaochang was furious and turned against Yanqi, sending troops to raid the kingdom and withdraw with heavy spoils. Moheshe of the Western Turks fell out with Zhulu and Nushibi, fled to Yanqi, and Zhulu attacked Yanqi again.

六年，遣使言狀，並貢名馬。時西突厥國亂，太宗遣中郎將桑孝彥領左右胄曹韋弘機往安撫之，仍冊立咥利失可汗。可汗既立，素善焉耆，令與焉耆為援。十二年，處月、處密與高昌攻陷焉耆五城，掠男女一千五百人，焚其廬舍而去。十四年，侯君集討高昌，遣使與之相結，焉耆王大喜，請為聲援。及破高昌，其王詣軍門稱謁。焉耆人先為高昌所虜者，悉歸之。由是遣使謝恩，並貢方物。

In the sixth year, Yanqi sent envoys to report its situation and presented fine horses as tribute. While the Western Turks were in turmoil, Taizong sent Palace Gentleman Sang Xiaoyan with Armorer Clerk Wei Hongji to pacify them and invested Xielishi as khan. Once enthroned, the khan, who had long been friendly with Yanqi, made Yanqi his ally. In the twelfth year, Chuyue and Chumi joined Gaochang in capturing five Yanqi cities, carrying off fifteen hundred people and burning the settlements before withdrawing. In the fourteenth year, when Hou Junji marched against Gaochang, he sent envoys to ally with Yanqi; the Yanqi king gladly offered support. After Gaochang fell, the Yanqi king came to Hou Junji's camp to pay his respects. All Yanqi captives held by Gaochang were returned. Yanqi then sent envoys to express gratitude and present tribute.

其年，西突厥重臣屈利啜為其弟娶焉耆王女，由是相為脣齒，朝貢遂闕。安西都護郭孝恪請擊之，太宗許焉。會焉耆王弟頡鼻葉護兄弟三人來至西州，孝恪選步騎三千出銀山道，以頡鼻弟栗婆準為鄉導。焉耆所都城，四面有水，自恃險固，不虞於我。孝恪倍道兼行，夜至城下，潛遣將士浮水而渡。至曉，一時攀堞，鼓角齊震，城中大擾。孝恪縱兵擊之，虜其王突騎支，首虜千餘級。以栗婆準導軍有功，留攝國事而還。時駕幸洛陽宮，孝恪鎖突騎支並其妻子送行在所，詔宥之。初，西突厥屈利啜將兵來援焉耆，孝恪還師三日，屈利啜乃囚栗婆準，而西突厥處般啜令其吐屯來攝焉耆，遣使朝貢。太宗數之曰：「焉耆者，我兵擊得，汝何人，輒來統攝。」吐屯懼而返國。焉耆又立栗婆準從父兄薛婆阿那支為王。處般啜乃執栗婆準送於龜茲，為所殺。薛婆阿那支既得處般啜為援，遂有國。及阿史那社爾之討龜茲，阿那支大懼，遂奔龜茲，保其東城，以禦官軍。社爾擊擒之，數其罪而斬焉。求得阿那支從父弟先那準，立為王，以修職貢。及太宗葬昭陵。乃刻石像龍突騎支之形，列於玄闕之下。自是朝貢不絕。龜茲國龜茲國，即漢西域舊地也。在京師西七千五百里。其王姓白氏。有城郭屋宇，耕田畜牧為業。男女皆翦髮，垂與項齊，唯王不翦髮。學胡書及婆羅門書、算計之事，尤重佛法。其王以錦蒙項，著錦袍金寶帶，坐金獅子床。有良馬、封牛。饒蒲萄酒，富室至數百碩。

That year the Western Turk magnate Qulichuo had his brother marry the Yanqi king's daughter; the two realms became close allies, and Yanqi stopped sending tribute. Protector-General of Anxi Guo Xiaoke asked permission to attack Yanqi, and Taizong approved. When the Yanqi king's brother Ji'e Yehu and two siblings arrived at Xizhou, Xiaoke chose three thousand foot and horse soldiers to advance by the Yinshan route, with Ji'e's brother Lipozhun as guide. Yanqi's capital was ringed by water on every side; trusting in its natural defenses, the city did not expect an attack. Xiaoke forced the march and arrived at the city by night, secretly sending his men to swim across the water. At dawn they scaled the walls at once; drums and horns sounded together and the city fell into uproar. Xiaoke unleashed his troops, captured King Tuqizhi, and took more than a thousand heads. Because Lipozhun had guided the army well, Xiaoke left him in charge of affairs and withdrew. The emperor was then at Luoyang Palace; Xiaoke sent Tuqizhi in chains with his family to the imperial residence, and an edict pardoned them. Western Turk Qulichuo had been marching to relieve Yanqi; three days after Xiaoke withdrew, Qulichuo imprisoned Lipozhun, and Chubanchuo of the Western Turks sent his officer Tutun to take control of Yanqi and dispatch tribute envoys. Taizong rebuked him: "We took Yanqi by force—who are you to come and rule it? Tutun, frightened, returned home. Yanqi then enthroned Lipozhun's cousin Xuepo Anazhi as king. Chubanchuo seized Lipozhun and sent him to Kucha, where he was put to death. With Chubanchuo's backing, Xuepo Anazhi secured the throne. When Ashina She'er marched against Kucha, Anazhi fled there in terror, held the eastern city, and tried to resist the Tang army. She'er captured him, recited his crimes, and executed him. They found Anazhi's cousin Xiannazhun, enthroned him, and restored regular tribute. When Taizong was buried at Zhaoling, a stone image of Long Tuqizhi was carved and placed among the figures below the Dark Gate. Thereafter Yanqi sent tribute without interruption. The state of Kucha occupied the same Western Region territory known in Han times. It lay seven thousand five hundred li west of the capital. The royal clan was the Bai. The people lived in walled towns and houses, farming and raising livestock. Men and women wore their hair cut short, hanging level with the nape; only the king kept his long. They studied Kuchean and Brahmi scripts and arithmetic, and held the Buddhist faith in especial regard. The king wore brocade about his neck, a brocade robe with a gold-studded belt, and sat upon a golden lion throne. The land yielded fine horses and humped cattle. Grape wine was plentiful; the wealthiest households kept stores of several hundred shi.

高祖即位，其主蘇伐勃駃遣使來朝。勃駃尋卒，子蘇伐疊代立，號時健莫賀俟利發。，又遣使獻馬，太宗賜以璽書，撫慰甚厚，由此歲貢不絕，然臣於西突厥。安西都護郭孝恪來伐焉耆，龜茲遣兵援助，自是職貢頗闕。伐疊死，其弟訶黎布失畢代立，漸失籓臣禮。

After Gaozu came to the throne, the lord Subo Bolijiao sent envoys to court. Bolijiao soon died and was succeeded by his son Subo Die, who took the title Shijian Mohe Shilifa. In the fourth year of Zhenguan (630), he again sent envoys with horses. Taizong answered with an imperial letter and generous reassurance, and yearly tribute thereafter never lapsed—though Kucha remained a vassal of the Western Turks. When Anxi Protector Guo Xiaoke marched against Yanqi, Kucha sent troops to its aid, and from then on tribute fell largely into abeyance. After Die died, his younger brother Heli Bushibi took the throne and gradually abandoned the courtesies owed to the Celestial Court.

