Volume 109 Treatises 84: Selection and Examinations 4, Zhi Ke Jian Zhuo

志八十四

Treatise 84

選舉四

Selection and Examinations 4

制科薦擢

Special Decree Examinations and Recommendations

制科者，天子親詔以待異等之才。唐、宋設科最多，視為優選。清代科目取士，垂為定制。其特詔舉行者，曰博學鴻詞科、經濟特科、孝廉方正科。若經學，若巡幸召試，雖未設科，可附見也。聖祖敦崇實學，康熙甲辰、丁未兩科，改試策論。既廷臣以古學不可猝辦，請仍舊制。

Special decree examinations were occasions on which the emperor personally proclaimed a search for candidates of exceptional ability. The Tang and Song held these examinations most often and treated them as a distinguished path to office. Under the Qing, recruitment through the regular civil-service examination subjects settled into fixed practice. Examinations specially proclaimed included the Erudition and Eloquence (Boxue Hongci) subject, the Economic Special subject, and the Filial Integrity and Upright Conduct subject. Recommendations for classical learning and examinations summoned during imperial tours, though not formally instituted as subjects, are recorded here by way of supplement. Emperor Kangxi, who prized solid scholarship, ordered that the Jiachen and Dingwei sessions under his reign test policy essays instead. Soon afterward the ministers argued that candidates could not be expected to master classical learning on short notice and asked to revert to the old format.

十七年，詔曰：「自古一代之興，必有博學鴻儒，備顧問著作之選。我朝定鼎以來，崇儒重道，培養人才。四海之廣，豈無奇才碩彥、學問淵通、文藻瑰麗、追蹤前哲者？凡有學行兼優、文詞卓越之人，不論已仕、未仕，在京三品以上及科、道官，在外督、撫、布、按，各舉所知，朕親試錄用。其內、外各官，果有真知灼見，在內開送吏部，在外開報督、撫，代為題薦。」嗣膺薦人員至京，詔戶部月給廩餼。明年三月，召試體仁閣。凡百四十三人，賜燕，試賦一、詩一，帝親覽試卷，取一等彭孫遹、倪燦、張烈、汪霦、喬萊、王頊齡、李因篤、秦松齡、周清原、陳維崧、徐嘉炎、陸葇、馮勖、錢中諧、汪楫、袁佑、硃彝尊、湯斌、汪琬、邱象隨等二十人。二等李來泰、潘耒、沈珩、施閏章、米漢雯、黃與堅、李鎧、徐釚、沈筠、周慶曾、尤侗、范必英、崔如岳、張鴻烈、方象瑛、李澄中、吳元龍、龐塏、毛奇齡、錢金甫、吳任臣、陳鴻績、曹宜溥、毛升芳、曹禾、黎騫、高詠、龍燮、邵吳遠、嚴繩孫等三十人。三、四等俱報罷。命閣臣取前代制科舊事，查議授職。尋議：「兩漢授無常職。晉上第授尚書郎。唐制策高等特授尊官，次等予出身，因有及第、出身之目。宋分五等：一、二等皆不次擢用；三等為上等，恩數視廷試第一人；四等為中等，視廷試第三人；皆賜制科出身。五等為下等，賜進士出身。」得旨，俱授為翰林官。以光祿少卿邵吳遠為侍讀。道員、郎中湯斌等四人為侍講。進士出身之主事，中、行、評、博，內閣典籍，知縣及未仕之進士彭孫遹等十八人為編修。舉、貢出身之推、知，教職，革職之檢討、知縣及未仕之舉、貢、廕、監、布衣倪燦等二十七人為檢討。俱入史館，纂修明史。時富平李因篤、長洲馮勖、秀水硃彝尊、吳江潘耒、無錫嚴繩孫，皆以布衣入選，海內榮之。其年老未與試之杜越、傅山、王方穀等，文學素著，俱授內閣中書，許回籍。

In the seventeenth year of his reign, the emperor issued an edict: "From antiquity, the rise of every dynasty has been attended by broadly learned scholars fit to serve as advisers and compilers. Since the founding of our dynasty, we have honored Confucian learning, upheld moral principle, and nurtured talent. Across the breadth of the realm, can there be no extraordinary talents—scholars of profound learning, splendid literary gifts, and attainments worthy of the great sages of old? Whoever combines solid learning with upright conduct and excels in literary composition, whether already in office or not, shall be nominated by those who know him: in the capital by officials of the third rank and above and by censorate and secretariat officers; in the provinces by governors-general, governors, and provincial judicial commissioners. I shall examine them personally and appoint the successful candidates. If any official at court or in the provinces has genuine insight into a candidate's merits, he may forward the name to the Board of Civil Appointments in the capital or report it to the governor-general or governor in the provinces for formal recommendation." Thereafter, as recommended candidates arrived in the capital, the emperor ordered the Board of Revenue to provide them with monthly grain stipends. The following year, in the third month, they were summoned to examination in the Hall of Embodied Benevolence. One hundred forty-three candidates in all were given a banquet and examined on one fu and one shi poem. The emperor personally read the papers and named twenty first-grade passes, including Peng Sunyu, Ni Can, Zhang Lie, Wang Ying, Qiao Lai, Wang Xuling, Li Yindu, Qin Songling, Zhou Qingyuan, Chen Weisong, Xu Jiayan, Lu Ren, Feng Xu, Qian Zhongxie, Wang Ji, Yuan You, Zhu Yizun, Tang Bin, Wang Wan, and Qiu Xiangsui. Thirty candidates received second grade, among them Li Laitai, Pan Lei, Shen Heng, Shi Runzhang, Mi Hanwen, Huang Yujian, Li Kai, Xu Qian, Shen Yun, Zhou Qingzeng, You Tong, Fan Biying, Cui Ruyue, Zhang Honglie, Fang Xiangying, Li Chengzhong, Wu Yuanlong, Pang Kai, Mao Qiling, Qian Jinfu, Wu Renchen, Chen Hongji, Cao Yipu, Mao Shengfang, Cao He, Li Qian, Gao Yong, Long Xie, Shao Wuyuan, and Yan Shengsun. Candidates in the third and fourth grades were all dismissed without appointment. He ordered Grand Secretariat ministers to consult precedents from earlier dynasties' special decree examinations and recommend appropriate appointments. They soon reported: "Under the two Han dynasties, appointments carried no fixed offices. In Jin, top-ranked candidates were made Gentlemen of the Masters of Writing. In Tang, high scorers on the policy examination received exceptional appointments to high office, while lower scorers received qualification status—hence the distinctions of jidi ('passed') and chushen ('qualified'). Song divided results into five grades: first- and second-grade candidates were all promoted ahead of the usual order; third grade counted as upper rank, with privileges equal to the top palace examination graduate; fourth grade as middle rank, equal to the third-place palace examination graduate; all received the qualification status of special decree examination graduates. Fifth grade counted as lower rank and received jinshi qualification status." On receiving the imperial approval, all successful candidates were appointed to Hanlin posts. Shao Wuyuan, Vice Minister of the Court of Imperial Entertainments, was appointed Reader-in-Waiting. Tang Bin, a circuit intendant and former director, and three others were appointed Lecturers-in-Waiting. Eighteen men—including jinshi secretaries, bureau secretaries, Grand Secretariat archivists, magistrates, and unappointed jinshi such as Peng Sunyu—were made Hanlin compilers. Twenty-seven others—including provincial administrators and magistrates drawn from juren and tribute-student ranks, educational officials, dismissed revisers and magistrates, and unappointed juren, tribute students, yin candidates, academy students, and commoners such as Ni Can—were made Hanlin revisers. All were assigned to the Historiography Institute to compile the History of Ming. At the time Li Yindu of Fuping, Feng Xu of Changzhou, Zhu Yizun of Xiushui, Pan Lei of Wujiang, and Yan Shengsun of Wuxi were all selected though they held no official rank—a distinction celebrated throughout the empire. Du Yue, Fu Shan, Wang Fanggu, and others who were too old to sit the examination but were already renowned for their scholarship were all appointed Grand Secretariat secretaries and allowed to return home.

