Volume 91 Treatises 67: Military 3

邊防海防江防民壯士兵鄉兵

Border Defense; Sea and River Defense; Civilian Militia; Garrison Troops; Local Militia

元人北歸，屢謀興復。永樂遷都北平，三面近塞，正統以後，敵患日多。故終明之世，邊防甚重。東起鴨綠，西抵嘉峪，綿亙萬里，分地守禦。初設遼東、宣府、大同、延綏四鎮，繼設寧夏、甘肅、薊州三鎮，而太原總兵治偏頭，三邊制府駐固原，亦稱二鎮，是為九邊。

Once the Yuan had withdrawn to the north, they repeatedly schemed to restore their rule. When the Yongle Emperor relocated the capital to Beiping, the dynasty was exposed on three sides to the northern marches; after the Zhengtong era, border alarms became ever more frequent. For this reason border defense remained a paramount concern throughout the Ming. From the Yalu River in the east to Jiayu Pass in the west, defences stretched unbroken for thousands of li, with each sector assigned its own garrison. At first four frontier commands were established—Liaodong, Xuanfu, Datong, and Yansui—followed by Ningxia, Gansu, and Jizhou; with the Taiyuan commander at Piankou and the Three Borders headquarters at Guyuan counted as two more, comprising the famed Nine Garrisons along the frontier.

初，洪武六年，命大將軍徐達等備山西、北平邊，諭令各上方略。從淮安侯華雲龍言，自永平、薊州、密雲迤西二千餘里，關隘百二十有九，皆置戍守。於紫荊關及蘆花嶺設千戶所守禦。又詔山西都衛於雁門關、太和嶺並武、朔諸山谷間，凡七十三隘，俱設戍兵。九年，敕燕山前、後等十一衛，分兵守古北口、居庸關、喜峯口、鬆亭關烽堠百九十六處，參用南北軍士。十五年，又於北平都司所轄關隘二百，以各衛卒守戍。詔諸王近塞者，每歲秋勒兵巡邊。十七年，命徐達籍上北平將校士卒。復使將核遼東、定遼等九衛官軍。是後，每遣諸公、侯校沿邊士馬，以籍上。二十年，置北平行都司於大寧。其地在喜峯口外，故遼西郡，遼之中京大定府也；西大同，東遼陽，南北平。馮勝之破納哈出，還師，城之，因置都司及營州五屯衛，而封皇子權為寧王，調各衛兵往守。先是，李文忠等取元上都，設開平衛及興和等千戶所，東西各四驛，東接大寧，西接獨石。二十五年，又築東勝城於河州東受降城之東，設十六衛，與大同相望。自遼以西，數千里聲勢聯絡。

As early as Hongwu year 6, the Hongwu Emperor ordered Grand General Xu Da and others to ready the Shanxi and Beiping borders and directed each officer to present a defensive plan. On the recommendation of Huai'an Marquis Hua Yunlong, garrisons were posted at all 129 passes and barriers along more than 2,000 li from Yongping and Jizhou through Miyun westward. Thousand-household commands were set up to guard Zijing Pass and Luhua Ridge. The throne further directed the Shanxi Regional Military Commission to station troops at seventy-three defiles from Yanmen Pass and Taihe Ridge through the Wu and Shuo uplands. In year 9, eleven guards including those of the Yanshan front and rear districts were ordered to divide forces among 196 beacon posts at Gubeikou, Juyong Pass, Xifengkou, and Songting Pass, drawing on troops from both north and south. In year 15, soldiers from each guard under the Beiping Regional Command took turns manning 200 frontier passes. Imperial princes whose domains lay near the marches were commanded every autumn to muster their forces and ride the border circuit. In year 17, Xu Da was commissioned to compile a register of officers and men in Beiping. He was again dispatched to audit the officer and troop rolls of nine guards, including Liaodong and Dingliao. Thereafter grand dukes and marquises were repeatedly sent to inspect troops and horses along the frontier and submit registers to court. In year 20, the Beiping Pacification Regional Command was founded at Daning. The post lay beyond Xifengkou in the old Liaoxi prefecture—the Liao dynasty's Central Capital at Dading; west of Datong, east of Liaoyang, and south of Beiping. When Feng Sheng shattered Naghachu's forces and marched back, he fortified the site, established the regional command and five Yingzhou agricultural garrisons, enfeoffed Prince Quan as Prince of Ning, and shifted guard units to hold the line. Earlier Li Wenzhong and others had seized the Yuan Upper Capital and set up Kaiping Guard with Xinghe and other thousand-household posts, four relay stations to east and west, the eastern line linking Daning and the western line Dushi Stone. In year 25, Dongcheng was also built east of Shouxiangcheng at the eastern Shouxiang Fort on the Hezhou, with sixteen guards positioned to face Datong. From Liaodong westward for thousands of li, garrisons and strongpoints now formed a continuous chain.

洪熙改元，朔州軍士白榮請還東勝、高山等十衛於故地。興州軍士範濟亦言：朔州、大同、開平、宣府大寧皆籓籬要地，其土可耕，宜遣將率兵，修城堡，廣屯種。皆不能用。

When the Hongxi reign began, a Shuozhou garrison soldier named Bai Rong petitioned to return Dongsheng, Gaoshan, and ten other guards to their old posts. A Xingzhou soldier named Fan Ji argued that Shuozhou, Datong, Kaiping, Xuanfu, and Daning were all strategic shield lands fit for tillage and that generals should be sent to rebuild forts and expand garrison farms. None of these proposals was heeded.

正統元年，給事中硃純請修塞垣。總兵官譚廣言：「自龍門至獨石及黑峪口五百五十餘里，工作甚難，不若益墩臺□□守。」乃增赤城等堡煙墩二十二。寧夏總兵官史昭言：「所轄屯堡，俱在河外，自河迤東至察罕腦兒，抵綏德州，沙漠曠遠，並無守備。請於花馬池築哨馬營。」大同總兵官方政繼以馬營請，欲就半嶺紅寺兒廢營修築。宣大巡撫都御史李儀以大同平衍，巡哨宜謹，請以副總兵主東路，參將主西路，而迤北則屬之總兵官都指揮。並如議行。後三年，詔塞紫荊關諸隘口，增守備軍。時瓦剌漸強，從成國公硃勇請也。既而也先入塞，英宗陷於土木。景帝即位，十餘年間，邊患日多，索來、毛裡孩、阿羅出之屬，相繼入犯，無寧歲。

In Zhengtong 1, supervising secretary Zhu Chun asked to repair the border wall. Regional Commander Tan Guang reported: "From Longmen through Dushi and Black Gorge Pass stretches more than 550 li; the earthworks would be arduous. Better to strengthen the beacon-tower line instead. The court accordingly added twenty-two smoke beacon towers at Chicheng and neighboring forts. Ningxia Commander Shi Zhao stated: "All farms under my command lie beyond the Yellow River; east from the river to Chagan Nur and on to Suide the desert is empty of any guard force. I ask that a mounted sentry camp be built at Huamachi. Datong Commander Fang Zheng followed with a similar horse-camp plan, proposing to refurbish the abandoned post at Banling Hongsier. Xuan-Da Grand Coordinator Li Yi judged that Datong's open terrain required stricter scouting: the deputy commander should hold the east road, the brigade commander the west, and the northern sector answer to the regional commander. The court approved each proposal as submitted. Three years later an edict ordered Zijing Pass and other defiles sealed and reinforcement troops added. The Oirats were waxing in strength at the time, and the order followed a memorial from Duke of Cheng Zhu Yong. Before long Esen broke through the frontier and Emperor Yingzong was captured at Tumu Fort. After the Jing Emperor's accession, border alarms mounted year upon year as Suolai, Maolihai, Aluochu, and others raided in turn, leaving no season of rest.

成化元年，延綏總兵官張傑言：「延慶等境廣袤千里，所轄二十五營堡，每處僅一二百人，難以應敵，宜選精銳九千為六哨，分屯府谷、神木二縣，龍州、榆林二城，高家、安邊二堡，庶緩急有備。」又請分佈鄜、慶防秋軍二千餘人於沿邊要害。從之。七年，延綏巡撫都御史餘子俊大築邊城。先是，東勝設衛守在河外，榆林治綏德。後東勝內遷，失險，捐米脂、魚河地幾三百里。正統間，鎮守都督王禎始築榆林城，建緣邊營堡二十四，歲調延安、綏德、慶陽三衛軍分戍。天順中，阿羅出入河套駐牧，每引諸部內犯。至是，子俊乃徙治榆林。由黃甫川西至定邊營千二百餘里，墩堡相望，橫截套口，內復塹山堙谷，曰夾道，東抵偏頭，西終寧、固，風土勁悍，將勇士力，北人呼為橐駝城。十二年，兵部侍郎滕昭、英國公張懋條上邊備，言：「居庸關、黃花鎮、喜峯口、古北口、燕河營有團營馬步軍萬五千人戍守，請益軍五千，分駐永平、密雲以策應遼東。涼州鎮番、莊浪、賀蘭山迤西，從雪山過河，南通靖虜，直至臨、鞏，俱敵入犯之路，請調陝西官軍，益以甘、涼、臨、鞏、秦、平、河、洮兵，戍安定、會寧，遇警截擊；以涼州銳士五千，扼要屯駐，彼此策應。」詔可。二十一年，敕各邊軍士，每歲九月至明年三月，俱常操練，仍以操過軍馬及風雪免日奏報。邊備頗修飭。