二十年，太宗遣左驍衛大將軍阿史那社爾為昆山道行軍大總管，與安西都護郭孝恪、司農卿楊弘禮率五將軍，又發鐵勒十三部兵十餘萬騎，以伐龜茲。社爾既破西蕃處月、處密，乃進師趨其北境，出其不意，西突厥所署焉耆王棄城而遁，社爾遣輕騎追擒之。龜茲大震，守將多棄城而走。社爾進屯積石，去其都城三百里。遣伊州刺史韓威率千餘騎為前鋒，右驍衛將軍曹繼叔次之。西至多褐城，與龜茲王相遇，及其相那利、將羯獵顛等，有眾五萬，逆拒王師。威乃偽遁而引之，其王俟利發見威兵少，悉眾而至。威退行三十里，與繼叔軍會，合擊大破之。其王退保都城，社爾進軍逼之，王乃輕騎而走，遂下其城，令孝恪守之。遣沙州刺史蘇海政、尚輦奉禦薛萬備以精騎逼之，行六百里，其王窘急，退保於撥換城。社爾等進軍圍之，擒其王及大將羯獵顛等。其相那利僅以身免，潛引西突厥之眾並其國兵萬餘人，來襲孝恪，殺之，官軍大擾。倉部郎中崔義起與曹繼叔、韓威等擊之，那利敗走。尋為龜茲人所執以詣軍。前後破其大城五所，虜男女數萬口。社爾因立其王之弟葉護為王，勒石紀功而旋。俘其王訶黎布失畢及那利、羯獵顛等獻於社廟。尋以訶黎布失畢為左武翊衛中郎將，那利已下授官各有差。太宗之葬昭陵，乃刻石像其形，列於玄闕之前。，又以訶黎布失畢為右驍衛大將軍，尋放還蕃，撫其餘眾，依舊為龜茲王，賜物一千段。

In the twentieth year of Zhenguan (646), Taizong appointed Left Xiaowei Grand General Ashina She'er overall commander of the Kunshan expedition, joined by Anxi Protector Guo Xiaoke, Minister of Public Works Yang Hongli, and five other generals. More than a hundred thousand Tiele cavalry were mobilized for the assault on Kucha. After crushing the Chuyue and Chumi tribes in the west, She'er pressed north into Kuchean territory. Taken by surprise, the Yanqi king installed by the Western Turks fled his city; She'er's light cavalry ran him down and took him prisoner. Kucha was thrown into panic, and many garrison commanders abandoned their posts and fled. She'er advanced to Jishi, three hundred li from the Kuchean capital. Han Wei, prefect of Yizhou, led a thousand cavalry as vanguard, with Right Xiaowei General Cao Jishu following in support. West of Duohu City they met the Kuchean king, his chancellor Nali, General Jieliedian, and some fifty thousand troops who barred the imperial army's path. Han Wei feigned retreat to draw them on. King Shilifa, seeing how few his troops were, brought out his full strength. Han Wei pulled back thirty li, linked up with Cao Jishu's force, and together they delivered a crushing defeat. The king fell back on his capital; She'er pressed the siege. The king escaped with a light escort, the city fell, and Guo Xiaoke was left to hold it. Su Haizheng, prefect of Shazhou, and Palace Attendant Xue Wanbei chased him six hundred li with elite cavalry until the king, in desperate straits, took refuge in Bochuan Fortress. She'er besieged the fortress and captured the king, General Jieliedian, and others. Chancellor Nali alone escaped. Secretly rallying Western Turk allies and more than ten thousand Kucheans, he fell upon Guo Xiaoke and killed him, throwing the Tang forces into chaos. Cui Yiqi of the Secretariat, together with Cao Jishu and Han Wei, counterattacked and drove Nali from the field. Soon Kucheans seized him and delivered him to the Tang camp. In all, five great cities were taken and tens of thousands of people carried off. She'er installed the king's brother Yehu as ruler, erected a victory stele, and withdrew. Heli Bushibi, Nali, Jieliedian, and the other prisoners were presented at the imperial shrine. Heli Bushibi was soon appointed Middle General of the Left Wuyi Guard, while Nali and the others received offices of varying rank. When Taizong was laid to rest at Zhaoling, stone images of the captives were carved and set before the Dark Gate of the tomb. In the first year of Yonghui (650), Heli Bushibi was again made Right Xiaowei Grand General, then released to his kingdom to reassure the people and resume rule as King of Kucha, with a gift of a thousand bolts of goods.

先是，太宗既破龜茲，移置安西都護府於其國城，以郭孝恪為都護，兼統於闐、疏勒、碎葉，謂之「四鎮」。高宗嗣位，不欲廣地勞人，復命有司棄龜茲等四鎮，移安西依舊於西州。其後吐蕃大入，焉耆已西四鎮城堡，並為賊所陷。則天臨朝，，武威軍總管王孝傑、阿史那忠節大破吐蕃，克復龜茲、於闐等四鎮，自此復於龜茲置安西都護府，用漢兵三萬人以鎮之。既征發內地精兵，遠逾沙磧。並資遣衣糧等，甚為百姓所苦。言事者多請棄之，則天竟不許。其安西都護，則天時有田揚名，中宗時有郭元振，開元初則張孝暠、杜暹，皆有政績，為夷人所伏。疏勒國疏勒國，即漢時舊地也。西帶蔥嶺，在京師西九千三百里。其王姓裴氏。貞觀中，突厥以女妻王。勝兵二千人。俗事祅神，有胡書文字。，遣使獻名馬，自是朝貢不絕。，玄宗遣使冊立其王裴安定為疏勒王。于闐國于闐國，西南帶蔥嶺，與龜茲接，在京師西九千七百里。勝兵四千人。其國出美玉。俗多機巧，好事祅神，崇佛教。先臣於西突厥。其王姓尉遲氏，名屈密。

After Taizong's conquest of Kucha, the Anxi Protectorate was moved to the Kuchean capital. Guo Xiaoke was named protector over Khotan, Kashgar, and Suyab as well—the Four Garrisons of the west. Gaozong, unwilling to overextend the realm and burden the people, ordered the Four Garrisons including Kucha abandoned and the Anxi Protectorate returned to Xizhou. Later Tibet invaded in force, and the four garrisons west of Yanqi fell one after another. Under Empress Wu's regency, Wang Xiaojie and Ashina Zhongjie crushed the Tibetans in the first year of Changshou (692) and recovered the Four Garrisons including Kucha and Khotan. The Anxi Protectorate was re-established at Kuche, garrisoned by thirty thousand Han soldiers. Elite troops were conscripted from the interior and sent far across the deserts. The clothing, grain, and transport levies inflicted great hardship on the people. Memorialists urged abandonment of the garrisons, but Empress Wu would not hear of it. The Anxi protectorship produced able administrators—Tian Yangming under Wu, Guo Yuanzhen under Zhongzong, Zhang Xiaogao and Du Xian in the early Kaiyuan era—each esteemed by the western peoples. Kashgar occupied the same territory known in Han times. It bordered the Pamirs to the west, lying nine thousand three hundred li from the capital. The royal clan was the Pei. During the Zhenguan era, the Turks gave a princess in marriage to the Kashgar king. It could field two thousand men. The people worshipped the fire god and used a script of their own. In the ninth year of Zhenguan (635), envoys brought celebrated horses, and tribute thereafter continued without interruption. In the sixteenth year of Kaiyuan (728), Xuanzong invested King Pei Anding as ruler of Kashgar. Khotan, southwest of the Pamirs and bordering Kucha, lay nine thousand seven hundred li west of the capital. It could field four thousand men. The land was famed for fine jade. The people were ingenious by nature, worshipped the fire god, and held Buddhism in high regard. They had formerly been vassals of the Western Turks. The king, of the Yuchi clan, was named Qumi.