雍正十一年，詔曰：「博學鴻詞之科，所以待卓越淹通之士。康熙十七年，特詔薦舉，召試授職，得人極盛。數十年來，未嘗廣為搜羅。朕延攬維殷，宜有枕經葄史、殫見洽聞、足稱鴻博之選者，當特修曠典，嘉予旁求。在京滿、漢三品以上，在外督、撫、學政，悉心體訪，保題送部。朕臨軒親試，優加錄用。」詔書初下，中外大吏，以事關曠典，相顧遲回。逾年，僅河東督臣舉一人，直隸督臣舉二人，他省未有應者。詔責諸臣觀望。高宗即位，再詔督促。期以一年內齊集闕下，先至者月給廩餼。

In the eleventh year of Yongzheng, an edict declared: "The Erudition and Eloquence examination exists to reward scholars of exceptional breadth and depth. In Kangxi's seventeenth year a special edict called for recommendations, and those examined and appointed produced an exceptionally rich harvest of talent. For decades no comparable broad search had been undertaken. I am eager to recruit talent. There must be scholars steeped in the classics and histories, of exhaustive learning and wide knowledge, worthy of the title 'erudite and eloquent.' I shall therefore restore this grand precedent and commend my search far and wide. In the capital, Manchu and Han officials of the third rank and above; in the provinces, governors-general, governors, and education commissioners shall investigate carefully and submit nominations to the ministry. I shall examine them personally at court and appoint the successful candidates with special favor." When the edict first appeared, senior officials at court and in the provinces, mindful that the matter involved a grand and rare precedent, hesitated and held back. More than a year passed with only the governor-general of Hedong recommending one candidate, the governor-general of Zhili two, and no responses from other provinces. An edict rebuked the officials for their hesitation. When Emperor Qianlong ascended the throne, he issued another edict pressing for compliance. Candidates were to gather at the capital within one year; those who arrived early received monthly grain stipends.

乾隆元年，御史吳元安言：「薦舉博學鴻詞，原期得湛深經術、敦崇實學之儒，詩賦雖取兼長，經史尤為根柢。若徒駢綴儷偶，推敲聲律，縱有文藻可觀，終覺名實未稱。」下吏部議，定為兩場，賦、詩外增試論、策。九月，召試百七十六人於保和殿，賜燕如例。試題首場賦、詩、論各一，二場制策二。取一等五人，劉綸、潘安禮、諸錦、于振、杭世駿等，授編修。二等十人，陳兆侖、劉藻、夏之蓉、周長發、程恂等，授檢討；楊度汪、沈廷芳、汪士鍠、陳士璠、齊召南等，授庶吉士。二年，補試體仁閣，首場制策二，二場賦、詩、論各一。取一等萬松齡，授檢討。二等張漢，授檢討；硃荃、洪世澤，授庶吉士。

In Qianlong's first year, Censor Wu Yuan'an argued: "Recommendations for Erudition and Eloquence were meant to produce scholars of deep classical learning and solid practical scholarship. Poetry may be tested as a secondary skill, but the classics and histories are the true foundation. Candidates who merely string together parallel couplets and polish tonal patterns may write pleasing prose, yet in the end their reputation will not match their substance." The Board of Civil Appointments was ordered to deliberate and fixed the format at two sessions, adding policy essays and memorials to the fu and shi requirements. In the ninth month, one hundred seventy-six candidates were examined in the Hall of Preserving Harmony and given the customary banquet. The first session required one fu, one shi, and one essay; the second session required two policy memorials. Five first-grade candidates—Liu Lun, Pan Anli, Zhu Jin, Yu Zhen, and Hang Shijun—were appointed Hanlin compilers. Ten second-grade candidates—including Chen Zhaolun, Liu Zao, Xia Zhirong, Zhou Changfa, and Cheng Xun—were made revisers; Yang Duwang, Shen Tingfang, Wang Shihong, Chen Shifan, Qi Zhaonan, and others were made Hanlin bachelors. In the second year a supplementary examination was held in the Hall of Embodied Benevolence: the first session required two policy memorials; the second required one fu, one shi, and one essay. Wan Songling, the sole first-grade pass, was appointed reviser. Zhang Han of the second grade was made reviser; Zhu Quan and Hong Shize were made Hanlin bachelors.

自康、乾兩朝，再舉詞科，與其選者，山林隱逸之數，多於縉紳，右文之盛，前古罕聞。時承平累葉，海內士夫多致力根柢之學，天子又振拔淹滯，以示風勵，爰有保薦經學之制。乾隆十四年，詔曰：「崇尚經術，有關世道人心。今海宇昇平，學士大夫精研本業，窮年矻矻，宗仰儒先者，當不乏人。大學士、九卿、督、撫，其公舉所知，不限進士、舉人、諸生及退休、閒廢人員，能潛心經學者，慎選毋濫。尋中外疏薦者四十餘人。帝為防幸進，下廷臣覆覈，得陳祖范、吳鼎、梁錫興、顧棟高四人。命呈覽著述，派翰林、中書官在武英殿各繕一部。尋授鼎、錫興國子監司業，召對勤政殿。祖范、棟高以年老不能供職，俱授司業銜。後不復舉行。

Under the Kangxi and Qianlong reigns, when the literary examination was held twice, recluses and private scholars outnumbered serving officials among the successful candidates—a degree of literary patronage rarely matched in earlier ages. In an era of prolonged peace, scholars across the empire devoted themselves to foundational learning, while the emperor lifted long-neglected talent to set an example—hence the institution for recommending experts in classical learning. In Qianlong's fourteenth year, an edict declared: "Honoring classical learning bears directly on the moral order of society and the hearts of the people. Now that the realm enjoys peace, scholar-officials who devote themselves year after year to their proper studies and revere the sages of old should not be hard to find. Grand secretaries, the Nine Ministers, governors-general, and governors shall jointly nominate candidates they know, without restriction to jinshi, juren, licentiates, or retired and idle scholars—provided they are devoted to classical learning. Choose carefully and do not recommend indiscriminately. Soon more than forty candidates were recommended in memorials from court and provinces alike. To guard against favor-seekers, the emperor ordered a court review and confirmed four candidates: Chen Zufan, Wu Ding, Liang Xixing, and Gu Donggao. He ordered their writings submitted for review and assigned Hanlin and secretariat officials to copy one complete set of each in the Hall of Martial Brilliance. Wu Ding and Liang Xixing were soon appointed vice directors of the Directorate of Education and summoned to audience in the Hall of Diligent Government. Chen Zufan and Gu Donggao, being too old to take up office, were both granted the honorary title of vice director. The practice was not revived afterward.