In Chenghua 1, Yansui Commander Zhang Jie reported that his thousand-li Yanqing sector held twenty-five camps and forts with only a hundred or two men each—far too few to fight. He proposed nine thousand picked troops in six detachments posted at Fugu, Shenmu, Longzhou, Yulin, Gaojia, and Anbian so reserves would be at hand. He also asked that more than two thousand autumn-guard troops from Fu and Qing be stationed at key passes. The throne assented. In year 7, Yansui Grand Coordinator Yu Zijun launched a great border-wall project. Earlier the Dongsheng Guard had stood beyond the river while Yulin's seat remained at Suide. When Dongsheng was pulled back inland the terrain's advantage was lost and nearly three hundred li around Mizhi and Yuhe were surrendered. Under Zhengtong, Regional Commander Wang Zhen first walled Yulin and raised twenty-four border camps and forts, rotating garrison duty annually among troops from Yan'an, Suide, and Qingyang. During the Tianshun reign Aluo and others pastured in the Ordos bend and yearly led allied tribes on raids inland. Yu Zijun now transferred the prefectural seat to Yulin itself. From Huangfuchuan west to Dingbianying for 1,200 li beacon towers stood in sight of one another, sealing the bend's mouth; inside, trenches cut ridges and blocked valleys into a "flank lane" running east to Piankou and west through Ning and Gu. The region bred fierce men and bold commanders—northerners nicknamed the circuit "Camel City." In year 12, War Ministry Vice Minister Teng Zhao and Duke of England Zhang Mao submitted border plans noting 15,000 rotating camp troops at Juyong, Huanghuazhen, Xifengkou, Gubeikou, and Yanheying and asking for 5,000 more at Yongping and Miyun to cover Liaodong. From Zhenfan and Zhuanglang west of Helanshan, crossing the snow mountains to the river and south through Jingfu to Lin and Gong, all are enemy avenues—transfer Shaanxi regulars reinforced from Gan, Liang, Lin, Gong, Qin, Ping, He, and Tao to hold Anding and Huining for interception when alarms sound; and station 5,000 Liangzhou veterans at choke points to answer one another. An edict approved the plan. In year 21, frontier troops were ordered to train constantly from the ninth month through the third month of the following year, while still memorializing trained horses and excusing blizzard days from routine reports. Frontier readiness was noticeably tightened.

弘治十四年，設固原鎮。先是，固原為內地，所備惟靖虜。及火篩入據河套，遂為敵沖。乃改平涼之開成縣為固原州，隸以四衛，設總制府，總陝西三邊軍務。是時陝邊惟甘肅稍安，而哈密屢為土魯番所擾，乃敕修嘉峪關。

In Hongzhi year 14 the Guyuan command was established. Earlier Guyuan had lain deep inside the line and only Jingfu was fortified. Once Huoshai seized pasture in the Ordos bend, the region became a principal enemy corridor. Kaicheng county in Pingliang was then elevated to Guyuan prefecture, four guards placed under it, and a Three Borders headquarters installed to coordinate Shaanxi's western commands. By then only the Gansu sector of the Shaanxi front was comparatively quiet; Hami suffered repeated Turfan raids, and the throne ordered Jiayu Pass repaired.

正德元年春，總制三邊都御史楊一清請復守東勝：「因河為固，東接大同，西屬寧夏，使河套千里沃壤，歸我耕牧，則陝右猶可息肩」。因上修築定邊營等六事。帝可其奏。旋以忤中官劉瑾罷，所築塞垣僅四十餘里而已。武宗好武，邊將江彬等得幸，遼東、宣府、大同、延綏四鎮軍多內調，又以京軍六千與宣府軍六千春秋番換。十三年，頒定宣、大、延綏三鎮應援節度：敵不渡河，則延綏聽調於宣、大；渡河，則宣、大聽調於延綏。從兵部尚書王瓊議也。

In the spring of Zhengde year 1, Three Borders Coordinator Yang Yiqing petitioned to reoccupy Dongsheng: "With the river as rampart, linking Datong in the east and Ningxia in the west, the thousand-li Ordos heartland could again feed our fields and herds and ease pressure on western Shaanxi." He followed with six specific proposals to rebuild Dingbianying and related works. The emperor approved his memorial. He was soon cashiered for offending eunuch Liu Jin, and scarcely forty li of border rampart were ever finished. The Wuzong Emperor delighted in military display; border commanders such as Jiang Bin gained favor; the four Liaodong, Xuanfu, Datong, and Yansui commands were stripped of troops for the interior, while 6,000 capital soldiers and 6,000 Xuanfu troops rotated seasonally. In year 13 contingency orders fixed Xuan, Da, and Yansui coordination: if raiders did not cross the river, Yansui answered to Xuanfu and Datong; if they crossed, Xuanfu and Datong answered to Yansui. The arrangement followed War Minister Wang Qiong's plan.

初，大寧之棄，以其地畀朵顏、福餘、泰寧三衛，蓋兀良哈歸附者也。未幾，遂不靖。宣宗嘗因田獵，親率師敗之，自是畏服。故喜峯、密雲止設都指揮鎮守。土木之變，頗傳三衛助逆，後因添設太監參將等官。至是，朵顏獨盛，情叵測。

When Daning was abandoned earlier, its lands had been granted to the Doyan, Fuyu, and Taining guards—Uriankhai tribes who had submitted. Before long they ceased to be peaceful. The Xuanzong Emperor once personally led a hunt that routed them, and thereafter they held the court in wary respect. Hence only regional-commander posts guarded Xifengkou and Miyun. After Tumu, rumor held that the three guards had sided with the enemy, and supervisory eunuchs and assistant commanders were soon added. By this time only Doyan had grown powerful, its intentions increasingly opaque.

嘉靖初，御史丘養浩請復小河等關於外地，以扼其要。又請多鑄火器，給沿邊州縣，募商□粟，實各邊衛所。詔皆行之。初，太祖時，以邊軍屯田不足，召商輸邊粟而與之鹽。富商大賈悉自出財力，募民墾田塞下，故邊儲不匱。弘治時，戶部尚書葉淇始變法，令商納銀太倉，分給各邊。商皆撤業歸，邊地荒蕪，米粟踴貴，邊軍遂日困。十一年，御史徐汝圭條上邊防兵食，謂「延綏宜漕石州、保德之粟，自黃河而上，楚粟由鄖陽，汴粟由陝、洛，沔粟由漢中，以達陝右。宣、大產二麥，宜多方收□。紫荊、倒馬、白羊等關，宜招商賃車運」。又請「以宣府遊兵駐右衛懷來，以援大同。選補遊兵於順聖西城為臨期應援，永寧等處遊兵衛宣府，備調遣。直隸八府召募勇敢團練，赴邊關遠近警急。榆林、山、陝遊兵，於本處策應」。報可，亦未能行也。

Early in the Jiajing reign, Censor Qiu Yanghao asked to reopen outer-line passes such as Xiaohe to choke enemy movement. He also urged casting more firearms for frontier counties, recruiting merchants to haul grain, and stocking every border guard depot. Edicts ordered each measure implemented. Under the founding emperor, when garrison farms fell short, merchants were invited to ship grain to the border in return for salt certificates. Wealthy merchants financed their own colonies and recruited settlers to till the northern marches, so frontier granaries did not run dry. Under Hongzhi, Revenue Minister Ye Qi altered the system, requiring merchants to pay silver into the Taicang granary for allocation to the frontiers. Traders abandoned their contracts and went home; border farmland lay fallow, grain prices soared, and garrison troops grew poorer by the day. In year 11, Censor Xu Rugui outlined frontier grain policy: Yansui should receive Shizhou and Baode grain by Yellow River transport; Chu grain via Yunyang; Kaifeng grain via Shaanxi and Luoyang; Hanzhong grain via the Han valley—all to feed western Shaanxi. Xuanfu and Datong grow two-grain wheat and should be urged to gather and store it by every available means. At Zijing, Daoma, and Baiyang passes, merchants should be enlisted to contract cart transport." "Also post Xuanfu mobile troops at Youwei and Huailai to relieve Datong. Refit mobile detachments at Shuningsheng's western city as a rapid reserve; Yongning and similar posts should hold mobile troops under Xuanfu command. Eight metropolitan prefectures should recruit hardy militia companies to answer alarms along the passes, near and far. Yulin and Shaanxi mobile troops should give one another local support." The throne approved, yet scarcely anything was carried out.