，遣使獻玉帶，太宗優詔答之。十三年，又遣子入侍。及阿史那社爾伐龜茲，其王伏闍信大懼，使其子以駝萬三百匹饋軍。及將旋師，行軍長史薛萬備請社爾曰：「今者既破龜茲，國威已振，請因此機，願以輕騎羈取于闐之王。」社爾乃遣萬備率五十騎抵于闐之國，萬備陳國威靈，勸其入見天子，伏闍信於是隨萬備來朝。

In the sixth year of Zhenguan (632), envoys brought a jade belt, which Taizong acknowledged with a gracious edict. In the thirteenth year (639), a princely son was again sent to serve at court. When Ashina She'er marched on Kucha, King Fuxinxin was terrified and sent his son with thirteen thousand camels to supply the Tang army. As the army prepared to withdraw, Chief Clerk Xue Wanbei urged She'er: "Kucha is broken and imperial prestige stands high. Grant me light cavalry, and I will bring the King of Khotan in. She'er dispatched Wanbei with fifty riders to Khotan. Wanbei displayed the empire's might and urged the king to appear before the Son of Heaven. Fuxinxin thereupon accompanied him to court.

高宗嗣位，拜右驍衛大將軍，又授其子葉護玷為右驍衛將軍，並賜金帶、錦袍、布帛六十段，並宅一區，留數月而遣之，因請留子弟以宿衛。太宗葬昭陵，刻石像其形，列於玄闕之下。

Gaozong invested him as Right Xiaowei Grand General and appointed his son Yehudian Right Xiaowei General, with a gold belt, brocade robe, sixty bolts of silk, and a residence in the capital. After several months at court he was dismissed, but he asked that younger relatives remain behind as imperial guards. At Taizong's burial at Zhaoling, his stone image was carved and placed below the Dark Gate.

，其王伏闍雄復來入朝。，伏闍雄卒，則天封其子璥為于闐國王。，復冊立尉遲伏師為于闐王，數遣使朝貢。，以于闐王尉遲勝弟守左監門衛率葉護曜為太僕員外卿，仍同四鎮節度副使。權知本國事。以勝至德初領兵赴國難，因堅請留宿衛，故有是命，事有勝傳。天竺國天竺國，即漢之身毒國，或云婆羅門地也。在葱嶺，周三萬餘里。其中分為五天竺：其一曰中天竺，二曰東天竺，三曰南天竺，四曰西天竺，五曰北天竺。地各數千里，城邑數百。南天竺際大海，北天竺拒雪山，四周有山為壁，南面一谷，通為國門；東天竺東際大海，與扶南、林邑鄰接；西天竺與罽賓、波斯相接；中天竺據四天竺之會，其都城週迴七十餘里，北臨禪連河。云昔有婆羅門領徒千人，肄業於樹下，樹神降之，遂為夫婦。宮室自然而立，僮僕甚盛。於是使役百神，築城以統之，經日而就。此後有阿育王，復役使鬼神，累石為宮闕，皆雕文刻鏤。非人力所及。阿育王頗行苛政，置砲烙之刑，謂之地獄，今城中見有其跡焉。

In the third year of Chuigong (687), King Fuxinxiong again came to court. Fuxinxiong died in the third year of Tianshou (692); Empress Wu invested his son Jun as King of Khotan. In the sixteenth year of Kaiyuan (728), Yuchi Fushi was again invested as King of Khotan, and tribute missions followed in number. In the third year of Qianyuan (760), Yuchi Sheng's brother Yehuyao—commandant of the Left Jianmen Guard—was appointed Outer Vice Director of the Imperial Stud and deputy commissioner of the Four Garrisons. He was given provisional authority over Khotan's affairs. Because Sheng had marched to the capital's defense at the start of the Zhide era and pleaded to remain as a palace guard, this arrangement was made; the full account appears in his biography. India—known in Han times as Shendu, also called the land of the Brahmins. It lay beyond the Pamirs, measuring more than thirty thousand li around its perimeter. Within its bounds lay five Indias: Central, Eastern, Southern, Western, and Northern. Each region stretched thousands of li, with hundreds of cities and towns. Southern India faced the ocean; Northern India abutted the snow peaks. Mountains ringed the land like walls, with a single southern valley serving as the national gate. Eastern India touched the sea and bordered Funan and Linyi; Western India met Jibin and Persia; Central India occupied the crossroads of the four regions. Its capital measured more than seventy li around and stood north upon the Ganges. Legend held that a Brahmin once led a thousand disciples in study beneath a sacred tree. A tree spirit descended to him, and the two became man and wife. A palace sprang up of its own accord, attended by a vast retinue of servants. He then commanded the spirits to build a city in a single day to rule over them. Later King Ashoka likewise conscripted supernatural laborers to pile stones into palaces richly carved and ornamented. Works beyond human power to accomplish. Ashoka ruled harshly, instituting a burning-pillar torture he called "hell"; traces of it may still be seen in the capital.

中天竺王姓乞利咥氏，或云刹利氏，世有其國，不相篡弒。厥土卑濕暑熱，稻歲四熟，有金剛，似紫石英，百煉不銷，可以切玉。又有旃檀、鬱金諸香。通於大秦，故其寶物或至扶南、交趾貿易焉。百姓殷樂，俗無簿籍，耕王地者輸地利。以齒貝為貨。人皆深目長鼻。致敬極者，舐足摩踵。家有奇樂倡伎。其王與大臣多服錦罽。上為螺髻於頂，餘髮翦之使拳。俗皆徒跣。衣重白色，唯梵志種姓披白疊以為異。死者或焚屍取灰，以為浮圖；或委之中野，以施禽獸；或流之於河，以飼魚鼈。無喪紀之文。謀反者幽殺之，小犯罰錢以贖罪。不孝則斷手刖足，截耳割鼻，放流邊外。有文字，善天文算曆之術。其人皆學《悉曇章》，云是梵天法。書於貝多樹葉以紀事。不殺生飲酒。國中往往有舊佛跡。

The kings of Central India were of the Kshatriya line, or the Qilizhi clan, holding sovereign power from generation to generation without usurpation or regicide. The land was low, damp, and torrid, yielding four rice harvests a year. There was a stone like amethyst, called diamond—untouched by fire and hard enough to cut jade. Sandalwood, saffron, and other fragrant substances grew there as well. Trade reached as far as Rome, and Indian goods found their way to markets in Funan and Jiaozhi. The people lived in prosperity. There were no household registers; farmers on crown lands paid a share of the harvest. Cowrie shells served as currency. The people had deep-set eyes and prominent noses. The highest form of obeisance was to lick the feet and press upon the heels. Every household kept musicians and dancers of rare skill. The king and his ministers commonly wore brocade and felt. They wore coiled topknots on the crown, with the rest of the hair cropped short. All went barefoot by custom. White was the favored color, but only Brahmins wore white cotton as a mark of their caste. Some burned the dead and built stupas from the ashes; some left corpses in the open for birds and beasts; some cast them into rivers for fish and turtles. No written codes governed funeral observances. Treason was punished by secret execution; lesser offenses by fines. Filial impiety brought amputation of hands or feet, mutilation of ears or nose, and exile beyond the frontier. They possessed a written script and excelled in astronomy, mathematics, and calendrics. All studied the Siddham script, said to be the sacred law of Brahma. They recorded matters on leaves of the pattra tree. They abstained from killing and from wine. Throughout the land ancient traces of the Buddha could still be found.