至屬車臨幸，宏獎士林，康熙四十二年、四十四年，聖祖巡幸江、浙，召試士子，中選者賜白金，赴京錄用有差。高宗六幸江、浙，三幸山東，四幸天津，凡士子進獻詩賦者，召試行在。優等予出身，授內閣中書；次者賜束帛。仁宗東巡津、淀，西幸五台，召試之典，亦如前例。道光以後，科舉偏重時文。沿習既久，庸濫浮偽，浸失精意。三十年，候補京堂張錫庚請復開博學鴻詞科，以儲人才。禮部議以非當務之急，遂止。

When the emperor traveled in person, he generously rewarded the scholarly community. In the forty-second and forty-fourth years of Kangxi, the emperor toured Jiangsu and Zhejiang, examined local scholars, and granted silver to successful candidates; those who proceeded to the capital received appointments of varying rank. Emperor Qianlong toured Jiangsu and Zhejiang six times, Shandong three times, and Tianjin four times; scholars who submitted poetry were examined at the traveling palace. Top candidates received qualification status and were appointed Grand Secretariat secretaries; lower-ranked candidates received bundles of silk. Emperor Jiaqing toured east to Tianjin and the Baiyangdian region and west to Wutai Mountain; the summon-examination followed the same precedent. After the Daoguang reign, the civil examinations came to emphasize contemporary-style essays. Long custom bred mediocrity, empty display, and insincerity, and the original purpose was gradually lost. In the thirtieth year, expectant capital official Zhang Xigeng petitioned to reopen the Erudition and Eloquence examination to build up the talent pool. The Board of Rites ruled that it was not an urgent priority, and the proposal was dropped.

洎光緒中葉，外侮孔棘，海內皇皇，昌言變法。二十四年，貴州學政嚴修請設經濟特科，下總理各國事務衙門會禮部覈議。八月，慈禧皇太后臨朝訓政，以經濟特科易滋流弊，罷之。庚子，京師構亂，乘輿播遷。兩宮怵於時局阽危，亟思破格求才，以資治理。

By the mid-Guangxu period, foreign aggression had become acute, anxiety spread throughout the country, and calls for reform grew loud. In the twenty-fourth year, Guizhou Education Commissioner Yan Xiu petitioned to establish the Economic Special examination; the matter was referred to the Zongli Yamen for joint deliberation with the Board of Rites. In the eighth month, Empress Dowager Cixi resumed regency and abolished the Economic Special examination on the grounds that it would invite abuse. In 1900 the capital was thrown into turmoil and the court fled. Alarmed by the imminent crisis, the two palaces urgently sought to recruit talent by exceptional means to strengthen governance.

二十七年，皇太后詔舉經濟特科，命各部、院堂官及各省督、撫、學政保薦，有志慮忠純、規模閎遠、學問淹通、洞達中外時務者，悉心延攬。並下政務大臣擬定考試事宜。御史陳秉崧奏請力除夤緣積習，詔飭諸臣務矢至公。既三品以下京卿紛紛保送，帝覺其冗濫，適太僕少卿隆恩薦疏，上竟報寢，並命撤銷太常少卿李擢英前保諸人。二十九年，政務處議定考試之制，如廷試例，於保和殿天子親策之。凡試二日，首場入選者，始許應覆試，均試論一、策一。簡大臣考校，取一等袁家穀、張一麟、方履中、陶炯照、徐沅、胡玉縉、秦錫鎮、俞陛雲、袁勵准等九人，二等馮善徵、羅良鑒、秦樹聲、魏家驊、吳鍾善、錢鑅、蕭應椿、梁煥奎、蔡寶善、張孝謙、端緒、麥鴻鈞、許岳鍾、張通謨、楊道霖、張祖廉、吳烈、陳曾壽等十八人。迨授官命下，京職、外任，僅就原階略予升敘，舉、貢用知縣、州佐，以視康、乾時詞科恩遇，浸不如矣。

In the twenty-seventh year the empress dowager proclaimed the Economic Special examination and ordered ministry chiefs and provincial governors and education commissioners to recommend men of loyal character, broad vision, profound learning, and penetrating grasp of domestic and foreign affairs. Grand ministers of state affairs were also ordered to draft the examination regulations. Censor Chen Bingsong memorialized urging the eradication of patronage networks; an edict admonished all officials to act with absolute impartiality. As capital officials below the third rank flooded the court with nominations, the emperor found the list excessive. When a recommendation from Vice Minister Long En of the Court of the Imperial Stud arrived, the throne shelved it and ordered the withdrawal of candidates previously nominated by Vice Minister Li Zhuoying of the Court of Imperial Sacrifices. In the twenty-ninth year the Bureau of Government Affairs finalized the examination format on the model of the palace examination, with the emperor setting the questions personally in the Hall of Preserving Harmony. The examination lasted two days; only first-session passes were admitted to the second, and both sessions required one essay and one policy memorial. Senior ministers were appointed examiners. Nine candidates received first grade, including Yuan Jiagu, Zhang Yilin, Fang Lüzhong, Tao Jiongzhao, Xu Yuan, Hu Yujin, Qin Xizhen, Yu Biyun, and Yuan Lizhun; eighteen received second grade, including Feng Shanzheng, Luo Liangjian, Qin Shusheng, Wei Jiahua, Wu Zhongshan, Qian Hong, Xiao Yingchun, Liang Huankui, Cai Baoshan, Zhang Xiaoqian, Duan Xu, Mai Hongjun, Xu Yuezhong, Zhang Tongmo, Yang Daolin, Zhang Zulian, Wu Lie, and Chen Zengshou. When appointments were issued, capital and provincial officials received only modest promotions from their existing ranks, and juren and tribute students were assigned as magistrates or prefectural assistants—rewards far less generous than those granted to literary examination graduates under Kangxi and Qianlong.

三十四年，御史俾壽請特開制科，政務處大臣議以「孝廉方正、直言極諫兩科，皆無實際，惟博學鴻詞科，康熙、乾隆間兩次舉行，得人稱盛。際茲文學漸微，保存國粹，實為今日急務。應下學部籌議」。時方詔各省徵召耆儒碩彥。湖南舉人王闓運被薦，授翰林檢討。兩江、安徽相繼薦舉王耕心、孫葆田、程朝儀、吳傳綺、姚永朴、姚永概、馮澂等。部議以諸人覃研經史，合於詞科之選，俟章程議定，陳請舉行。未幾，德宗崩，遂寢。

In the thirty-fourth year, Censor Bi Shou petitioned to reopen the special decree examination. Grand ministers of the Bureau of Government Affairs argued that "the Filial Integrity and Blunt Remonstrance subjects serve little practical purpose, whereas the Erudition and Eloquence examination, held twice under Kangxi and Qianlong, produced a celebrated harvest of talent. At a time when literary culture is in decline, preserving the national cultural heritage is an urgent task of the day. The matter should be referred to the Ministry of Education for planning." At the time the court was issuing edicts to the provinces summoning venerable scholars. Wang Kaiyun, a juren from Hunan, was recommended and appointed Hanlin reviser. The Liangjiang and Anhui authorities successively recommended Wang Gengxin, Sun Baotian, Cheng Chaoyi, Wu Chuanqi, Yao Yongpu, Yao Yonggai, Feng Cheng, and others. The ministry ruled that these scholars, having devoted themselves to the classics and histories, were fit candidates for the literary examination and would be presented for implementation once the regulations were finalized. Before long Emperor Guangxu died, and the examination was shelved.