十八年，移三邊制府鎮花馬池。是時，俺答諸部強橫，屢深入大同、太原之境，晉陽南北，煙火蕭然。巡撫都御史陳講請「以兵六千戍老營堡東界之長峪，以山西兵守大同。三關形勢，寧武為中路，莫要於神池，偏頭為西路，莫要於老營堡，皆宜改設參將。雁門為東路，莫要於北樓諸口，宜增設把總、指揮。而移神池守備於利民堡，老營堡遊擊於八角所，各增軍設備」。帝悉許之。規畫雖密，然兵將率怯弱，其健者僅能自守而已。

In year 18 the Three Borders headquarters was shifted to Huamachi. Altan's confederation was then at its height, raiding deep into Datong and Taiyuan until north and south of Jinyang the country stood deserted under signal smoke. Grand Coordinator Chen Jiang proposed posting six thousand men at Changyu east of Laoying Fort while Shanxi troops held Datong. Of the Three Passes, Ningwu forms the central axis with Shenchi as its key; Piankou heads the western road with Laoying Fort paramount—each should gain a dedicated brigade commander. Yanmen commands the eastern road, where the Beilou defiles are decisive—add platoon leaders and directors there. Shift the Shenchi garrison to Limin Fort and Laoying's mobile unit to Bajiao Station, augmenting men and gear at both." The emperor approved every item. For all the careful planning, commanders and men were largely timid; even the stouthearted could barely hold their posts.

二十二年，詔宣府兵乘塞。舊制，總兵夏秋間分駐邊堡，謂之暗伏。至是，有司建議，入秋悉令赴邊，分地拒守，至九月中罷歸，犒以帑金。久之，以勞費罷。二十四年，巡按山西御史陳豪言：「敵三犯山西，傷殘百萬，費餉銀六十億，曾無尺寸功。請定計決戰，盡復套地。」明年，敵犯延安，總督三邊侍郎曾銑力主復套，條上十八事。帝嘉獎之。大學士嚴嵩窺帝意憚兵，且欲殺舊閣臣夏言，因劾銑，並言誅死，自是無敢言邊事者。

In year 22 an edict ordered Xuanfu troops to take up seasonal positions along the wall. Under the old rule, from summer into autumn the commander quartered among border forts in what was called "secret encampment." Offices now proposed that with autumn every unit march to the line, hold assigned sectors until the ninth month, then withdraw with treasury rewards. In time the practice was dropped as too costly and burdensome. In year 24, Shanxi touring censor Chen Hao reported: "The enemy has raided Shanxi three times, leaving a million people maimed and sixty million taels in pay spent, without gaining a single foot of ground. Settle on a decisive campaign and recover the entire Ordos bend. The following year raiders struck Yan'an; Three Borders Vice Minister Zeng Xian pressed hard to retake the bend and memorialized eighteen measures." The emperor commended him. Grand Secretary Yan Song saw that the emperor shrank from war and wanted the former grand secretary Xia Yan dead; he impeached Zeng Xian and had him executed, and thereafter no one dared raise frontier policy again.

二十九年，俺答攻古北口，從間道黃榆溝入，直薄東直門，諸將不敢戰。敵退，大將軍仇鸞力主貢市之議。明年，開馬市於大同，然寇掠如故。又明年，馬市罷。

In year 29 Altan struck Gubeikou, slipped through Huangyu Gully by a side path, and drove straight to Dongzhimen while the generals refused battle. When the raiders withdrew, Grand General Qiu Luan pressed the tribute-market policy. The next year a horse market opened at Datong, but plunder continued unchanged. A year later the market was shut down.

先是翁萬達之總督宣、大也，籌邊事甚悉。其言曰：「山西保德州河岸，東盡老營堡，凡二百五十四里。西路丫角山迤北而來，歷中北路，抵東路之東陽河鎮口臺，凡六百四十七里。宣府西路，西陽河迤東，歷中北路，抵東路之永寧四海冶，凡一千二十三里。皆逼臨巨寇，險在外者，所謂極邊也。老營堡轉南而東，歷寧武、雁門、北樓至平刑關盡境，約八百里。又轉南而東，為保定界，歷龍泉、倒馬、紫荊、吳王口、插箭嶺、浮圖峪至沿河口，約一千七十餘里。又東北為順天界，歷高崖、白羊，抵居庸關，約一百八十餘里。皆峻嶺層岡，險在內者，所謂次邊也。敵犯山西必自大同，入紫荊必自宣府，未有不經外邊能入內邊者。」乃請修築宣、大邊牆千餘里，烽堠三百六十三所。後以通市故，不復防，遂半為敵毀。至是，兵部請敕邊將修補。科臣又言，垣上宜築高臺，建廬以棲火器。從之。時俺答益強，朵顏三衛為之向道，遼、薊、宣、大連歲被兵。三十四年，總督軍務兵部尚書楊博，既解大同右衛圍，因築牛心諸堡，修烽堠二千八百有奇。宣、大間稍寧息，而薊鎮之患不已。

Earlier, when Weng Wanda governed Xuanfu and Datong, he had laid out frontier affairs in meticulous detail. He wrote: "From the Baode prefecture bank in Shanxi east to Laoying Fort measures 254 li. The western line runs north from Yajiao Mountain through the central-north road to the eastern route's Dongyanghe Zhenkou platform—647 li. Xuanfu's western line runs east from Xiyang River through the central-north road to Yongning Sihaiye on the eastern route—1,023 li. All face major enemies directly; where the danger lies beyond the wall is the outer frontier. From Laoying Fort south and east through Ningwu, Yanmen, and Beilou to the limit of Pingxing Pass is roughly 800 li. Turning south and east into Baoding through Longquan, Daoma, Zijing, Wuwangkou, Chajian Ridge, and Futuyu to Yanhekou adds more than 1,070 li. Northeast into Shuntian through Gaoya and Baiyang to Juyong Pass is another 180-odd li. These are all steep ridges and layered hills; where the danger lies inside the line is the inner frontier. Raids into Shanxi must come through Datong; entry at Zijing must come through Xuanfu—no enemy reaches the inner line without crossing the outer line. He therefore asked to build more than a thousand li of Xuan-Da border wall and 363 beacon towers." "Later, trade openings led to neglected defense, and the enemy destroyed half the works." "Now the War Ministry asked the throne to order frontier commanders to repair the damage." "Censors also urged high platforms atop the rampart and lodges to house firearms." The court assented. "Altan was growing stronger; the three Doyan guards served as his guides; Liaodong, Jizhou, Xuanfu, and Datong were raided year after year." "In year 34 War Minister Yang Bo, after lifting the siege of Datong Right Guard, built Niuxin and other forts and restored more than 2,800 beacon towers." "Xuanfu and Datong gained a brief respite, but the Jizhou command's troubles continued."

薊之稱鎮，自二十七年始。時鎮兵未練，因詔各邊入衛兵往戍。既而兵部言：「大同之三邊，陝西之固原，宣府之長安嶺，延綏之夾牆，皆據重險，惟薊獨無。渤海所南，山陵東，有蘇家口，至寨籬村七十里，地形平漫，宜築牆建臺，設兵守，與京軍相夾制。」報可。時兵力孱弱，有警徵召四集，而議者惟以據險為事，無敢言戰者。其後薊鎮入衛兵，俱聽宣、大督、撫調遣，防禦益疏。朵顏遂乘虛歲入。三十七年，諸鎮建議，各練本鎮戍卒，可省徵發費十之六。然戍卒選懦不任戰，歲練亦費萬餘，而臨事徵發如故。隆慶間，總兵官戚繼光總理薊、遼，任練兵事，因請調浙兵三千人以倡勇敢。及至，待命於郊，自朝至日中，天雨，軍士跬步不移，邊將大駭。自是薊兵以精整稱。

"Jizhou first became a named command in year 27." "Its troops were then untrained, so the court ordered interior guards from other frontiers to rotate in." The War Ministry soon noted: "Datong's Three Borders, Shaanxi's Guyuan, Xuanfu's Chang'an Ridge, and Yansui's flank wall all hold commanding ground—only Jizhou does not. South of Bohai and east of the hills, from Sujiakou to Zhailicun for seventy li of open ground, walls and towers should rise with garrisons to brace the capital forces. The throne approved." "Forces were then feeble; alarms still drew troops from every quarter, yet counsellors spoke only of holding ground and none dared urge battle." "Later Jizhou's interior guards answered to Xuan-Da coordinators, and the line grew still thinner." "Doyan then exploited the gap to raid every year." "In year 37 the commands proposed training their own garrison troops, saving six-tenths of mobilization expense." "Yet the men chosen were timid and unfit for battle; yearly drill still cost over ten thousand taels while emergency levies continued unchanged." "Under Longqing, Commander Qi Jiguang oversaw Jizhou and Liaodong, took charge of drill, and asked for three thousand Zhejiang veterans to model courage." "When they arrived and stood in the suburbs from morning to noon in rain without shifting a step, border commanders were astonished." "Thereafter Jizhou troops were famed for discipline."

俺答已通貢，封順義王，其子孫襲封者累世。迨萬曆之季，西部遂不競，而土蠻部落虎燉兔、炒花、宰賽、□爰兔輩，東西煽動，將士疲於奔命，未嘗得安枕也。

Altan had already accepted tribute and been enfeoffed Prince of Shunyi, and his line held the title for generations. By late Wanli the western tribes had faded, but Tumen bands such as Huchuntu, Chaohua, Zaisai, and De'ayu stirred raids east and west until officers and men were exhausted and never slept easy.