隋煬帝時，遣裴矩應接西蕃，諸國多有至者，唯天竺不通，帝以為恨。當武德中，其國大亂。其嗣王尸羅逸多練兵聚衆，所向無敵。象不解鞍，人不釋甲，居六載而四天竺之君皆北面以臣之，威勢遠振，刑政甚肅。，尸羅逸多自稱摩伽陀王，遣使朝貢。太宗降璽書慰問，尸羅逸多大驚，問諸國人曰：「自古曾有摩訶震旦使人至吾國乎？」皆曰：「未之有也。」乃膜拜而受詔書，因遣使朝貢。太宗以其地遠，禮之甚厚，復遣衛尉丞李義表報使。尸羅逸多遣大臣郊迎，傾城邑以縱觀，焚香夾道，逸多率其臣下東面拜受敕書，復遣使獻火珠及鬱金香、菩提樹。

Under Emperor Yang of the Sui, Pei Ju was dispatched to receive envoys from the Western Regions. Many states sent missions, but India alone remained out of contact, and the emperor counted it a grievance. During the Wude reign, the country was torn by civil war. The heir to the throne, Shiluoyiduo, trained armies and rallied followers until none could withstand him. Elephants went unsaddled and men slept in their armor. Within six years the kings of the four Indias all turned north to submit as his vassals. His power resounded far abroad, and his justice was stern. In the fifteenth year of Zhenguan (641), Shiluoyiduo proclaimed himself King of Magadha and dispatched envoys to pay tribute. Emperor Taizong sent a sealed edict of greeting and inquiry. Shiluoyiduo was astonished and asked his subjects: "Has an envoy from Great China ever reached our land in all of history? They answered, "Never." He prostrated himself in worship to receive the edict, then sent envoys to pay tribute. Because their land lay so far away, Taizong received them with exceptional honor and sent Li Yibiao of the Court of Imperial Sacrifices back as his envoy. Shiluoyiduo sent ministers to greet the envoy outside the city, and the whole populace turned out to watch. Incense lined the roads. Yiduo led his court in bowing eastward to receive the imperial letter, then sent tribute of fire pearls, aloeswood, and a bodhi tree.

，沙門玄奘至其國，將梵本經論六百餘部而歸。先是遣右率府長史王玄策使天竺，其四天竺國王咸遣使朝貢。會中天竺王尸羅逸多死，國中大亂，其臣那伏帝阿羅那順篡立，乃盡發胡兵以拒玄策。玄策從騎三十人與胡禦戰，不敵，矢盡，悉被擒。胡並掠諸國貢獻之物。玄策乃挺身宵遁，走至吐蕃，發精銳一千二百人，並泥婆羅國七千餘騎，以從玄策。玄策與副使蔣師仁率二國兵進至中天竺國城，連戰三日，大破之，斬首三千餘級，赴水溺死者且萬人，阿羅那順棄城而遁，師仁進擒獲之。虜男女萬二千人，牛馬三萬餘頭匹。於是天竺震懼，俘阿羅那順以歸。二十二年至京師，太宗大悅，命有司告宗廟，而謂羣臣曰：「夫人耳目玩於聲色，口鼻耽於臭味，此乃敗德之源。若婆羅門不劫掠我使人，豈為俘虜耶？昔中山以貪寶取弊，蜀侯以金牛致滅，莫不由之。」拜玄策朝散大夫。是時就其國得方土那羅邇娑婆寐，自言壽二百歲，云有長生之術。太宗深加禮敬，館之於金飈門內。造延年之藥。令兵部尚書崔敦禮監主之，發使天下，採諸奇藥異石，不可稱數。延歷歲月，藥成，服竟不效，後放還本國。太宗之葬昭陵也，刻石像阿羅那順之形，列於玄闕之下。

In the tenth year of Zhenguan (636), the monk Xuanzang reached India and returned with more than six hundred volumes of Sanskrit scriptures and treatises. Earlier Wang Xuance, chief secretary of the Right Rate Office, had been sent as envoy to India, and the kings of all four Indias sent missions to court. Just then King Shiluoyiduo of Central India died and the realm descended into chaos. His minister Nafodi Aluanshun seized the throne and raised every foreign soldier he could to oppose Xuance. Xuance and his thirty horsemen fought the invaders but were overwhelmed; when their arrows ran out, all were taken prisoner. The invaders also looted the tribute brought by the other kingdoms. Xuance escaped alone by night, fled to Tibet, and raised twelve hundred elite troops plus more than seven thousand Nepalese cavalry to march with him. Xuance and his deputy Jiang Shiren led the combined armies to the capital of Central India. After three days of battle they routed the enemy, killing more than three thousand and drowning nearly ten thousand in flight. Aluanshun abandoned the city and fled, but Shiren pursued and took him captive. They took twelve thousand captives and more than thirty thousand head of cattle and horses. India was struck with terror, and Aluanshun was brought back as a prisoner. In the twenty-second year of Zhenguan (648) he reached the capital. Taizong was delighted, ordered the rites announced at the ancestral temple, and told his ministers: "When ears and eyes are given over to music and beauty, and mouth and nose to taste and scent, virtue is undone at the root. Had the Brahmins not robbed our envoy, would they now be prisoners? Zhongshan was ruined by coveting jewels, and the Lord of Shu was destroyed by a golden ox—disaster always begins this way. Xuance was appointed Gentleman for Promoting Good Governance. At that time they obtained from India a local adept named Narayanasvami, who claimed to be two hundred years old and to know the secret of longevity. Taizong honored him lavishly and housed him inside the Jinfeng Gate. He began preparing an elixir of long life. Taizong put Minister of War Cui Dunli in charge and sent agents across the empire to collect rare herbs and exotic stones beyond number. Months stretched into years. When the elixir was ready they swallowed it, but it did nothing; afterward he was sent home. When Taizong was laid to rest at Zhaoling, a stone figure of Aluanshun was carved and placed beneath the spirit gate.

五天竺所屬之國數十，風俗物產略同。有伽沒路國，其俗開東門以向日。王玄策至，其王發使貢以奇珍異物及地圖，因請老子像及《道德經》。那揭陀國，有醯羅城，中有重閣，藏佛頂骨及錫杖。，遣使貢方物。，東天竺王摩羅枝摩、西天竺王尸羅逸多、南天竺王遮婁其拔羅婆、北天竺王婁其那那、中天竺王地婆西那，並來朝獻。，南天竺國復遣使來朝。，復遣使貢方物。，西天竺復遣使貢方物。八年，南天竺國遣使獻五色能言鸚鵡。其年，南天竺國王尸利那羅僧伽請以戰象及兵馬討大食及吐蕃等，仍求有及名其軍。玄宗甚嘉之，名軍為懷德軍。九月，南天竺王尸利那羅僧伽寶多枝摩為國造寺，上表乞寺額，敕以歸化為名賜之。十一月，遣使冊利那羅伽寶多為南天竺國王，遣使來朝。十七年六月，北天竺國（三）藏沙門僧密多獻質汗等藥。十九年十月，中天竺國王伊沙伏摩遣其大德僧來朝貢。二十九年三月，中天竺王子李承恩來朝，授遊擊將軍，放還。天寶中，累遣使來。罽賓國罽賓國，在蔥嶺南，去京師萬二千二百里。常役屬於大月氏。其地暑濕，人皆乘象，土宜秔稻，草木淩寒不死。其俗尤信佛法。隋煬帝時，引致西域，前後至者三十餘國，唯罽賓不至。

Several dozen states fell under the five Indias; their customs and products were much alike. In Kamarupa the custom was to open the eastern gate to face the rising sun. When Wang Xuance arrived, the king sent tribute of rare treasures and a map, and asked for an image of Laozi and a copy of the Daodejing. In Nagara stood the city of Hiranyapura, where a tower housed the Buddha's skull relic and his iron staff. In the twentieth year of Zhenguan (646), envoys were sent with tribute. In the second year of Tianshou (691), the kings of East, West, South, North, and Central India all came to court with tribute. In the fourth year of Jinglong (710), South India again sent envoys to court. In the first year of Jingyun (710), envoys again brought tribute. In the second year of Kaiyuan (714), West India again sent tribute. In the eighth year of Kaiyuan (720), South India sent a five-colored parrot that could speak. That same year King Shilinaluosengge of South India offered war elephants and troops to campaign against the Arabs and Tibet, and asked for an imperial commission and the right to name his force. Xuanzong warmly approved and named the force the Army of Cherishing Virtue. In the ninth month the South Indian king Shilinaluosengge Baoduozimo built a temple for his realm and petitioned for an imperial plaque; the throne granted the name "Return to Transformation." In the eleventh month envoys invested Shilinaluoqiabao as king of South India, and a mission came to court. In the sixth month of the seventeenth year of Kaiyuan (729), the Tripitaka monk Simiduo of North India presented medicinal preparations including zhizhan. In the tenth month of the nineteenth year of Kaiyuan (731), King Yishafumo of Central India sent his chief monk to court with tribute. In the third month of the twenty-ninth year of Kaiyuan (741), Prince Li Chengen of Central India came to court, was made General of Guerrilla Attacks, and was sent home. Throughout the Tianbao era, missions arrived again and again. Kapisa lay south of the Pamirs, twelve thousand two hundred li from the capital. It was usually subject to the Great Yuezhi. The climate was hot and humid, and people traveled by elephant. Japonica rice flourished there, and vegetation survived even bitter cold. They were especially devoted to Buddhism. Under Emperor Yang of the Sui, the court drew in the Western Regions; more than thirty states came in turn, but Kapisa alone stayed away.