孝廉方正科，始於康熙六十一年，世宗登極，詔直省府、州、縣、衛各舉孝廉方正，賜六品章服，備召用。雍正元年，詔曰：「國家敦勵風俗，首重賢良。前詔舉孝廉方正，距今數月，未有疏聞。恐有司怠於採訪，雖有端方之品，無由上達。各督、撫速遵前詔，確訪舉奏。」尋浙江、直隸、福建、廣西各薦舉二員，用知縣；年五十五以上者，用知州。其後歷朝御極，皆恩詔薦舉以為常。

The Filial Integrity and Upright Conduct examination began in the sixty-first year of the Kangxi reign. When the Yongzheng Emperor took the throne, he ordered every prefecture, department, district, and garrison in the metropolitan provinces to recommend candidates, confer sixth-rank ceremonial insignia upon them, and hold them ready for imperial summons. In the first year of the Yongzheng reign, an edict declared: "In earnestly promoting public morals, the state above all values the worthy and upright. The earlier edict calling for Filial Integrity and Upright Conduct recommendations was issued several months ago, yet no memorial has yet been received. I fear that local officials have been negligent in searching them out, so that even men of upright character cannot have their merits reported to the throne. Each governor-general and governor should promptly carry out the previous edict, conduct thorough investigations, and submit recommendations by memorial." Shortly afterward, Zhejiang, Zhili, Fujian, and Guangxi each recommended two men, who were appointed county magistrates; Those fifty-five years of age or older were appointed as prefects. Thereafter, whenever a new emperor ascended the throne, grace edicts calling for such recommendations became routine.

乾隆元年，刑部侍郎勵宗萬言：「孝廉方正之舉，稍有冒濫，即有屈抑。從前選舉各官，鮮克公當。非鄉井有力之富豪，即宮牆有名之學霸。迨服官後，庸者或以劣黜，黠者或以贓敗。請慎選舉，以重名器。」吏部議准府、州、縣、衛保舉孝廉方正，應由地方紳士里黨合辭公舉，州、縣官採訪公評，詳稽事實。所舉或系生員，會學官考覈，申送大吏，覈實具題，給六品章服榮身。果有德行才識兼優者，督、撫逾格保薦赴部，九卿、翰、詹、科、道公同驗看，候旨擢用。濫舉者罪之。

In the first year of the Qianlong reign, Li Zongwan, vice minister of the Ministry of Punishments, said: "In the Filial Integrity and Upright Conduct selections, even a little favoritism and abuse means worthy men are passed over. Of the officials chosen in the past, few were selected fairly or appropriately. They were either powerful local magnates or celebrated bullies of the examination halls. Once in office, the mediocre were dismissed for incompetence, and the shrewd were disgraced by corruption. I ask that selections be made with greater care, so as to preserve the dignity of public office." The Board of Civil Appointments approved the following: recommendations of Filial Integrity and Upright Conduct candidates from prefectures, departments, districts, and garrisons should come from joint public nomination by local gentry and neighbors; district and prefectural officials should investigate public reputation and verify the facts in detail. If the nominee was a licentiate, the educational officials would examine him jointly; the case would then be forwarded to higher authorities, verified and reported in a memorial, and sixth-rank ceremonial insignia would be granted as a personal honor. If a candidate truly combined virtue, conduct, talent, and judgment, the governor-general or governor might exceptionally recommend him to the ministry; the Nine Ministers, Hanlin and Grand Secretariat officials, censors, and surveillance commissioners would jointly inspect him and await imperial orders for promotion. Those who made improper recommendations would be punished.

五年，定考試例。除樸實拘謹、無他技能、不能應試者，例予頂戴，不送部外，其膺薦赴部者，驗看後，試以時務策、箋、奏各一於太和殿門內。道光間，改於保和殿，如考試御史例。

In the fifth year of the reign, examination regulations were established. Except for plain, cautious men without other skills who could not sit for the examination and were routinely granted official insignia without being sent to the ministry, those recommended to the capital were inspected and then tested inside the Gate of Supreme Harmony with one policy essay on current affairs, one formal felicitation, and one memorial each. During the Daoguang reign, the examination was moved to the Hall of Preserving Harmony, following the precedent used for censor examinations.

同治初元，明詔選舉，又以知縣黎庶昌條陳，諭令在京四品以上，在外督、撫、學政，各舉所知，不限紳士、布衣，以躬行實踐為先，毋得專取文詞藻麗者，濫膺盛典。其有年登耄耋，或誠樸無華，足為里閭矜式，不原來京者，州縣官歲時存問，賜以酒米。光緒六年，定自恩詔日起，予限八年，人文到部。每年二月、八月，各會驗奏考一次，逾限者止許章服榮身，不得與考。

At the beginning of the Tongzhi reign, after a clear edict on selection and a memorial from the county magistrate Li Shuchang, officials of fourth rank and above in the capital and governors-general, governors, and education commissioners in the provinces were ordered each to recommend men they knew, whether gentry or commoners; personal conduct and practical achievement were to come first, and candidates were not to be chosen merely for ornate prose, lest they unworthily receive so great an honor. Those who had reached great old age, or who were sincere and unadorned and worthy to serve as models for their communities yet did not wish to come to the capital, were to be visited by district and prefectural officials at the seasonal festivals and granted wine and grain. In the sixth year of the Guangxu reign, it was fixed that from the date of the grace edict, candidates would be allowed eight years to reach the ministry. Each February and August they would assemble for inspection, reporting, and examination; those who exceeded the time limit were allowed ceremonial insignia as a personal honor only and could not sit for the examination.

初制授官用知州、知縣，厥後薦舉人眾，乃推廣用途，分別以知縣、直隸州州同、州判、佐雜等官及教職用。知縣得缺視拔貢，教職視大挑二等舉人，餘均分省試用序補。歷朝以來，有司奉行，第應故事。徇情冒濫之弊，台諫屢以上聞。惟嘉慶朝湖南嚴如煜以對策第一，召見授知縣。咸豐朝湖南羅澤南以書生率湘勇越境剿賊，皆以勛績見稱於時。宣統初，各省所舉多至百數十人，少亦數十人，詔飭嚴行甄覈。選舉之風，於斯濫矣。

Under the original system, appointees were made prefects or county magistrates; later, as recommendations multiplied, appointments were broadened to include county magistrates, sub-prefects of directly administered departments, vice-prefects, various assistant and miscellaneous posts, and educational offices. Vacancies for county magistrate were filled on the same terms as specially promoted tribute students; educational posts on the same terms as second-tier juren from the Grand Selection; all others were assigned for provincial trial service in order. Throughout successive reigns, local officials carried it out merely as a matter of routine. The evils of favoritism and abuse were repeatedly reported to the throne by censorial officials. Only in the Jiaqing reign did Yan Ruyu of Hunan, who ranked first in the policy examination, receive an audience and appointment as county magistrate. In the Xianfeng reign, Luo Zenan of Hunan, a scholar who led Hunan militia across provincial borders to suppress bandits—both men were renowned at the time for their achievements. At the beginning of the Xuantong reign, provincial recommendations often ran to well over a hundred men, or at least several dozen; an edict ordered strict screening and verification. By then the practice of recommendation had become thoroughly corrupt.