初，太祖沿邊設衛，惟土著兵及有罪謫戍者。遇有警，調他衛軍往戍，謂之客兵。永樂間，始命內地軍番戍，謂之邊班。其後佔役逃亡之數多，乃有召募，有改撥，有修守民兵、土兵，而邊防日益壞。洪武時，宣府屯守官軍殆十萬。正統、景泰間，已不及額。弘治、正德以後，官軍實有者僅六萬六千九百有奇，而召募與士兵居其半。他鎮率視此。

Under the founding emperor, frontier guards held only native troops and men banished for crimes. When alarms arose, troops from other guards were rotated in as guest detachments. Under Yongle, interior units were first ordered to rotate to the border in frontier shifts. Later, as corvée drafts and desertions mounted, recruitment, reassignment, militia, and native levies multiplied while the frontier daily worsened. Under Hongwu, Xuanfu's registered garrison troops neared one hundred thousand. By Zhengtong and Jingtai they already fell below establishment. After Hongzhi and Zhengde only 66,900-odd regulars remained on the rolls, while recruits and militia made up half. Other commands followed the same pattern.

正統初，山西、河南班軍守偏頭、大同、宣府塞，不得代。巡撫于謙言：「每歲九月至二月，水冷草枯，敵騎出沒，乘障卒宜多。若三月至八月，邊守自足。乞將兩班軍，每歲一班，如期放遣。」甘肅總兵官蔣貴又言：「沿邊墩臺，守了軍更番有例，惟坐事謫發者不許，困苦甚。乞如例踐更。」並從之。五年，山西總兵官李謙請偏頭關守備軍如大同例，半歲更番。部議，每番皆十月，而戍卒仍率以歲為期，有久而後遣者。弘治中，三邊總制秦紘言：「備御延綏官軍，自十二月赴邊，既週一歲，至次年二月始得代。在軍日多，請歲一更，上下俱在三月初。」邊軍便之。

Early in Zhengtong, Shanxi and Henan shift troops held Piankou, Datong, and Xuanfu and could not rotate home. Grand Coordinator Yu Qian argued: "From the ninth month through the second, when water turns cold and grass dies, enemy horsemen roam freely; wall guards should be numerous. From the third month through the eighth the border garrison can manage alone. He asked that the two shift corps release one shift each year on schedule. Gansu Commander Jiang Gui added: "Along the beacon line garrison troops rotate by rule, but men banished for offenses are denied rotation and suffer greatly. He asked that they be allowed regular rotation." Both requests were granted. In year 5 Shanxi Commander Li Qian asked Piankou garrison troops to rotate every half year as at Datong. The ministry ruled each shift should begin in the tenth month, yet men still commonly served a full year and some were held long overdue. Under Hongzhi, Three Borders Commander Qin Hong reported: "Yansui frontier regulars march out in the twelfth month and, after a full year, are not relieved until the second month of the next. They spend too long under arms; he asked for yearly rotation with both departure and return in early third month. Frontier troops welcomed the change.

嘉靖四十三年，巡撫延綏胡志夔請免戍軍三年，每軍徵銀五兩四錢，為募兵用。至萬曆初，大同督、撫方逢時等請修築費。詔以河南應戍班軍，自四年至六年概免，盡扣班價發給，謂之折班，班軍遂耗。久之，所徵亦不得。寧山、南陽、穎上三衛積逋延綏鎮折班銀至五萬餘兩。是後諸邊財力俱盡，敝極矣。

In Jiajing year 43, Yansui Grand Coordinator Hu Zhikui asked to exempt garrison troops for three years at 5 taels 4 mace each to fund recruitment. By early Wanli, Datong coordinators Fang Fengshi and others sought repair funds. An edict exempted Henan shift troops slated for garrison in years 4 through 6, seizing all shift pay for disbursement in what was called commuted shifts, and the shift corps withered. In time even the commuted payments failed to arrive. Ningshan, Nanyang, and Yingshang guards alone owed Yansui more than fifty thousand taels in commuted-shift arrears. Thereafter every frontier command was financially exhausted.

初，邊政嚴明，官軍皆有定職。總兵官總鎮軍為正兵，副總兵分領三千為奇兵，遊擊分領三千往來防禦為遊兵，參將分守各路東西策應為援兵。營堡墩臺分極沖、次沖，為設軍多寡。平時走陣、哨探、守□□、焚荒諸事，無敢惰。稍違制，輒按軍法。而其後皆廢壞云。

Earlier frontier administration was strict and every soldier had a fixed duty. The regional commander held the main body; the deputy led three thousand as the flanking force; the mobile detachment led three thousand on patrol; the brigade commander guarded routes for mutual relief. Camps, forts, and beacons were graded utmost and secondary to fix troop strengths. In peacetime drill, scouting, beacon watch, and steppe-burning allowed no slackness. Minor breaches brought immediate military punishment. Afterward the whole system collapsed.

沿海之地，自樂會接安南界，五千里抵閩，又二千里抵浙，又二千里抵南直隸，又千八百里抵山東，又千二百里逾寶坻、盧龍抵遼東，又千三百餘里抵鴨綠江。島寇倭夷，在在出沒，故海防亦重。

The coast ran from Lehui on the Annan frontier five thousand li to Fujian, two thousand more to Zhejiang, two thousand to Nan Zhili, eighteen hundred to Shandong, twelve hundred across Baodi and Lulong to Liaodong, and thirteen hundred more to the Yalu. Island pirates and Japanese raiders appeared everywhere, so coastal defense weighed heavily too.

吳元年，用浙江行省平章李文忠言，嘉興、海鹽、海寧皆設兵戍守。洪武四年十二月，命靖海侯吳禎籍方國珍所部溫、台、慶元三府軍士及蘭秀山無田糧之民，凡十一萬餘人，隸各衛為軍。且禁沿海民私出海。時國珍及張士誠餘眾多竄島嶼間，勾倭為寇。五年，命浙江、福建造海舟防倭。明年，從德慶侯廖永忠言，命廣洋、江陰、橫海、水軍四衛增置多櫓快船，無事則巡徼，遇寇以大船薄戰，快船逐之。詔禎充總兵官，領四衛兵，京衛及沿海諸衛軍悉聽節制。每春以舟師出海，分路防倭，迄秋乃還。十七年，命信國公湯和巡視海上，築山東、江南北、浙東西沿海諸城。後三年，命江夏侯周德興抽福建福、興、漳、泉四府三丁之一，為沿海戍兵，得萬五千人。移置衛所於要害處，築城十六。復置定海、盤石、金鄉、海門四衛於浙，金山衛於松江之小官場，及青村、南匯嘴城二千戶所，又置臨山衛於紹興，及三山、瀝海等千戶所，而寧波、溫、台並海地，先已置八千戶所，曰平陽、三江、龍山、霩戺、大鬆、錢倉、新河、松門，皆屯兵設守。二十一年，又命和行視閩粵，築城增兵。置福建沿海指揮使司五，曰福寧、鎮東、平海、永寧、鎮海。領千戶所十二，曰大金、定海、梅花、萬安、莆禧、崇武、福全、金門、高浦、六鰲、銅山、玄鐘。二十三年，從衛卒陳仁言，造蘇州太倉衛海舟。旋令濱海衛所，每百戶及巡檢司皆置船二，巡海上盜賊。後從山東都司周彥言，建五總寨於寧海衛，與萊州衛八總寨，共轄小寨四十八。已，覆命重臣勳戚魏國公徐輝祖等分巡沿海。帝素厭日本詭譎，絕其貢使，故終洪武、建文世不為患。

In the first Wu year, on Li Wenzhong's advice, Jiaxing, Haiyan, and Haining all received coastal garrisons. In Hongwu year 4, month 12, Marquis of Jinghai Wu Zhen registered more than 110,000 men from Wen, Tai, and Qingyuan—Fang Guozhen's former followers and landless Lanshan people—and enrolled them as guard soldiers. Coastal inhabitants were forbidden to sail privately. Many of Guozhen's and Zhang Shicheng's remnants then hid on islands and colluded with Japanese raiders. In year 5 Zhejiang and Fujian were ordered to build sea vessels against Japanese raids. The next year, on Marquis of Deqing Liao Yongzhong's advice, Guangyang, Jiangyin, Henghai, and Shuizhan guards added fast multi-oared boats for patrol in peace and pursuit when large ships engaged raiders. Wu Zhen was appointed regional commander over the four guards, with capital and coastal units under his command. Each spring the fleet put to sea on divided routes against Japanese raids and returned in autumn. In year 17 Duke of Xin Guo Tang He toured the coast and built coastal cities in Shandong, Jiangnan, and both Zhejiangs. Three years later Marquis of Jiangxia Zhou Dexing drafted one man in three from Fujian's Fu, Xing, Zhang, and Quan prefectures for coastal garrison, yielding 15,000 men. Guard posts were shifted to choke points and sixteen cities built. Dinghai, Panshi, Jinxiang, and Haimen guards were restored in Zhejiang; Jinshan Guard rose at Songjiang's Xiaoguanchang with Qingcun and Nanhuizui posts; Linshan Guard at Shaoxing with Sanshan and Lihai posts; and Ningbo, Wen, and Tai already held eight coastal thousand-household posts—Pingyang, Sanjiang, Longshan, Huoshi, Dasong, Qiancang, Xinhe, Songmen—all manned. In year 21 Tang He again toured Fujian and Guangdong to build cities and add troops. Five Fujian coastal command offices were established: Funing, Zhendong, Pinghai, Yongning, and Zhenhai. They commanded twelve posts: Dajin, Dinghai, Meihua, Wan'an, Puxi, Chongwu, Fuquan, Jinmen, Gaopu, Liulao, Tongshan, and Xuanzhong. In year 23, on guard soldier Chen Ren's advice, sea vessels were built for Suzhou Taicang Guard. Coastal guards and inspection offices were soon ordered to keep two patrol boats per hundred-household unit against sea bandits. Later, on Shandong Regional Command Zhou Yan's advice, five main stockades were built at Ninghai Guard alongside Laizhou's eight, jointly overseeing forty-eight minor stockades. Grand ministers and meritorious nobles including Duke of Wei Xu Huizu were soon ordered to tour the coast in divisions. The emperor had long distrusted Japanese duplicity and cut off tribute envoys, so through Hongwu and Jianwen they caused no major trouble.