，遣使獻名馬，太宗嘉其誠款，賜以繒彩。十六年，又遣使獻褥特鼠，喙尖而尾赤，能食蛇，有被蛇螫者，鼠輒嗅而尿之，其瘡立愈。，訪其國俗，云「王始祖馨孽，至今曷擷支，父子傳位，已十二代。」其年，改其城為修鮮都督府。龍朔初，授其王修鮮等十一州諸軍事兼修鮮都督。

In the eleventh year of Zhenguan (637), envoys brought famed horses. Taizong commended their sincerity and rewarded them with silks. In the sixteenth year of Zhenguan (642), they sent the ichneumon—a sharp-beaked, red-tailed creature that ate snakes. If a man was snake-bitten, the animal would sniff the wound and urinate on it, and the injury healed immediately. In the third year of Xianqing (658), envoys asked about local customs and learned: "The dynasty began with King Xinnie; down to the present Hejiezhi, twelve generations of fathers and sons have ruled in succession. That same year its capital was made the Xiuxian Protectorate. At the start of the Longshuo era, its king was made commander-in-chief of eleven prefectures including Xiuxian and protector of Xiuxian.

，遣使來朝，進天文經一夾、秘要方並蕃藥等物，詔遣冊其王為葛羅達支特勒。二十七年，其王烏散特勒灑以年老，上表請以子拂菻罽婆嗣位，許之，仍降使冊命。，又冊其子勃匐準為襲罽賓及烏萇國王，仍授左驍衛將軍。，又遣使朝貢。勃律國又有勃律國，在罽賓、吐蕃之間。開元中頻遣使朝獻。八年，冊立其王蘇麟陀逸之為勃律國王，朝貢不絕。二十二年，為吐蕃所破。康國康國，即漢康居之國也。其王姓溫，月氏人也。先居張掖祁連山北昭武城，為突厥所破，南依蔥嶺，遂有其地。枝庶皆以昭武為姓氏，不忘本也。其人皆深目高鼻，多須髯。丈夫翦髮或辮髮。其王冠氈帽。飾以金寶。婦人盤髻，幪以皁巾，飾以金花。人多嗜酒，好歌舞於道路。生子必以石蜜內口中，明膠置掌內，欲其成長口常甘言，掌持錢如膠之黏物。俗習胡書。善商賈，爭分銖之利。男子年二十，即遠之旁國，來適中夏，利之所在，無所不到。以十二月為歲首，有婆羅門為之占星候氣，以定吉兇。頗有佛法。至十一月，鼓舞乞寒，以水相潑，盛為戲樂。

Early in the Longshuo era, envoys came to court with astronomical texts, secret medical formulas, and foreign medicines; the throne invested their king as Geluodazhi Tele. In the twenty-seventh year of Kaiyuan (739), King Wusan Tele Sa, grown old, asked that his son Fulin Jipo succeed him; the request was granted and investiture envoys were dispatched. That same year his son Bofuzhun was invested as heir to Kapisa and Wuchang and made General of the Left Xiaowei Guard. Envoys again came to court with tribute. Balur—another Balur—lay between Kapisa and Tibet. Throughout the Kaiyuan era it sent frequent missions to court. In the eighth year of Kaiyuan (720), King Sulintuoyizhi was invested as ruler of Balur, and tribute continued without interruption. In the twenty-second year of Kaiyuan (734), it was overrun by Tibet. Kang—Kang was the Han-era kingdom of Kangju. Its kings were of the Wen clan and were Yuezhi by origin. They had first lived at Zhaowu, north of the Qilian range in Zhangye; driven out by the Turks, they moved south to the Pamirs and took this territory. Cadet branches all bore the surname Zhaowu, mindful of their origins. The people had deep-set eyes, high bridged noses, and heavy beards. Men wore their hair cropped or braided. The king wore a felt cap. It was set with gold and jewels. Women wore their hair in coils, covered with black cloth and ornamented with golden flowers. They loved wine and would sing and dance in the streets. At birth, honey was placed in an infant's mouth and glue in its palm, so that it might grow up honey-tongued and tight-fisted. They wrote in a foreign script. They were shrewd merchants who haggled over every coin. At twenty a man was sent abroad; in the Central Plains they went wherever profit called. The year began in the twelfth month. Brahmins read the stars and watched the winds to fix auspicious and inauspicious days. Buddhism was widely practiced. In the eleventh month they held cold-weather festivals, beating drums and dousing one another with water in boisterous play.

隋煬帝時，其王屈術支娶西突厥葉護可汗女，遂臣於西突厥。，屈術支遣使獻名馬。，又遣使貢獅子，太宗嘉其遠至，命秘書監虞世南為之賦，自此朝貢歲至。十一年，又獻金桃、銀桃，詔令植之於苑囿。

Under Emperor Yang of the Sui, King Qushuzhi married a daughter of the Western Turk Yabghu Qaghan and submitted to the Western Turks. In the tenth year of Wude (627), Qushuzhi sent envoys with famed horses. In the ninth year of Zhenguan (635), they sent a lion. Taizong praised their journey from so far and had Yu Shinan write a poem in its honor; thereafter tribute arrived yearly. In the eleventh year of Kaiyuan (723), they sent golden and silver peaches, and the throne ordered them planted in the palace gardens.

萬歲通天年，則天封其大首領篤婆缽提為康國王，仍拜左驍衛大將軍。缽提尋卒，又冊其子泥涅師師為康國王。師師以神龍中卒，國人又立突昏為王。，遣使貢獻鎖子甲、水精杯、馬腦瓶、駝鳥卵及越諾之類。十九年，其王烏勒上表，請封其子咄曷為曹國王，默啜為米國王，許之。二十七年，烏勒卒，遣使冊咄曷襲父位。，又封為欽化王，其母可敦封為郡夫人。十一載、十三載，並遣使朝貢。波斯國波斯國，在京師西一萬五千三百里，東與吐火羅、康國接，北鄰突厥之可薩部，西北拒拂菻，正西及南俱臨大海。戶數十萬。其王居有二城，復有大城十餘，猶中國之離宮。其王初嗣位，便密選子才堪承統者，書其名字，封而藏之。王死後，大臣與王之群子共發封而視之，奉所書名者為主焉。其王冠金花冠，坐獅子床，服錦袍，加以瓔珞。俗事天地日月水火之諸神，西域諸胡事火祅者，皆詣波斯受法焉。其事神，以麝香和蘇塗須點額，及於耳鼻，用以為敬，拜必交股。文字同於諸胡。男女皆徒跣。丈夫翦髮，戴白皮帽，衣不開襟，並有巾帔，多用蘇方青白色為之，兩邊緣以織成錦。婦人亦巾帔裙衫，辮髮垂後，飾以金銀，其國乘象而戰，每一象，戰士百人，有敗恤者則盡殺之。國人生女，年十歲已上有姿貌者，其王收而養之，以賞有功之臣。俗右尊而左卑。以六月一日為歲首。斷獄不為文書約束，口決於庭。其系囚無年限，唯王者代立則釋之。其叛逆之罪，就火祅燒鐵灼其舌，瘡白者為理直，瘡黑者為有罪。其刑有斷手、刖足、髡鉗、劓刖，輕罪翦鬚，或繋牌於項以誌之，經時月而釋焉。其強盜一入獄，至老更不出，小盜罰以銀錢。死亡則棄之於山，制服一月而即吉。氣候暑熱，土地寬平，知耕種，多畜牧，有鳥形如橐駝，飛不能高，食草及肉，亦能噉犬攫羊，土人極以為患。又多白馬、駿犬，或赤日行七百里者駮，金犬今所謂波斯犬也。出䮫及大驢、師子、白象、珊瑚樹高一二尺，琥珀、車渠、瑪瑙、火珠、玻璃、琉璃、無食子、香附子、訶黎勒、胡椒、蓽撥、石蜜、千年棗、甘露桃。