清代科目取士外，或徵之遺佚，或擢之廉能，或舉之文學，或拔之戎行，或辟之幕職，薦擢一途，得人稱盛，有足述焉。

Apart from the regular examination system, the Qing also summoned overlooked talent, promoted the incorruptible and capable, recommended men of letters, selected officers from the ranks, and recruited secretarial staff; this path of recommendation and promotion produced many outstanding men and is well worth recounting.

太祖肇興東土，選拔英豪以輔大業，委輅杖策之士咸與擢用，或招直文館，或留預帷幄。乙卯十一月，諭群臣曰：「國務殷繁，必得賢才眾多，量能授職。勇能攻戰者，宜治軍；才優經濟者，宜理國；博通典故者，宜諮得失；嫺習儀文者，宜襄典禮。當隨地旁求，俾列庶位。」時削平諸國，設八旗制，需才亟。太宗即位，首任儒臣范文程領樞密重事。天聰八年，甲喇章京硃繼文子延慶上書，言：「我朝攻城破敵、斬將搴旗者不乏人，守境治民、安內攘外者未多見。」因疏舉漢人陳極新、刑部啟心郎申朝紀，足備任使。帝召延慶等御前，溫諭褒獎。命延慶、極新，文館錄用；朝紀仍任部事。九年，諭滿、漢、蒙古各官，薦舉人才，不限已仕、未仕，牒送吏、禮二部，具名以聞。直文館寧完我言：「古者薦舉之條，功罪連坐，所以杜弊端、防冒濫。請自後所舉之人，或功或罪，舉者同之。若其人砥行於厥初，改節於末路，許舉者隨時檢舉，免連坐。」帝嘉納焉。

When the Taizu founder rose in the eastern lands, he selected heroes to assist the great enterprise; scholars who had laid aside carriage and cane were all promoted and employed, some recruited to the Literary Hall and others retained for counsel in the command tent. In the eleventh month of the yimao year, he told his ministers: "State affairs are pressing; many talented men must be found, and posts assigned according to their capacity. Those brave and skilled in battle should command armies; Those outstanding in statecraft should govern the realm; Those broadly versed in historical precedent should be consulted on policy; Those skilled in ritual and ceremonial forms should assist in state ceremonies. Talent should be sought everywhere, so that men may fill every post." At that time the dynasty was subduing rival states and establishing the Eight Banners system, and talent was urgently needed. When Hong Taiji took the throne, he first entrusted the Confucian minister Fan Wencheng with the weightiest affairs of the secretariat. In the eighth year of Tiancong, Yanqing, son of the jalan ejen Zhu Jiwen, submitted a memorial stating: "In our dynasty there is no lack of men who storm cities, defeat enemies, behead generals, and capture banners, but men who guard the borders, govern the people, and pacify within while repelling threats from without are rarely seen." He therefore recommended in a memorial the Han Chinese Chen Jixin and Shen Chaoji, vice minister of the Ministry of Punishments, as fully fit for service. The emperor summoned Yanqing and the others before the throne and warmly praised and rewarded them. He ordered Yanqing and Jixin enrolled in the Literary Hall; Chaoji continued in his ministry post. In the ninth year, an edict instructed Manchu, Han, and Mongol officials to recommend talent whether already in office or not; their names were to be sent in memorials to the Boards of Civil Appointments and Rites. Ning Wanwo of the Literary Hall said: "In antiquity the rules for recommendation imposed joint responsibility for merit and guilt, thereby blocking abuses and preventing false nominations. I ask that hereafter, for anyone recommended, whether he achieves merit or commits offense, the recommender share the same fate. If a man was upright at first but changed his conduct later, the recommender may report this at any time and be exempt from joint punishment." The emperor praised and accepted the proposal.

世祖定鼎中原，順治初元，遣官徵訪遺賢，車軺絡繹。吏部詳察履歷，確覈才品，促令來京。並行撫、按，境內隱逸、賢良，逐一啟薦，以憑徵擢。順天巡撫宋權陳治平三策，首廣羅賢才以佐上理，並薦故明薊遼總督王永吉等。詔廷臣各舉所知。一時明季故臣如謝升、馮銓、黨崇雅等，紛紛擢用。中外臣工啟薦除授得官者，不可勝數。嗣以廷臣所舉，類多明季舊吏廢員，未有肥遯隱逸逃名之士。詔自今嚴責舉主，得人者優加進賢之賞，舛謬者嚴行連坐之罰。薦章止以履歷上聞，才品所宜，聽朝廷裁奪。儻以貲郎雜流及黜革青衿、投閒武弁，妄充隱逸，咎有所歸。若畏避連坐，緘默不舉，治以蔽賢罪。二年，陝西、江南平，詔徵山林隱逸，並故明文、武進士、舉人。山東巡撫李之奇以保薦濫及貲郎，詔旨切責。十三年，江南巡撫張中元薦故明進士陸貽吉、於沚，帝親試之。是年復詔各省舉奏地方人才，給事中梁鋐言：「皇上寤寐求才，詔舉山林隱逸，應聘之士，自不乏人。然採訪未確，有負盛舉。如江南舉呂陽，授監司，未幾以贓敗；山東舉王運熙，授科員，未有建明，以計典去。呂陽等豈真抱匡濟之才，不過為梯榮之藉耳。山林者何？謂遠於朝市也。隱逸者何？謂異於趨競也。必得其人，乃當其位。請飭詳加採訪。」疏入，報聞。