永樂六年，命豐城侯李彬等緣海捕倭，復招島人、縻戶、賈豎、漁丁為兵，防備益嚴。十七年，倭寇遼東，總兵官劉江殲之於望海堝。自是倭大懼，百餘年間，海上無大侵犯。朝廷閱數歲一令大臣巡警而已。

In Yongle year 6, Marquis of Fengcheng Li Bin and others hunted Japanese raiders along the coast, recruiting islanders, registered households, merchant sailors, and fishers as troops, tightening coastal defense. In year 17 Japanese raiders struck Liaodong; Regional Commander Liu Jiang destroyed them at Wanghaipu. Thereafter Japan was greatly intimidated, and for more than a century the sea saw no major invasion. The court contented itself with ordering grand ministers to patrol every few years.

至嘉靖中，倭患漸起，始設巡撫浙江兼管福建海道提督軍務都御史。已，改巡撫為巡視。未幾，倭寇益肆。乃增設金山參將，分守蘇、松海防，尋改為副總兵，調募江南、北徐、邳官民兵充戰守，而杭、嘉、湖亦增參將及兵備道。三十三年，調撥山東民兵及青州水陸槍手千人赴淮、揚，聽總督南直軍務都御史張經調用。時倭縱掠杭、嘉、蘇、松，踞柘林城為窟穴，大江南北皆被擾。監司任環敗之，經亦有王家涇之捷，乃遁出海，復犯蘇州。於是南京御史屠仲律言五事。其守海口云：「守平陽港、黃花澳，據海門之險，使不得犯溫、台。守寧海關、湖頭灣，遏三江之口，使不得窺寧、紹。守鱉子門、乍浦峽，使不得近杭、嘉。守吳淞、劉家河、七丫港，使不得掩蘇、松。且宜修飭海舟，大小相比，或百或五十聯為一□宗，募慣習水工領之，而充以原額水軍，於諸海口量緩急置防。」部是其議。未幾，兵部亦言：「浙、直、通、泰間最利水戰，往時多用沙船破賊，請厚賞招徠之。防禦之法，守海島為上，宜以太倉、崇明、嘉定、上海沙船及福倉、東莞等船守普陀、大衢。陳錢山乃浙、直分路之始，狼、福二山約束首尾，交接江洋，亦要害地，宜督水師固守。」報可。已，復令直隸吳淞江、劉家河、福山港、鎮江、圌山五總添設遊兵，聽金山副總兵調度。

In the Jiajing reign Japanese raids gradually intensified, and the court first established a Grand Coordinator of Zhejiang who also supervised Fujian sea routes as Superintendent of Military Affairs with Vice Censor-in-Chief rank. Soon afterward the post was retitled from Grand Coordinator to Inspector. Before long the Japanese raiders grew bolder still. A Jinshan regional vice commander was then added for Suzhou-Songjiang coastal defense, soon promoted to vice regional commander, with troops recruited from Jiangnan, northern Xu, and Pi to serve in combat and garrison roles; Hangzhou, Jiaxing, and Huzhou likewise gained new vice commanders and military preparedness commissioners. In year 33, Shandong militia and one thousand Qingzhou land-and-sea arquebusiers were dispatched to Huai and Yangzhou under Nanzhili military superintendent Zhang Jing. Japanese raiders were then ravaging Hangzhou, Jiaxing, Suzhou, and Songjiang, holding Zhalin as their base, and both banks of the Yangtze were thrown into disorder. Supervisory official Ren Huan routed them, and Zhang Jing won at Wangjia Creek as well; the raiders then fled to sea before striking Suzhou again. Nanjing censor Tu Zhonglü then submitted five recommendations. On coastal defense he said: "Hold Pingyang Harbor and Huanghua Bay and secure Haimen so raiders cannot reach Wenzhou and Taizhou. Hold Ninghai Pass and Hutou Bay to block the Three Rivers estuary and deny them reconnaissance of Ningbo and Shaoxing. Defend Biezi Gate and Zhapu Strait to keep them from nearing Hangzhou and Jiaxing. Hold Wusong, Liujia River, and Qiya Harbor to forestall surprise attacks on Suzhou and Songjiang. Sea vessels should also be refitted and paired by size, with fleets of fifty or a hundred forming one squadron under experienced watermen, supplemented by the standing naval quota, and defenses staggered at each harbor according to need." The ministry approved his proposals. Soon the Ministry of War added: "The waters between Zhejiang, Nanzhili, Tongzhou, and Taizhou favor naval combat; sand junks once broke the enemy—generous rewards should recruit them. The best defense is to hold the offshore islands, using sand junks from Taicang, Chongming, Jiading, and Shanghai and vessels from Fukang and Dongguan to guard Putuo and Daqu. Chenqian Mountain marks where Zhejiang and Nanzhili routes divide; Lang and Fu Mountains bracket the junction of river and sea—a vital point the fleet should hold fast." The throne approved. Nanzhili's five commands—Wusong River, Liujia River, Fushan Harbor, Zhenjiang, and Mount Tu—were then ordered to add mobile detachments under the Jinshan vice regional commander.

時胡宗憲為總督，誅海賊徐海、汪直。直部三千人，復勾倭入寇，閩、廣益騷。三十七年，都御史王詢請「分福建之福、興為一路，領以參將，駐福寧，水防自流江、烽火門、俞山、小埕至南日山，漳、泉為一路，領以參將，駐詔安，水防自南日山至浯嶼、銅山、玄鐘、走馬溪、安邊館。水陸兵皆聽節制。福建省城介在南北，去海僅五十里，宜更設參將，選募精稅部領哨船，與主客兵相應援」。部覆從之。廣東惠、潮亦增設參將，駐揭陽。福建巡撫都御史遊震得言：「浙江溫、處與福寧接壤，倭所出沒，宜進戚繼光為副總兵，守之。而增設福寧守備，隸繼光。漳州之月港亦增設守備，隸總兵官俞大猷。延、建、邵為八閩上游，宜募兵以備緩急。」皆允行。既而宗憲被逮，罷總督官，以浙江巡撫趙炳然兼任軍事。炳然因請令定海總兵屬浙江，金山總兵屬南直，俱兼理水陸軍務，互相策應。其後，莆田倭寇平，乃復五水寨舊制。

Hu Zongxian then served as superintendent and executed the pirates Xu Hai and Wang Zhi. Wang Zhi's three thousand followers again allied with Japanese raiders, throwing Fujian and Guangdong into greater turmoil. In year 37 vice censor-in-chief Wang Xun proposed splitting Fujian: Fu and Xing as one zone under a regional vice commander at Funing, guarding from Liujiang, Fenghuo Gate, Yushan, and Xiaocheng to Nanri Mountain; Zhangzhou and Quanzhou as another under a vice commander at Zhao'an, guarding from Nanri to Wuyu, Tongshan, Xuanzhong, Zouma Creek, and Anbian Station. All land and sea forces were placed under his command. Fujian's capital lies midway between the two zones, only fifty li from the sea; another regional vice commander should be appointed with elite troops to command patrol boats in support of regular and auxiliary forces." The ministry approved. Guangdong's Huizhou and Chaozhou likewise gained a regional vice commander at Jieyang. Fujian grand coordinator You Zhende urged: "As Wenzhou and Chuzhou in Zhejiang adjoin Funing, the raiders' main haunt, Qi Jiguang should be promoted to vice regional commander to defend the sector. A new Funing garrison commander should be added under Jiguang's command. Zhangzhou's Yue Harbor should likewise gain a garrison commander under regional commander Yu Dayou. Yanping, Jianning, and Shaowu form Fujian's interior uplands; troops should be recruited for emergencies." All were approved. Zongxian was soon arrested, the superintendent's office abolished, and Zhejiang grand coordinator Zhao Bingran placed in charge of military affairs as well. Zhao Bingran asked that the Dinghai regional commander answer to Zhejiang and the Jinshan commander to Nanzhili, each handling both land and sea forces in mutual support. After Putian was pacified, the five water stockades were restored to their former system.