In the Wansui Tongtian reign, Empress Wu made the great chieftain Dubo Boti king of Kang and appointed him Grand General of the Left Xiaowei Guard. Boti soon died, and his son Ninie Shi was invested as the next king of Kang. Shishi died during the Shenlong era, and the people raised Tuhun to the throne. In the sixth year of Kaiyuan (718), envoys brought chain mail, crystal cups, agate flasks, ostrich eggs, and other rarities. In the nineteenth year of Kaiyuan (731), King Wule asked that his sons Zhuohe and Mochuo be made kings of Cao and Mi; the request was granted. In the twenty-seventh year of Kaiyuan (739), Wule died and envoys invested Zhuohe as his successor. In the third year of Tianbao (744), he was further invested as Prince of Qinhua, and his mother the khatun was made Lady of a Commandery. In the eleventh and thirteenth years of Tianbao, missions came to court. Persia lay fifteen thousand three hundred li west of the capital, bordering Tuhuoluo and Kang on the east, the Qasar Turks on the north, and Fulin to the northwest, with the open sea to west and south. Its population ran to several hundred thousand households. The king maintained two capitals and more than ten great cities besides, like the detached palaces of China. On taking the throne, the king secretly chose whichever son could rule, wrote down his name, sealed the record, and hid it away. When the king died, the ministers and all the princes opened the seal together and enthroned the name written within. The king wore a crown of golden flowers, sat upon a lion throne, dressed in brocade, and wore a collar of jewels. The people worship heaven, earth, sun, moon, water, and fire. Every fire-worshiping Hu people of the Western Regions journeyed to Persia to receive the law. In worship they mixed musk with sappanwood, painted their beards, and marked forehead, ears, and nose as signs of reverence. When they bowed, they crossed their thighs. Their writing matched that of the other Hu peoples. Men and women alike went barefoot. Men cropped their hair, wore white leather caps, and closed-front robes with turbans and mantles—usually dyed sappanwood blue or white, the hems edged in woven brocade. Women wore turbans, mantles, skirts, and jackets, their braided hair hanging down their backs and trimmed with gold and silver. The army fought from elephant back—one hundred soldiers to each beast—and any company defeated was put to the sword. When a subject's daughter of ten or more showed exceptional beauty, the king took her into the palace and later bestowed her on ministers who had earned merit. By custom the right ranked above the left. They reckoned the year from the first day of the sixth month. Trials were decided without written codes—judgment was pronounced aloud in open court. Prisoners were held without fixed terms and were released only when a new king took the throne. Rebels were tried at the fire altar: iron was heated and the tongue cauterized. A white scar meant innocence; a black scar meant guilt. Punishments ranged from severed hands and feet to shaved heads in irons and mutilation of nose or legs. Minor offenses brought a clipped beard or a placard tied at the neck; after a season or two the mark was removed. Armed robbers entered prison for life; petty thieves paid fines in silver. The dead were left on the mountains. Mourning dress was worn for a month, then life resumed. The climate ran hot and the land lay broad and flat. The people farmed and kept large herds. A bird shaped like a camel, too heavy to fly high, ate grass and flesh alike and even attacked dogs and snatched goats—the natives counted it a terrible scourge. White horses and swift hounds abounded; some piebald dogs could run seven hundred li in a day. The golden hound was what people now call the Persian dog. They exported mules and great donkeys, lions, white elephants, coral trees a foot or two tall, amber, carnelian, agate, fire pearls, crystal, lapis lazuli, myrobalan, cyperus root, harītakī, pepper, long pepper, rock honey, thousand-year jujubes, and honey peaches.

隋大業末，西突厥葉護可汗頻擊破其國，波斯王庫薩和為西突厥所殺，其子施利立，葉護因分其部帥，監統其國，波斯竟臣於葉護。及葉護可汗死，其所令監統者因自擅於波斯，不復役屬於西突厥。施利立一年卒，乃立庫薩和之女為王，突厥又殺之。施利之子單羯方奔拂菻，於是國人迎而立之，是為尹恆支，在位二年而卒。兄子伊嗣候立。

At the end of the Daye reign, the Western Turk Yabghu Qaghan repeatedly broke Persia. King Khusraw was slain by the Western Turks, and his son Shiluoli took the throne. The Yabghu posted his tribal chiefs to oversee the realm, and Persia at last submitted to him. When the Yabghu died, the overseers he had appointed seized power in Persia and ceased to answer to the Western Turks. Shiluoli reigned one year and died. Khusraw's daughter was then enthroned, and the Turks killed her as well. Shiluoli's son Danjiefang fled to Fulin. The Persians welcomed him home and made him king—Yin Hengzhi, who ruled two years and died. His nephew Yazdegerd succeeded him.

二十一年，伊嗣候遣使獻一獸，名活褥蛇，形類鼠而色青，身長八九寸，能入穴取鼠。伊嗣候懦弱，為大首領所逐，遂奔吐火羅，未至，亦為大食兵所殺。其子名卑路斯，又投吐火羅葉護，獲免。卑路斯奏言頻被大食侵擾，請兵救援。詔遣隴州南由縣令王名遠充使西域，分置州縣，因列其地疾陵城為波斯都督府，授卑路斯為都督。是後數遣使貢獻。咸亨中，卑路斯自來入朝，高宗甚加恩賜，拜右武衛將軍。

In the twenty-first year of Kaiyuan (733), Yazdegerd sent envoys with a creature called the huoruo snake—rat-shaped, blue-green, eight or nine inches long, and able to enter burrows and seize rats. Yazdegerd proved timid. A great chieftain drove him out; he fled toward Tuhuoluo but was cut down by Arab soldiers before he arrived. His son Peroz took refuge with the Tuhuoluo yabghu and was spared. Peroz petitioned that Arab raids were unceasing and begged for troops to save him. The court sent Wang Mingyuan, magistrate of Nanyou in Long Prefecture, as envoy to the west to parcel out prefectures and counties. Jiling was made seat of the Persian Protectorate, and Peroz was named protector. Thereafter missions came again and again with tribute. During the Xianheng era, Peroz came to court in person. Emperor Gaozong heaped favors on him and made him Grand General of the Right Martial Guard.

，令吏部侍郎裴行儉將兵冊送卑路斯為波斯王，行儉以其路遠，至安西碎葉而還，卑路斯獨返，不得入其國，漸為大食所侵，客於吐火羅國二十餘年，有部落數千人，後漸離散。至，又來入朝，拜為左威衛將軍，無何病卒，其國遂滅，而部眾猶存。

In the third year of Yifeng (678), Vice Minister Pei Xingjian was ordered to escort Peroz home as king of Persia. Finding the route too long, Xingjian turned back at Suyab in Anxi. Peroz went on alone but could not re-enter his realm and was slowly ground down by the Arabs. He lived as a guest in Tuhuoluo for more than twenty years with a following of several thousand before it dwindled away. In the second year of Jinglong (708) he returned to court and was made General of the Left Majestic Guard. He soon died of illness. The kingdom was gone, but scattered bands of his people survived.