After the Shunzhi Emperor established the dynasty in the Central Plains, in the first year of his reign officials were dispatched to seek out overlooked worthies, and mission carts came and went without pause. The Board of Civil Appointments examined their records in detail, verified their talent and character, and urged them to come to the capital. At the same time governors and surveillance commissioners were ordered to recommend recluses and worthy men within their jurisdictions one by one for summons and promotion. The Shuntian surveillance commissioner Song Quan presented three policies for good governance, the first calling for broadly gathering worthy talent to assist the throne, and also recommended the former Ming Jiliao governor-general Wang Yongji and others. An edict ordered court officials each to recommend men they knew. For a time former Ming officials such as Xie Sheng, Feng Quan, and Dang Chongya were promoted and employed in large numbers. The number of officials at court and in the provinces who were recommended by memorial and appointed to office was beyond counting. Later it became clear that those recommended by court officials were mostly dismissed Ming-era old officials, and that there were no truly reclusive men who had withdrawn and shunned public life. An edict ordered that from then on recommenders would be strictly held accountable: those who found good men would receive exceptional rewards, and those who erred would be strictly punished by joint responsibility. Recommendation memorials were to report only the candidate's record; whether his talent and character were suitable would be left to the court's judgment. If purchased-office holders, dismissed licentiates, or idle military officers were falsely passed off as recluses, blame would fall on the recommender. If out of fear of joint punishment one kept silent and did not recommend anyone, one would be punished for concealing worthy men. In the second year, after Shaanxi and Jiangnan were pacified, an edict summoned recluses in mountains and forests, as well as former Ming civil and military jinshi and juren. The Shandong governor Li Zhiqi was sharply rebuked by imperial edict for recommending purchased-office holders among his nominees. In the thirteenth year, the Jiangnan governor Zhang Zhongyuan recommended the former Ming jinshi Lu Yiji and Yu Zhi, and the emperor personally examined them. That year an edict again ordered the provinces to recommend local talent by memorial. The supervising secretary Liang Hong said: "Your Majesty seeks talent day and night; the edict summoning recluses in mountains and forests has surely drawn many respondents. Yet the investigations have not been thorough, and the grand undertaking has fallen short. For example, Jiangnan recommended Lü Yang, who was appointed a surveillance commissioner; before long he was ruined by corruption; Shandong recommended Wang Yunxi, who was appointed a censor; he made no notable contribution and was removed in the regular evaluation. Were men like Lü Yang truly possessed of talent to save the realm? They were merely using the opportunity as a ladder to advancement. What are "mountains and forests"? They mean being far from court and the bustle of public life. What is "reclusion"? It means being unlike those who scramble for advancement. Only when the right person is found should the post be filled. I ask that a thorough investigation be ordered." The memorial was submitted and acknowledged.

順、康間，海內大師宿儒，以名節相高。或廷臣交章論薦，疆吏備禮敦促，堅臥不起。如孫奇逢、李顒、黃宗羲輩，天子知不可致，為嘆息不置，僅命督、撫抄錄著書送京師。康熙九年，孝康皇后升祔禮成，頒詔天下，命有司舉才品優長、山林隱逸之士。自後歷朝推恩之典，雖如例行，實應者寡。

Between the Shunzhi and Kangxi reigns, the great masters and senior Confucians throughout the realm held one another in esteem for integrity and principle. Some, though court officials submitted memorial after memorial recommending them and provincial officials came with full ceremony to urge them, steadfastly refused to take office. Men such as Sun Qifeng, Li Yong, and Huang Zongxi could not be summoned; the emperor sighed repeatedly in regret and merely ordered governors-general and governors to copy their writings and send them to the capital. In the ninth year of the Kangxi reign, when the rites for enshrining Empress Xiaokang were completed, an edict was promulgated throughout the realm ordering officials to recommend men of outstanding talent and character among recluses in mountains and forests. Thereafter, grace edicts of successive reigns, though observed as routine, drew few actual respondents.

初制，督、撫升遷離任時，薦舉人才一次。嗣令歲一薦舉，部議大省限十人，小省限三四人，後復改二年薦舉一次。自順治十八年停差巡按，乃定各省巡撫應舉方面有司、佐貳、教官員額，總漕、總河應薦方面有司、佐貳額，亦著為例。康熙二年，御史張吉午奏：「三年考滿之法，一、二等稱職者，即系薦舉，請罷督、撫二年薦舉例。」從之。六年，停考滿。用給事中李宗孔言復薦舉，與卓異並行。先是漕、河薦舉例停。十二年，漕督帥顏保請復舊例，每年得舉劾屬吏示勸懲。部議行。因疏薦糧道範周、遲日巽、知縣吳興祚。詔擢興祚福建按察使。

Under the original system, when a governor-general or governor was promoted or left office, he recommended talent once. Later it was ordered that recommendations be made once a year; the ministry set a limit of ten men for large provinces and three or four for small ones; still later this was changed to one recommendation every two years. From the eighteenth year of the Shunzhi reign, when the dispatch of surveillance commissioners was suspended, quotas were fixed for provincial governors to recommend provincial officials, deputies, and educational officers, and for the grain transport and river conservancy commissioners to recommend provincial officials and deputies; these too were established as precedent. In the second year of the Kangxi reign, the censor Zhang Jiwu memorialized: "Under the three-year evaluation system, officials rated first or second rank as competent are already being recommended; I ask that the governors' biennial recommendation precedent be abolished." The request was granted. In the sixth year, the evaluation system was suspended. Following the supervising secretary Li Zongkong's proposal, recommendations were restored and carried out alongside outstanding-performance designations. Previously the recommendation precedent for grain transport and river conservancy had been suspended. In the twelfth year, the grain transport commissioner Shuai Yanbao requested restoration of the old precedent, whereby each year he could recommend and impeach subordinate officials as reward and warning. The ministry deliberated and approved. In a memorial he recommended the grain-route intendant Fan Zhou, Chi Rixun, and the county magistrate Wu Xingzuo. An edict promoted Wu Xingzuo to Fujian surveillance commissioner.

聖祖親政，銳意整飭吏治，屢詔群臣薦舉天下廉能官。十八年，左都御史魏象樞疏薦清廉，原任侍郎高珩、達哈塔、雷虎、班迪，大理卿瑚密色，侍讀蕭維豫，郎中宋文運，布政使畢振姬，知縣張沐、陸隴其等十人。得旨分別錄用。並諭陸隴其廉能之員，宜任繁劇，如直隸清苑、江蘇無錫等縣，庶可表見其才。十九年，福建巡撫吳興祚薦按察使于成龍天下廉能第一，遷布政使，尋擢直隸巡撫。二十年入覲，帝溫諭褒美。問屬吏中亦有清廉者否？成龍以知縣謝錫袞、同知何如玉、羅京對。未幾，調成龍兩江總督。瀕行，疏薦直隸守道董秉忠、通州知州于成龍、南路通判陳大棟、柏鄉知縣邵嗣堯、阜城知縣王燮、高陽知縣孫宏業、霸州州判衛濟賢，並堪大用。會江寧知府缺，詔即以通州知州于成龍擢補。不數年，擢直隸巡撫。同時兩于成龍，先後汲引，並以清操特邀帝眷，時論稱之。二十三年，諭部臣保舉應補關差，僉以「有才及謹慎者不乏人，而操守實難知」對。帝曰：「清操如何可廢？如郝浴居官甚好，猶侵蝕錢糧，魏象樞曾薦郝浴，此事安能豫知！朕信部院堂官清操而委任之，堂官亦信司官而委任之。但將有守之人舉出，被舉者自能效力。」是年九卿、詹事、科、道遵旨疏舉清廉：直隸巡撫格爾古德，吏部郎中蘇赫、范承勛，江南學道趙侖，揚州知府崔華，兗州知府張鵬翮，靈壽知縣陸隴其等。二十六年，帝嘉直隸巡撫于成龍清廉，命九卿各舉廉吏如成龍者。大學士等薦雲貴總督范承勛、山西巡撫馬齊、四川巡撫姚締虞。帝謂承勛等居官皆優，但尚有勉強之意。成龍則出自誠心，毫無瞻顧。命加成龍太子少保銜，以勸廉能。四十年，敕總督郭琇、張鵬翮、桑額、華顯，巡撫彭鵬、李光地、徐潮薦道、府以下，知縣以上，清廉愛民者，勿計罣誤降罰，勿拘本省鄰屬，具以名聞。時天子廣厲風節，群士慕效，吏治丕變。循吏被薦膺顯擢者，先後踵相接。