五寨者，福寧之烽火門，福州之小埕澳，興化之南日山，泉州之浯嶼，漳州之西門澳，亦曰銅山。景泰三年，鎮守尚書薛希璉奏建者也，後廢。至是巡撫譚綸疏言：「五寨守扼外洋，法甚周悉，宜復舊。以烽火門、南日、浯嶼三□宗為正兵，銅山、小埕二□宗為遊兵。寨設把總，分汛地，明斥堠，嚴會哨。改三路參將為守備。分新募浙兵為二班，各九千人，春秋番上。各縣民壯皆補用精悍，每府領以武職一人，兵備使者以時閱視。」帝皆是之。狼山故設副總兵，至是改為鎮守總兵官，兼轄大江南北。迨隆慶初，倭漸不為患，而諸小寇往往有之。

The five stockades were Fenghuo Gate in Funing, Xiaocheng Bay in Fuzhou, Nanri Mountain in Xinghua, Wuyu in Quanzhou, and Ximen Bay in Zhangzhou—also known as Tongshan. Garrison minister Xue Xilian had petitioned for their establishment in Jingtai year 3; they were later abolished. Grand coordinator Tan Lun then argued: "The five stockades block the open sea and form a thorough system—they should be restored. Fenghuo Gate, Nanri, and Wuyu would hold three regular squadrons; Tongshan and Xiaocheng would hold two mobile squadrons. Each stockade would have a platoon commander, divided patrol sectors, cleared beacon lines, and strict joint sentry duty. The three regional vice commanders became garrison commanders. New Zhejiang recruits were split into two nine-thousand-man shifts on spring-autumn rotation. County militia were filled out with the ablest men, each prefecture overseen by a military officer and inspected periodically by the military preparedness commissioner." The emperor approved it all. Langshan, which had held a vice regional commander, was now elevated to garrison regional commander with authority over both sides of the Yangtze. By early Longqing the Japanese threat had waned, though petty raiders still appeared intermittently.

萬曆三年，設廣東南澳總兵官，以其據漳、泉要害也。久之，倭寇朝鮮，朝廷大發兵往援，先後六年。於是設巡撫官於天津，防畿甸。後十餘年，從南直巡按御史顏思忠言，分淮安大營兵六百守廖角嘴。從福建巡撫丁繼嗣言，設兵自浙入閩之三江及劉澳，而易海澄團練營土著軍以浙兵。

In Wanli year 3 a Guangdong Nan'ao regional commander was installed to hold the strategic junction of Zhangzhou and Quanzhou. Japanese forces later invaded Korea, and the court mounted major relief expeditions over six years. A grand coordinator was then stationed at Tianjin to guard the capital approaches. A decade later, on Nanzhili investigating censor Yan Sizhong's recommendation, six hundred troops from Huai'an's main camp were posted at Liaojiaozui. On Fujian grand coordinator Ding Jisi's advice, troops entering Fujian from Zhejiang were posted at the Three Rivers and Liu'ao, and Haicheng's local drill corps were replaced with Zhejiang troops.

天啟中，築城於澎湖，設遊擊一，把總二，統兵三千，築砲臺以守。先是，萬曆中，許孚遠撫閩，奏築福州海壇山，因及澎湖諸嶼，且言浙東沿海陳錢、金塘、玉環、南麂諸山俱宜經理，遂設南麂副總兵，而澎湖不暇及。其地遙峙海中，逶迤如修蛇，多岐港零嶼，其中空間可藏巨艘。初為紅毛所據，至是因巡撫南居益言，乃奪而守之。

Under Tianqi, Penghu was fortified with a walled garrison: one mobile commander, two platoon commanders, and three thousand troops manning gun platforms. Earlier under Wanli, Fujian governor Xu Fuyuan petitioned to fortify Fuzhou's Haitan Mountain and extend control to the Penghu islands, urging that Chenqian, Jintang, Yuhuan, Nanji, and other Zhejiang coastal points also be garrisoned; a Nanji vice regional commander was appointed, but Penghu was left unattended. The islands stand far offshore, winding like a serpent, with branching harbors and scattered islets whose inner waters can shelter large ships. The Dutch had first occupied it; on grand coordinator Nan Juyi's recommendation the Ming seized and garrisoned it.

自世宗世倭患以來，沿海大都會，各設總督、巡撫、兵備副使及總兵官、參將、遊擊等員，而諸所防禦，於廣東則分東、中、西三路，設三參將；於福建則有五水寨；於浙則有六總，一金鄉、盤石二衛，一松門、海門二衛，一昌國衛及錢倉、爵溪等所，一定海衛及霩戺、大嵩等所，一觀海、臨山二衛，一海寧衛，分統以四參將；於南直隸則乍浦以東，金山衛設參將，黃浦以北，吳淞江口設總兵；於淮、揚則總兵駐通州，遊擊駐廟灣，又於揚州設陸兵遊擊，待調遣；於山東則登、萊、青三府設巡察海道之副使，管理民兵之參將，總督沿海兵馬備倭之都指揮，於薊、遼則大沽海口宿重兵，領以副總兵，而以密雲、永平兩遊擊為應援。山海關外，則廣寧中、前等五所兵守各汛，以寧前參將為應援，而金、復、海、蓋諸軍皆任防海。三岔以東，九聯城外創鎮江城，設遊擊，統兵千七百，哨海上，北與寬奠參將陸營相接，共計凡七鎮，而守備、把總、分守、巡徼會哨者不下數百員。以三、四、五月為大汛，九、十月為小汛。蓋遭倭甚毒，故設防亦最密云。

Since the Jiajing-era wokou crisis, every major coastal city has gained superintendents, grand coordinators, military preparedness commissioners, regional commanders, vice commanders, and mobile commanders; in Guangdong the coast was split into eastern, central, and western routes with three vice commanders; in Fujian there were the five water stockades; in Zhejiang there were six commands covering Jinxian and Panshi, Songmen and Haimen, Changguo with Qiancang and Juexi, Dinghai with Huoshi and Dasong, Guanhai and Linshan, and Haining, under four vice commanders; in Nanzhili a vice commander at Jinshan Guard held east of Zhapu, and a regional commander at the Wusong estuary held north of Huangpu; in Huai and Yangzhou the regional commander was at Tongzhou, a mobile commander at Miaowan, and a land mobile commander at Yangzhou for dispatch as needed; in Shandong Deng, Lai, and Qing had sea-route vice commissioners, militia vice commanders, and coastal anti-raider commanders-in-chief; in Ji and Liaodong heavy forces at Dagu were led by a vice regional commander with Miyun and Yongping mobile commanders in support. Beyond Shanhai Pass, the five Guangning garrison posts held their sectors with the Ningqian vice commander in support, while Jinzhou, Fuxian, Haizhou, and Gaizhou troops all shared coastal defense. East of Sancha a new Zhenjiang walled post outside Jiulian held a mobile commander with seventeen hundred men patrolling the sea, linking north to Kuandian's land forces—seven garrisons in all, with hundreds of garrison, platoon, patrol, and sentry officers. March through May marked the main alert season, September and October the secondary. Japanese raids had been so devastating that coastal defenses were laid out with exceptional density.

日本地與閩相值，而浙之招寶關其貢道在焉，故浙、閩為最沖。南寇則廣東，北寇則由江犯留都、淮、揚，故防海外，防江為重。洪武初，於都城南新江口置水兵八千。已，稍置萬二千，造舟四百艘。又設陸兵於北岸浦子口，相掎角。所轄沿江諸郡。上自九江、廣濟、黃梅，下抵蘇、松、通、泰，中包安慶、池、和、太平，凡盜賊及販私鹽者，悉令巡捕，兼以防倭。永樂時，特命勳臣為帥視江操，其後兼用都御史。成化四年，從錦衣衛僉事馮瑤言，令江兵依地設防，於瓜、儀、太平置將領鎮守。後六年，守備定西侯蔣琬奏調建陽、鎮江諸衛軍補江兵缺伍。十三年，命擇武大臣一人職江操，毋攝營務。又五年，從南京都御史白昂言，敕沿江守備官互相應援，並給關防。著為令。弘治中，命新江口兩班軍如京營例，首班歇，即以次班操。嘉靖八年，江陰賊侯仲金等作亂，給事中夏言請設鎮守江、淮總兵官。已而寇平，總兵罷不設。十九年，沙賊黃艮等復起。帝詰兵部以罷總兵之故，乃復設，給旗牌符敕，提督沿江上下。後復裁罷。三十二年，倭患熾，復設副總兵於金山衛，轄沿海至鎮江，與狼山副總兵水陸相應。時江北俱被倭，於是量調九江、安慶官軍守京口、圌山等地。久之，給事中範宗吳言：「故事，操江都御史防江，應、鳳二巡撫防海。後因倭警，遂以鎮江而下，通常、狼、福諸處隸之操江，以故二撫臣得諉其責。操江又以向非本屬兵，難遙制，亦漠然視之，非委任責成意。宜以圌山、三江會口為操、撫分界。」報可。其後增上下兩江巡視御史，得舉劾有司將領，而以南京歛都御史兼理操江，不另設。