自至，凡十遣使來朝，並獻方物。四月，遣使獻瑪瑙床。九年四月，獻火毛繡舞筵、長毛繡舞筵、無孔真珠。，波斯與大食同寇廣州，劫倉庫，焚廬舍，浮海而去。，遣使來朝，獻真珠等。拂菻國拂菻國，一名大秦，在西海之上，東南與波斯接，地方萬餘里，列城四百，邑居連屬。其宮宇柱櫳，多以水精琉璃為之。有貴臣十二人共治國政，常使一人將囊隨王車，百姓有事者，即以書投囊中，王還宮省發，理其枉直。其王無常人，簡賢者而立之。國中災異及風雨不時，輒廢而更立。其王冠形如鳥舉翼，冠及瓔珞，皆綴以珠寶，著錦繡衣，前不開襟，坐金花床。有一鳥似鵝，其毛綠色，常在王邊倚枕上坐，每進食有毒，其鳥輒鳴。其都城疊石為之，尤絕高峻，凡有十萬餘戶，南臨大海。城東面有大門，其高二十餘丈，自上及下，飾以黃金，光輝燦爛，連曜數里。自外至王室，凡有大門三重，列異寶雕飾。第二門之樓中，懸一大金秤，以金丸十二枚屬於衡端，以候日之十二時焉；為一金人，其大如人，立於側，每至一時，其金丸輒落，鏗然發聲，引唱以紀日時，毫厘無失。其殿以瑟瑟為柱，黃金為地，象牙為門扇，香木為棟梁。其俗無瓦，搗白石為末，羅之塗屋上，其堅密光潤，還如玉石。至於盛暑之節，人厭囂熱，乃引水潛流，上遍於屋宇，機制巧密，人莫之知。觀者惟聞屋上泉鳴，俄見四檐飛溜，懸波如瀑，激氣成涼風，其巧妙如此。

From the tenth year of Kaiyuan to the sixth year of Tianbao (722–747), ten embassies came to court bearing regional goods. In the fourth month, envoys presented an agate couch. In the ninth year of Kaiyuan (721), in the fourth month, they brought fire-wool embroidered dance mats, long-wool embroidered dance mats, and pearls without bore. In the first year of Qianyuan (758), Persians and Arabs together raided Guangzhou, looted the warehouses, burned the quarters, and sailed away. In the sixth year of Dali (771), envoys came to court with pearls and other gifts. Fulin—also called Daqin—lay beyond the Western Sea, bordering Persia to the southeast. Its domain ran more than ten thousand li, with four hundred cities and towns strung together. Palace pillars and balustrades were mostly crystal and glass. Twelve senior ministers governed together. One always rode beside the king with a satchel at his belt; subjects slipped petitions inside, and when the king returned to the palace he read them and judged each case. The throne was not hereditary—the worthiest man was chosen to rule. If omens or ill-timed storms troubled the realm, the king was deposed and another raised. The king wore a crown shaped like a bird with wings spread, crown and collar studded with gems. He dressed in brocade closed at the front and sat on a golden-flower throne. A goose-like bird with green feathers perched by the king's pillow. If food was poisoned, the bird shrieked. The capital was built of stacked stone, towering and sheer, holding more than one hundred thousand households and facing the southern sea. East of the city stood a gate more than twenty zhang tall, gilded from summit to base so that its radiance ran for several li. From the outer walls to the royal residence ran three great gates, each set with rare treasures and carved ornament. In the tower of the second gate hung a great golden balance with twelve golden balls on the beam to mark the twelve hours of the day; beside it stood a golden figure life-size. At each hour a ball fell with a clang and a voice called the time—never off by a hair. The hall had sese-stone pillars, gold flooring, ivory doors, and fragrant-wood beams. They used no roof tiles. White stone was pounded to dust, sifted, and spread on the roofs until the surface hardened bright as jade. In midsummer, when the heat grew unbearable, water was run in hidden channels across the rooftops—the mechanism so cunning that none could see how it worked. Listeners heard only springs murmuring over the roofs; then all at once water sheeted from the four eaves like hanging waterfalls, and the rush of air turned to a cool wind—such was its artifice.

風俗，男子翦髮，披帔而右袒，婦人不開襟，錦為頭巾。家資滿億，封以上位。有羊羔生於土中，其國人候其欲萌，乃築墻以院之，防外獸所食也。然其臍與地連，割之則死，唯人著甲走馬及擊鼓以駭之，其羔警鳴而臍絕，便遂水草。俗皆髡而衣繡，乘輜軿白蓋小車，出入擊鼓，建旌旗幡幟。土多金銀奇寶，有夜光璧、明月珠、駭雞犀、大貝、車渠、瑪瑙、孔翠、珊瑚、琥珀，凡西域諸珍異多出其國。隋煬帝常將通拂菻，竟不能致。

In dress, men cropped their hair, wore mantles draped over the right shoulder, and women kept closed-front robes with brocade headcloths. Any household whose wealth reached a hundred million was ennobled to high rank. Lambs were said to sprout from the soil. When a shoot appeared, the people walled it in to keep wild beasts away. Its navel remained rooted to the earth; cut it and the lamb died. Men in armor had to gallop horses and beat drums to startle it—only when the lamb cried out would the cord break and it run free to graze. All shaved their heads and wore embroidered robes. They rode in covered carriages with white canopies, beating drums when they went abroad and flying banners and pennants. Gold, silver, and rare treasures filled the land—night-shining disks, moon pearls, cock-frightening rhinoceros horn, great shells, carnelian, agate, kingfisher plumes, coral, amber. Most of the west's wonders came from there. Emperor Yang of the Sui often sought contact with Fulin but never achieved it.

，拂菻王波多力遣使獻赤玻璃、綠金精等物，太宗降璽書答慰，賜以綾綺焉。自大食強盛，漸陵諸國，乃遣大將軍摩栧伐其都城，因約為和好，請每歲輸之金帛，遂臣屬大食焉。，遣使獻底也伽。，復遣使來朝。正月，其主遣吐火羅大首領獻獅子、羚羊各二。不數月，又遣大德僧來朝貢。大食國大食國，本在波斯之西。大業中，有波斯胡人牧駝於俱紛摩地那之山，忽有獅子人語謂之曰：「此山西有三穴，穴中大有兵器，汝可取之。穴中並有黑石白文，讀之便作王位。」胡人依言，果見穴中有石及槊刃甚多，上有文，教其反叛。於是糾合亡命，渡恆曷水，劫奪商旅，其眾漸盛，遂割據波斯西境，自立為王。波斯、拂菻各遣兵討之，皆為所敗。

In the seventeenth year of Zhenguan (643), King Boduoli of Fulin sent envoys with red glass, green gold essence, and other gifts. Emperor Taizong answered with an imperial letter of thanks and gifts of silk. When Arab power rose and overawed the western kingdoms, they sent the general Muhan against the Fulin capital, then made peace on condition of yearly gold and silk. Fulin became an Arab vassal. In the second year of Qianfeng (667), envoys presented a diye jia. In the first year of Dazu (701), envoys again came to court. In the first month of the seventh year of Kaiyuan (719), its ruler sent a Tuhuoluo chieftain with two lions and two antelopes. Within months a senior monk came again with tribute. The Arab realm—the Arab realm originally lay west of Persia. During the Daye reign, a Persian camel-herder on Mount Jufenmo Dina heard a lion speak: "West of this mountain are three caves full of weapons. Take them. Inside are black stones marked with white script. Read them and you shall be king." The man obeyed and found stones and blades in plenty, inscribed with words urging revolt. He rallied outlaws, crossed the Hengge River, and preyed on caravans until his band swelled. He seized Persia's western marches and crowned himself king. Persia and Fulin sent armies against him and were both beaten.