When the Kangxi Emperor personally took power, he was keen to rectify official governance and repeatedly issued edicts ordering his ministers to recommend incorruptible and capable officials throughout the realm. In the eighteenth year, the left censor-in-chief Wei Xiangshu memorialized recommending ten men for incorruptibility: the former vice ministers Gao Heng, Dahata, Lei Hu, and Bandi; the chief minister of the Court of Judicial Review Humise; the Hanlin reader Xiao Weiyu; the bureau director Song Wenyun; the provincial treasurer Bi Zhenji; and the county magistrates Zhang Mu and Lu Longqi. An imperial rescript ordered them appointed according to their respective merits. The emperor also directed that officials noted for integrity and ability like Lu Longqi should be placed in demanding posts—counties such as Qingyuan in Zhili and Wuxi in Jiangsu—where their talents could be fully displayed. In the nineteenth year, the governor of Fujian, Wu Xingzuo, recommended the surveillance commissioner Yu Chenglong as the most incorruptible and capable official in the empire; Yu was transferred to provincial treasurer and soon promoted to governor of Zhili. When he came to court for audience in the twentieth year, the emperor received him warmly and spoke words of praise. He asked whether any of his subordinate officials were also known for incorruptibility. Chenglong named the county magistrate Xie Xigun and the sub-prefects He Ruyu and Luo Jing. Before long, Chenglong was transferred to governor-general of Liangjiang. On the eve of his departure, he memorialized recommending the Zhili circuit intendant Dong Bingzhong, the Tongzhou prefect Yu Chenglong, the southern route sub-prefect Chen Dadong, and the county magistrates Shao Siyao of Baixiang, Wang Xie of Fucheng, and Sun Hongye of Gaoyang, together with the Bazhou assistant prefect Wei Jixian—all of whom he deemed fit for high office. When the post of Jiangning prefect fell vacant, an edict immediately promoted the Tongzhou prefect Yu Chenglong to fill it. Within a few years he was promoted to governor of Zhili. At the same time there were two officials named Yu Chenglong; each in turn drew the other upward, and both won the emperor's special favor through their incorruptible conduct—contemporary opinion praised them warmly. In the twenty-third year, the emperor instructed ministry officials to recommend candidates for vacant capital posts; they all replied that there was no lack of talented and prudent men, but that integrity was truly hard to assess. The emperor said: "How can incorruptible conduct be set aside? Take Hao Yu: he served very well in office, yet still embezzled tax grain; Wei Xiangshu once recommended him—how could anyone have foreseen that! I trust the integrity of the chief officials of the ministries and yamens and entrust them with office; those chief officials likewise trust their subordinate bureau officials and entrust them in turn. Simply recommend men of proven integrity; those recommended will naturally serve effectively." That year the nine ministers, grand tutors, censorate, and supervising secretaries, following the edict, memorialized recommending incorruptible officials: the governor of Zhili Ge'ergude; the Board of Civil Appointments bureau directors Suhe and Fan Chengxun; the Jiangnan education intendant Zhao Lun; the Yangzhou prefect Cui Hua; the Yanzhou prefect Zhang Penghe; the Lingshou county magistrate Lu Longqi; and others. In the twenty-sixth year, the emperor praised the governor of Zhili, Yu Chenglong, for his incorruptibility and ordered each of the nine ministers to recommend incorruptible officials like him. The grand secretaries and others recommended the Yunnan-Guizhou governor-general Fan Chengxun, the Shanxi governor Ma Qi, and the Sichuan governor Yao Diyu. The emperor said that Fan Chengxun and the others all served well in office, but still showed something of forced effort in their conduct. Chenglong, by contrast, acted from sincere conviction, with no hesitation or second thoughts. Chenglong was granted the nominal rank of junior guardian of the heir apparent, to encourage integrity and ability among officials. In the fortieth year, an edict ordered the governors-general Guo Xiu, Zhang Penghe, Sang'e, and Hua Xian and the governors Peng Peng, Li Guangdi, and Xu Chao to recommend officials from the circuit level down to the county magistrate level who were incorruptible and cared for the people—without regard to demerits, errors, or past demotions and punishments, and without restricting nominations to their own province or neighboring jurisdictions—and to report all names in full. At that time the emperor broadly encouraged moral integrity; officials throughout the empire admired and emulated it, and governance was greatly transformed. Honest local officials who were recommended and received conspicuous promotion followed one after another in quick succession.

先是廷臣會推廣西按察使缺，吏部侍郎胡簡敬，淮安人，以推舉淮揚道高成美違例獲譴，至是申禁九卿毋得保舉同鄉及本省官，復限每人歲舉毋逾十人。五十三年，尚書趙申喬舉潮州知府張應詔能耐清貧，可為兩淮運使。帝曰：「清官不系貧富，張伯行家道甚饒，任所日用皆取諸其家，以為不清可乎？一心為國即好官，或操守雖清，不能辦事，亦何裨於國？」

Earlier, when court officials jointly recommended candidates for the vacant post of Guangxi surveillance commissioner, the Board of Civil Appointments vice minister Hu Jianjing, a native of Huai'an, was punished for recommending the Huai-Yang circuit intendant Gao Chengmei in violation of regulations; at this point it was announced that the nine ministers must not recommend men from their native place or their own province, and that each person was again limited to no more than ten recommendations per year. In the fifty-third year, Minister Zhao Shenqiao recommended the Chaozhou prefect Zhang Yingshao as a man able to endure poverty while remaining incorrupt, fit to serve as commissioner of Liang-Huai transport. The emperor said: "Incorruptible officials are not defined by wealth or poverty. Zhang Bojia's family estate is very ample, and all his daily expenses in office are paid from his own household—can he therefore be deemed corrupt? An official who single-mindedly serves the state is a good official; but if one's conduct is incorrupt yet one cannot handle affairs, what benefit is there to the state?"