Japan lies opposite Fujian, and Zhejiang's Zhaobao Pass sits on the tribute route, making Zhejiang and Fujian the most vulnerable coasts. Southern raiders hit Guangdong; northern ones came up the Yangtze against Nanjing, Huai, and Yangzhou—so both seaward and river defense mattered greatly. In early Hongwu eight thousand naval troops were posted at Xinjingkou south of the capital. The force was soon raised to twelve thousand and four hundred vessels built. Land forces were also posted on the north bank at Puzikou in mutual support. They had jurisdiction over the prefectures along the river. From Jiujiang, Guangji, and Huangmei upstream to Suzhou, Songjiang, Tongzhou, and Taizhou downstream, including Anqing, Chizhou, Hezhou, and Taiping in between—all bandits and salt smugglers were to be hunted down, with anti-raider duty as well. Under Yongle meritorious nobles were appointed to command Yangtze drills; later vice censors-in-chief shared the role. In Chenghua year 4, on Embroidered Uniform Guard assistant commissioner Feng Yao's advice, river forces were deployed by sector with garrison generals at Gua, Yi, and Taiping. Six years later garrison commander Marquis of Dingxi Jiang Wan petitioned to transfer Jianyang, Zhenjiang, and other guard troops to fill river-force vacancies. In year 13 one senior military official was chosen to command Yangtze drills exclusively, without other camp duties. Five years later, on Nanjing vice censor-in-chief Bai Ang's advice, riverside garrison commanders were ordered to support one another and issued official seals. This was codified as a standing regulation. Under Hongzhi Xinjingkou's two shifts followed capital-garrison practice: when one rested, the other drilled. In Jiajing year 8 Jiangyin rebels led by Hou Zhongjin rose up; supervising secretary Xia Yan petitioned for a garrison regional commander over the Yangtze and Huai. Once the rebels were suppressed, the regional commander post was abolished. In year 19 sand pirates led by Huang Gen rose again. The emperor rebuked the Ministry of War for abolishing the post, reinstated it with banners and sealed commissions, and charged him to supervise the entire Yangtze. It was later abolished again. In year 32, as the wokou crisis intensified, a vice regional commander was restored at Jinshan Guard, holding the coast to Zhenjiang in land-sea coordination with Langshan. With the north bank overrun, official troops from Jiujiang and Anqing were dispatched to hold Jingkou, Mount Tu, and related posts. Later supervising secretary Fan Zongwu argued: "By precedent the Yangtze-command vice censor defended the river while the Yingzhou and Fengyang grand coordinators defended the sea. After the wokou alert, posts from Zhenjiang down through Tongzhou, Changzhou, Langshan, and Fushan were assigned to Yangtze command, letting the two grand coordinators evade their duties. Yangtze command, finding these were not its original troops and hard to control at a distance, treated them indifferently as well—not true delegation of responsibility. Mount Tu and the Three Rivers junction should mark the boundary between Yangtze command and the coastal grand coordinators." The throne approved. Upper and lower Yangtze inspecting censors were then added with power to impeach officials, while Nanjing's supervising vice censor-in-chief took Yangtze command as well, without a separate post.

先是，增募水兵六千。隆慶初，以都御史吳時來請，留四之一，餘悉罷遣，並裁中軍把總等官。已，復令分汛設守，而責以上下南北互相策應。又從都御史宋儀望言，諸軍皆分駐江上，不得居城市。萬曆二十年，以倭警，言者請復設京口總兵。南京兵部尚書衷貞吉等謂既有吳淞總兵，不宜兩設。乃設兵備使者，每春汛，調備倭都督，統衛所水、陸軍赴鎮江。後七年，操江耿定力奏：「長江千餘里，上江列營五，兵備臣三；下江列營五，兵備臣二。宜委以簡閱訓練，即以精否為兵備殿最。」部議以為然。故事，南北總哨官五日一會哨於適中地，將領官亦月兩至江上會哨。其後多不行。崇禎中，復以勳臣任操江，偷惰成習，會哨巡徼皆虛名，非有實矣。

Six thousand additional naval troops had earlier been recruited. In early Longqing, on vice censor-in-chief Wu Shilai's petition, only a quarter were retained and the rest discharged, with central-army platoon commanders also abolished. Sector garrisons were soon restored with orders that upper, lower, and north-south forces support one another. On vice censor-in-chief Song Yiwang's advice, all troops were posted along the river and forbidden to live in cities. In Wanli year 20, amid Japanese alarms, officials asked to restore the Jingkou regional commander. Nanjing War Minister Yuan Zhenji and others argued that with a Wusong commander already in place, a second post was unnecessary. Instead a military preparedness commissioner was appointed; each spring flood season the anti-Japanese commander led guard water and land forces to Zhenjiang. Seven years later Yangtze commander Geng Dingli reported: "The Yangtze runs more than a thousand li; the upper river holds five camps and three preparedness commissioners; the lower river has five camps and two preparedness commissioners. They should be charged with muster and drill, and preparedness commissioners ranked by how sharp their troops proved." The ministry endorsed the proposal. By regulation north and south chief sentries convened every five days at a midway post, and field commanders twice monthly on the river for joint inspection. In time the practice largely fell into disuse. Under Chongzhen nobles again held Yangtze command, slackness hardened into habit, and joint sentry and patrol became hollow formalities altogether.

衛所之外，郡縣有民壯，邊郡有土兵。

Outside the guard system prefectures kept civilian militia, and frontier districts local levies.

太祖定江東，循元制，立管領民兵萬戶府。後從山西行都司言，聽邊民自備軍械，團結防邊。閩、浙苦倭，指揮方謙請籍民丁多者為軍。尋以為患鄉里，詔閩、浙互徙。時已用民兵，然非召募也。正統二年，始募所在軍餘、民壯願自效者，陝西得四千二百人。人給布二匹，月糧四斗。景泰初，遣使分募直隸、山東、山西、河南民壯，撥山西義勇守大同，而紫荊、倒馬二關，亦用民兵防守，事平免歸。

When the dynasty secured Jiangdong it retained the Yuan militia ten-thousand-household offices. On the Shanxi commander's advice border communities were later allowed to arm themselves and organize for frontier defense. With Fujian and Zhejiang ravaged by pirates, Commander Fang Qian asked to draft households with many adult sons. They soon proved a nuisance to home districts, and an edict ordered mutual transfers between Fujian and Zhejiang. Militia were already in use by then, though not yet on a recruitment basis. In Zhengtong year 2 the state first recruited surplus garrison men and willing militiamen; Shaanxi mustered 4,200. Each recruit received two bolts of cloth and four dou of grain per month. Early in Jingtai envoys recruited militia across Zhili, Shandong, Shanxi, and Henan; Shanxi volunteers garrisoned Datong, and Zijing and Daoma passes were also held by militia until the crisis passed and they were discharged.

成化二年，以邊警，復二關民兵。敕御史往延安、慶陽選精壯編伍，得五千餘人，號曰土兵。以延綏巡撫盧祥言邊民驍果，可練為兵，使護田裡妻子，故有是命。

Chenghua year 2 saw border alarms and the restoration of militia at the two passes. Censors were dispatched to Yan'an and Qingyang to choose sturdy men and form units of more than 5,000, called local troops. Yan-sui governor Lu Xiang had argued that frontier villagers were rugged and trainable as soldiers to guard their fields and families, which prompted the order.

弘治七年，立歛民壯法。州、縣七八百里以上，裡歛二人，五百里三，三百里四，百里以上五。有司訓練，遇警調發，給以行糧，而禁役佔放買之弊。富民不願，則上直於官，官自為募。或稱機兵，在巡檢司者稱弓兵。後以越境防冬非計，大同巡撫劉宇請免其班操，徵銀糧輸大同，而以威遠屯丁、舍餘補役。給事中熊偉亦請編應募民於附近衛所。並從之。十四年，以西北諸邊所募士兵，多不足五千，遣使□銀二十萬及太僕寺馬價銀四萬往募。指揮千百戶以募兵多寡為差，得遷級，失官者得復職，即令統所募兵。既而兵部議覆侍郎李孟暘請實軍伍疏，謂：「天下衛所官軍原額二百七十餘萬，歲久逃故，嘗選民壯三十餘萬，又核衛所舍人、餘丁八十八萬，西北諸邊召募士兵無慮數萬。請如孟暘奏，察有司不操練民壯、私役雜差者，如役佔軍人罪。」報可。正德中，流賊擾山東，巡撫張鳳選民兵，令自買馬團操，民不勝其擾。兵部侍郎楊潭以為言。都御史寧杲所募多無賴子，為御史張璇所劾。

Hongzhi year 7 saw regulations for drafting civilian militia. Districts of 700-800 li or more drafted two men per li; those of 500 li drafted three; 300 li, four; and 100 li or more, five. Magistrates drilled them and mobilized them in emergencies with marching rations, while impressment, detention, and purchased substitutes were banned. Wealthy men who refused could pay silver to the magistrate instead, and officials would recruit in their stead. Some were termed rapid-response troops; those at inspection stations, bowmen. Winter duty across borders was later judged imprudent; Datong governor Liu Yu asked to end their rotating service, collect silver and grain for Datong, and fill gaps with Weiyuan colonists and surplus household sons. Supervising secretary Xiong Wei also asked to enroll recruits in nearby guards. Both recommendations were adopted. In year 14, with frontier recruits often numbering fewer than 5,000 per sector, envoys were sent bearing 200,000 taels of silver and 40,000 taels of stud-fund silver to recruit more. Company and battalion commanders were promoted according to how many men they recruited; disgraced officers could regain rank and immediately command their recruits. The War Ministry soon replied to Vice Minister Li Mengyang's petition to fill the rolls: "Guard troops had originally numbered more than 2.7 million nationwide, but desertion and mortality had eroded them over time. Some 300,000 militiamen had been selected, another 880,000 dependents and surplus sons tallied, and northwest recruitment had raised tens of thousands of garrison soldiers. He asked that officials who failed to drill militia or diverted them to private labor be punished like those who impressed garrison troops." The throne approved. Mid Zhengde, bandits ravaged Shandong; Governor Zhang Feng drafted militia and required them to buy horses for drill, and commoners were driven past endurance. War Vice Minister Yang Tan lodged a protest. Many of Censor-in-Chief Ning Gao's recruits were ruffians, and censor Zhang Xuan impeached him for it.