，始遣使朝貢。其王姓大食氏，名噉密莫末膩，自云有國已三十四年，歷三主矣。其國男兒色黑多鬚，鼻大而長，似婆羅門；婦人白皙。亦有文字。出駝馬，大於諸國。兵刃勁利。其俗勇於戰鬥，好事天神。土多沙石，不堪耕種，唯食駝馬等肉。俱紛摩地那山在國之西南，鄰於大海，其王移穴中黑石置之於國。又嘗遣人乘船，將衣糧入海，經八年而未及西岸。海中見一方石，石上有樹，幹赤葉青，樹上總生小兒；長六七寸，見人皆笑，動其手腳，頭著樹枝，其使摘取一枝，小兒便死，收在大食王宮。又有女國，在其西北，相去三月行。

In the second year of Yonghui (651), they first sent envoys to court with tribute. The king's clan was Dashi; his name Tanmi Momoni. He said his realm had stood thirty-four years under three rulers. Its men were dark and bearded, with large long noses like Brahmins; its women fair-skinned. They had a written script as well. Their camels and horses outstripped those of other lands. Their blades were sharp. They were fierce in war and devoted to the heavenly god. Sand and rock covered the ground, good for neither plow nor seed—they lived on camel, horse, and other flesh. Mount Jufenmo Dina stood in the country's southwest by the sea. The king brought the black stone from the cave and enshrined it in his realm. Once they sent men to sea in ships stocked with food and clothing; eight years passed and they still had not sighted the western shore. At sea they came upon a square stone bearing a tree with a red trunk and green leaves, and on its branches hung many small children; each six or seven inches tall, laughing and waving at passersby, heads fixed to the boughs. An envoy broke off a branch; the child died at once. The king kept it in his palace. Northwest lay a women's kingdom three months' travel distant.

龍朔初，擊破波斯，又破拂菻，始有米麪之屬。又將兵南侵婆羅門，吞並諸胡國，勝兵四十餘萬。長安中，遣使獻良馬。，又獻方物。開元初，遣使來朝，進馬及寶鈿帶等方物。其使謁見，唯平立不拜，憲司欲糾之，中書令張說奏曰：「大食殊俗，慕義遠來，不可置罪。」上特許之。尋又遣使朝獻，自云在本國惟拜天神，雖見王亦無致拜之法，所司屢詰責之，其使遂請依漢法致拜。其時西域康國、石國之類，皆臣屬之。其境東西萬里，東與突騎施相接焉。

At the opening of the Longshuo era they crushed Persia and Fulin alike and came to possess grain and flour. They marched south against Brahman lands and swallowed the Hu kingdoms until their field army passed four hundred thousand. During the Chang'an era, envoys brought fine horses. In the second year of Jingyun (711), they again presented local products. At the opening of Kaiyuan, envoys came with horses, jeweled girdles, and other gifts. At audience their envoy stood straight and did not bow. The censorate moved to indict him, but Chief Minister Zhang Yue argued: "The Arabs are a foreign people who have come far in admiration of our virtue. We cannot punish them." The emperor granted the exception. Soon another embassy arrived. They explained that at home they worshipped only the heavenly god and even before their own king knew no bow—officials rebuked them again and again until the envoys asked to bow by Han rite. By then Kang, Shi, and the other Western Region states all bowed to them. Their domain ran ten thousand li east to west, meeting the Turgesh on the east.

一云隋開皇中，大食族中有孤列種代為酋長，孤列種中又有兩姓：一號盆泥奚深，一號盆泥末換。其奚深後有摩訶末者，勇健多智，眾立之為主，東西征伐，開地三千里，兼克夏臘，一名釤城。摩訶末後十四代，至末換。末換殺其兄伊疾而自立，復殘忍，其下怨之。有呼羅珊木粗人並波悉林舉義兵，應者悉令著黑衣，旬月間眾盈數萬。鼓行而西，生擒末換，殺之。遂求得奚深種阿蒲羅拔，立之。末換已前謂之「白衣大食」，自阿蒲羅拔後改為「黑衣大食」。阿蒲羅拔卒，立其弟阿蒲恭拂。至德初遣使朝貢，代宗時為元帥，亦用其國兵以收兩都。

One version says that in the Kaihuang era of Sui, among the Arab tribes the Gulie clan held the chieftainship in turn; within Gulie were two lines, Peni Xishen and Peni Mohuan. From the Xishen line came Mohemo, bold and clever, whom the people made lord. He conquered east and west until his realm stretched three thousand li, taking Xiala—also called Shancheng. Fourteen generations after Mohemo came Mohuan. Mohuan murdered his elder brother Yiji and seized the throne. His cruelty bred resentment among his followers. Men of Khurasan, Mucu, and Bosilin raised rebel armies; every follower was ordered to wear black, and within a month their numbers swelled past ten thousand. They marched west with drums beating, took Muhuan alive, and put him to death. They then found Abu Luobo of the Xishen clan and set him on the throne. Before Muhuan they were known as the White-Clad Arabs; after Abu Luobo they became the Black-Clad Arabs. When Abu Luobo died, his brother Abu Gongfu succeeded him. Early in the Zhide era he sent tribute envoys; under Daizong he served as commander-in-chief and contributed his troops to the recovery of the two capitals.

寶應、大曆中頻遣使來。恭拂卒，子迷地立。迷地卒，子牟棲立，牟棲卒，弟訶論立。貞元中，與吐蕃為勍敵。蕃軍太半西禦大食，故鮮為邊患，其力不足也。十四年，詔以黑衣大食使含嵯、焉雞、沙北三人並為中郎將，各放還蕃。史臣曰史臣曰：西方之國，綿亙山川，自張騫奉使已來，介子立功之後，通於中國者多矣。有唐拓境，遠極安西，弱者德以懷之，強者力以制之。開元之前，貢輸不絕。天寶之亂，邊僥多虞，邠郊之西，即為戎狄，槁街之邸，來朝亦稀。故古先哲王，務寧華夏，語曰：「近者悅，遠者來。」斯之謂矣！

During the Baoying and Dali eras he sent envoys repeatedly. When Gongfu died, his son Midi took the throne. Midi was succeeded by his son Muqi; when Muqi died, his brother Helun took the throne. In the Zhenyuan era they were formidable rivals of Tibet. Most Tibetan forces were tied up in the west against the Arabs, so they seldom threatened the frontier; their power was simply not enough. In the fourteenth year the Black Arab envoys Hanzuo, Yanji, and Shabei were all appointed gentlemen of the palace and sent home. The historian writes: The western lands stretch across mountains and rivers. Since Zhang Qian's mission and after Jiezi earned his merit, countless peoples have opened ties with China. The Tang pushed its frontiers to distant Anxi, winning the weak with virtue and restraining the strong with force. Before the Kaiyuan era, tribute flowed without interruption. The Tianbao rebellion brought constant frontier alarms; west of Bin the land passed to the barbarians, and envoys at the guest lodges of the capital grew scarce. The sage kings of old sought peace for the Central Realm, as the saying runs: "When those nearby are content, those afar will come." So the proverb teaches.

贊曰：大蒙之人，西方之國，與時盛衰，隨世通塞。勿謂戎心，不懷我德；貞觀、開元，槁街充斥。

In praise: The peoples of the far west rise and fall with the times, their roads to China opening or closing as fortune allows. Do not imagine that barbarian hearts are deaf to our virtue; under Zhenguan and Kaiyuan the guest lodges overflowed with envoys.

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