嘉靖二十二年增州縣民壯額，大者千人，次六七百，小者五百。二十九年，京師新被寇，議募民兵，以二萬為率。歲四月終，赴近京防禦。後五年，兵部尚書楊博請汰老弱，存精銳，在外者發各道為民兵，在京者隸之巡捕參將，逃者不補。帝以影占數多，耗糧無用，遣官核宜罷宜還者以聞。隆慶中，張居正、陳以勤復請籍畿甸民兵，謂：「直隸八府人多健悍，總按戶籍，除單丁老弱者，父子三人籍一子，兄弟三人籍一弟，州與大縣可得千六百人，小縣可得千人。中分之為正兵、奇兵，登名尺籍，隸撫臣操練，歲無過三月，月無過三次，練畢即令歸農，復其身。歲操外，不得別遣。」命所司議行。然自嘉靖後，山東、河南民兵戍薊門者，率徵銀以充召募。至萬曆初，山東徵銀至五萬六千兩，貧民大困。

Jiajing year 22 raised county militia quotas to 1,000 for large counties, 600-700 for medium, and 500 for small. In year 29, after fresh raids on the capital, officials debated recruiting 20,000 militiamen as a target. Each year by late fourth month they reported to capital-area defense. Five years later War Minister Yang Bo asked to purge the old and weak and keep the fit: provincials to circuit militia, capital men to patrol vice-generals, with no replacement for deserters. The emperor judged too many men existed only on paper, wasting grain to no purpose, and sent officers to audit who should be cut or restored. In Longqing Zhang Juzheng and Chen Yiqin again petitioned to register capital militia: "Zhili's eight prefectures abound in hardy men. By household registers, excluding only sons, the elderly, and the infirm, registering one son per household of three males or one younger brother per trio of brothers, a major prefecture or county could field 1,600 men and a small county 1,000. They would be split into regular and skirmish companies, enrolled on regimental rolls, trained by governors no more than three months a year and three sessions a month, then sent home to farm with corvée exemption restored. Apart from annual drill they could not be deployed elsewhere." Offices were ordered to study implementation. Yet after Jiajing Shandong and Henan militia sent to Jimen were generally commuted to silver levies for recruitment. By early Wanli Shandong's levy had reached 56,000 taels, impoverishing commoners.

治河之役，給事中張貞觀請益募士兵，捍淮、揚、徐、邳。畿南盜起，給事中耿隨龍請復民壯舊制，專捕賊盜。播州之亂，工部侍郎趙可懷請練土著，兵部因言：「天下之無兵者，不獨蜀也。各省官軍、民壯，皆宜罷老稚，易以健卒。軍操屬印官、操官，民操屬正官、捕官，郡守、監司不得牽制。立營分伍，以憑調發。」先後皆議行。

During river-work supervising secretary Zhang Zhenguan asked to recruit more garrison troops for Huai, Yang, Xu, and Pei. With banditry flaring south of the capital, supervising secretary Geng Suilong urged restoring the old militia system devoted solely to bandit suppression. During the Bozhou revolt Works Vice Minister Zhao Kehuai petitioned to drill local levies; the War Ministry noted: "Sichuan is not the only province short of troops. Official and militia forces in every province should replace old and young with fit men. Garrison drill should rest with seal officers and drill officers, militia drill with magistrates and constables, without interference from prefects or surveillance commissioners. Establish camps and companies for orderly mobilization." Each proposal was adopted in turn.

末年，募兵措餉益急。南京職方郎中鄒維璉陳調募之害。山西參政徐九翰尤極言民兵不可調。崇禎時，中原盜急，兵部尚書楊嗣昌議令責州縣訓練土著為兵。工部侍郎張慎言言其不便者數事，而御史米壽圖又言其害有十，謂不若簡練民兵，增民壯快手，備御地方為便。後嗣昌死，練兵亦不行。

In the dynasty's final years recruitment and fund-raising grew desperate. Nanjing Bureau director Zou Weilian detailed the harm of mobilization and recruitment. Shanxi assistant commissioner Xu Jiuhan especially argued that militia should not be mobilized. Under Chongzhen, with banditry raging in the central plains, War Minister Yang Sichang proposed ordering counties to drill local levies as soldiers. Works Vice Minister Zhang Shenyan cited several problems; censor Mi Shoutu listed ten harms and argued that drilling militia and adding swift militia runners for local defense would be better. After Sichang's death the training scheme never took effect.

鄉兵者，隨其風土所長應募，調佐軍旅緩急。其隸軍籍者曰浙兵，義烏為最，處次之，台、寧又次之，善狼筅，間以叉槊。戚繼光制鴛鴦陣以破倭，及守薊門，最有名。曰川兵、曰遼兵，崇禎時，多調之剿流賊。其不隸軍籍者，所在多有。河南嵩縣曰毛葫蘆，習短兵，長於走山。而嵩及盧氏、靈寶、永寧並多礦兵，曰角腦，又曰打手。山東有長竿手。徐州有箭手。井陘有螞螂手，善運石，遠可及百步。閩漳、泉習鏢牌，水戰為最。泉州永春人善技擊。正統間，郭榮六者，破沙尤賊有功。商灶鹽丁以私販為業，多勁果。成化初，河東鹽徒千百輩，自備火砲、強弩、車仗，雜官軍逐寇。而松江曹涇鹽徒，嘉靖中逐倭至島上，焚其舟。後倭見民家有鹺囊，輒搖手相戒。粵東雜蠻蜑，習長牌、斫刀，而新會、東莞之產強半。延綏、固原多邊外土著，善騎射，英宗命簡練以備秋防。大滕峽之役，韓雍用之，以摧瑤、僮之用牌刀者。莊浪魯家軍，舊隸隨駕中，洪熙初，令土指揮領之。萬曆間，部臣稱其驍健，為敵所畏，宜鼓舞以儲邊用。西寧馬戶八百，嘗自備騎械赴敵，後以款貢裁之。萬曆十九年，經略鄭雒請復其故。又僧兵，有少林、伏牛、五臺。倭亂，少林僧應募者四十餘人，戰亦多勝。西南邊服有各土司兵。湖南永順、保靖二宣慰所部，廣西東蘭、那地、南丹、歸順諸狼兵，四川酉陽、石砫秦氏、冉氏諸司，宣力最多。末年，邊事急，有司專以調三省土司為長策，其利害亦恆相半云。

Local militia were recruited for whatever skills their region offered and called up to reinforce the regular army as needed. Those on the rolls were Zhejiang troops: Yiwu men ranked first, Chu second, Taizhou and Ningbo third, expert with wolf-brush poles and sometimes forked spears. Qi Jiguang's mandarin-duck formation broke the pirates, and his fame peaked when he held Jimen. Sichuan and Liaodong troops were often dispatched under Chongzhen against bandit armies. Unregistered local forces existed everywhere. Song County in Henan fielded 'Hairy Gourd' men skilled with short arms and mountain marches. Song, Lushi, Lingbao, and Yongning also had mine-guard levies called Horn-Brains or Strike Hands. Shandong had long-pole fighters. Xuzhou fielded archers. Jingxing had 'mantis' stone-slingers who could strike a hundred paces. Zhangzhou and Quanzhou men trained with shield and dart, unrivaled in naval combat. Yongchun men near Quanzhou were famed for martial arts. In the Zhengtong era Guo Rong and six companions distinguished themselves against the Shayo rebels. Saltern laborers who lived by smuggling were often rugged and resolute. Early Chenghua saw hundreds of Hedong salt workers armed with cannon, crossbows, and wagons join regular troops against raiders. Songjiang Caojing salt smugglers in the Jiajing era pursued pirates offshore and burned their boats. Pirates later took warning at the sight of brine bags in a cottage. Eastern Guangdong's Tanka and other boat people trained with long shields and cleavers, especially from Xinhui and Dongguan. Yan-sui and Guyuan had many frontier natives skilled in mounted archery; the Yingzong Emperor ordered them drilled for autumn defense. At the Great Teng Gorge Han Yong deployed them against Yao and Zhuang shield-blade fighters. Zhuanglang's Lu family troops had once served in the imperial escort; in early Hongxi native commanders were appointed to lead them. Wanli officials praised them as fierce and feared by enemies, and urged support to keep them ready for frontier service. Xining's 800 horse households once armed themselves for battle until peace treaties and tribute payments led to their reduction. In Wanli year 19 frontier commissioner Zheng Luo asked to restore the old arrangement. Monk levies included Shaolin, Funiu, and Wutai. During the pirate wars more than forty Shaolin monks enlisted and won many fights. The southwest marches fielded native chieftain troops. Hunan's Yongshun and Baojing commissions, Guangxi wolf troops of Donglan, Nadi, Nandan, and Guishun, and Sichuan's Youyang and Shizhu Qin and Ran chieftains contributed the greatest forces. In the final years frontier crisis led officials to treat mobilizing chieftains from three provinces as the master strategy — a policy whose gains and losses, it was said, always weighed evenly.

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