六十一年，世宗嗣位。諭曰：「知人則哲，自古為難。朕臨御之初，簡用人才，或品行端方，或操守清廉，或才具敏練，諸大臣密奏所知。勿避嫌徇私，沽名市恩，有負諮詢。」又以道、府、州、縣，親民要職，敕總督舉三員，巡撫舉二員，布、按各舉一員，將軍、提督亦得舉一員，密封奏聞。雍正四年，以各省所舉未能稱旨，詔切責之。令各明舉一人，不得雷同。時薦賢詔屢下，帝綜覈名實，賞罰必行。七年，以督、撫、布、按，為全省表率。命京官學士、侍郎以上，外官籓、臬以上，各密保一人，不拘滿、漢，不限資格，即府、縣中有信其可任封疆大僚，亦許列薦剡。

In the sixty-first year, the Shizong emperor succeeded to the throne. An edict stated: "To know men is to be wise—this has been difficult since antiquity. At the beginning of my reign, in selecting and employing talent—whether for upright character, incorruptible conduct, or keen and practiced ability—all ministers were to memorialize in secret those they knew. Do not avoid suspicion yet practice favoritism, or seek reputation and trade in favor, betraying this consultation." The emperor also directed that, because circuit, prefecture, department, and county posts were key offices close to the people, governors-general were to recommend three men, governors two, provincial treasurers and surveillance commissioners one each, and generals and provincial military commanders one each, reporting by sealed memorial. In the fourth year of Yongzheng, because the recommendations from the provinces failed to satisfy the emperor's intent, an edict sharply rebuked the officials involved. Each official was ordered clearly to recommend one person, with no identical submissions allowed. At that time edicts calling for the recommendation of worthy men were repeatedly issued; the emperor comprehensively verified reputation against reality, and rewards and punishments were always enforced. In the seventh year, because governors-general, governors, provincial treasurers, and surveillance commissioners were the models for an entire province, The emperor ordered that capital officials of bachelor and vice minister rank and above and provincial officials of provincial treasurer and surveillance commissioner rank and above each secretly recommend one person, without restriction as to Manchu or Han and without limit on qualifications; even among prefecture and county officials, if one believed someone fit for a great frontier post, listing him in a recommendation memorial was also permitted.

高宗重視親民之官，乾隆二年，諭仿雍正時例，督、撫、布、按，各密舉一、二人。次年，覆命大學士、九卿舉堪任道、府人員，露章啟奏。八年，詔大學士舉編、檢能任知府者。十四年，命侍郎以上舉能任三品京堂者，尚書以上舉能任侍郎者。其時明揚、密保，並行不廢。科、道行取，自康熙七年復舊制。詔督、撫舉親民之官，賢能夙著者，親加選用。二十九年，詔九卿各舉所知。尚書王騭舉清苑知縣邵嗣堯，李天馥舉三河知縣彭鵬、靈壽知縣陸隴其，徐元文舉麻城知縣趙蒼璧。及廷推時，帝復問左都御史陳廷敬，廉者為誰？廷敬亦以隴其、嗣堯天下清官為言。時同舉十二人，俱用科、道。得人為最。乾隆四年，吏部奏請行取，高宗命尚書、都御史、侍郎於各部屬，州、縣內，秉公保舉，如康熙二十九年例。次年，諭「聖祖時如湯斌、陸隴其學問純正，言行相符，陳璸、彭鵬操守清廉，治行卓越。天下之大，人材之眾，豈無與數人頡頏者？大學士、九卿其公舉備採擇」。

The Gaozong emperor attached great importance to officials close to the people; in the second year of Qianlong, an edict ordered that governors-general, governors, provincial treasurers, and surveillance commissioners each secretly recommend one or two men, following the Yongzheng precedent. The following year, a renewed order directed the grand secretaries and the nine ministers to recommend men fit for circuit and prefecture posts, presenting open memorials to the throne. In the eighth year, an edict ordered the grand secretaries to recommend compilers and revisers capable of serving as prefects. In the fourteenth year, vice ministers and above were ordered to recommend men fit for third-rank capital posts, while ministers and above were ordered to recommend men fit for vice minister posts. At that time open recommendation and secret recommendation proceeded in parallel, neither being abolished. The selection of censorate and secretariat officials by imperial appointment resumed the old system from the seventh year of Kangxi. An edict ordered governors-general and governors to recommend officials close to the people whose virtue and ability had long been outstanding, for the emperor's personal selection and appointment. In the twenty-ninth year, an edict ordered each of the nine ministers to recommend those they knew. Minister Wang Ji recommended the Qingyuan county magistrate Shao Siyao; Li Tianfu recommended the Sanhe county magistrate Peng Peng and the Lingshou county magistrate Lu Longqi; and Xu Yuanwen recommended the Macheng county magistrate Zhao Cangbi. At the time of court joint recommendation, the emperor again asked the left censor-in-chief Chen Tingjing who the incorruptible officials were. Tingjing also named Lu Longqi and Shao Siyao as the empire's foremost incorruptible officials. At that time twelve men were jointly recommended, all appointed to posts in the censorate and secretariat. Finding the right men was paramount. In the fourth year of Qianlong, the Board of Civil Appointments memorialized requesting imperial selection; the Gaozong emperor ordered ministers, censor-in-chiefs, and vice ministers to recommend fairly from among their department subordinates and from within prefectures and counties, following the precedent of the twenty-ninth year of Kangxi. The following year, an edict stated: "In the time of the Sacred Ancestor, men such as Tang Bin and Lu Longqi had pure and correct learning and words that matched their conduct; Chen Bin and Peng Peng had incorruptible conduct and outstanding administrative records. Within the vastness of the empire and the multitude of talent, could there truly be none to match these several men? Let the grand secretaries and the nine ministers jointly recommend candidates for selection."

七年，帝思骨鯁質樸之士，如古馬周、陽城起布衣為御史者，詔大學士、九卿及督、撫，勿論資格，列名舉奏。嗣諸臣奏到，下吏部定期考試。明年二月，考選御史，試以時務策，帝親取中書胡寶瑔第一。引見，寶瑔、塗逢震等十人用御史，沈瀾發江南補用。既而從御史李清芳奏，選用御史，令吏部將合例人員奏請考試。於是保薦御史例罷。清代未設直言極諫之科，而選擇言官至為慎重，裨益政治，非淺鮮也。

In the seventh year, the emperor sought blunt and plain-spoken men of substance, like the ancients Ma Zhou and Yang Cheng, who had risen from commoner status to become censors; an edict ordered the grand secretaries, the nine ministers, and the governors-general and governors, regardless of qualifications, to list names and recommend them by memorial. Subsequently, when the officials' memorials arrived, the matter was sent down to the Board of Civil Appointments to schedule examinations on a fixed date. In the second month of the following year, censors were selected by examination on policy essays concerning current affairs, and the emperor personally ranked the Hanlin bachelor Hu Baochen first. Upon presentation at court, Hu Baochen, Tu Fengzhen, and nine others were appointed censors; Shen Lan was dispatched to Jiangnan for supplemental appointment. Soon afterward, following a memorial from the censor Li Qingfang, the selection and appointment of censors was ordered to proceed through the Board of Civil Appointments, which was to memorialize requesting examination of men meeting the regulations. Thereupon the practice of recommending censors was abolished. The Qing dynasty did not establish an examination category for blunt remonstrance, yet the utmost care was taken in selecting remonstrating officials—a benefit to governance that was by no means slight.

自康、乾兩朝，敦尚實學，一時名儒碩彥，膺薦擢者，尤難悉數。康熙十七年，聖祖問閣臣，在廷中博學能詩文者孰為最？李霨、馮溥、陳廷敬、張英交口薦戶部郎中王士禎，召對懋勤殿，賦詩稱旨，授翰林院侍講。部曹改詞臣，自士禎始。三十三年，詔大學士舉長於文學者，王熙、張玉書疏薦在籍尚書徐乾學、左都御史王鴻緒、少詹事高士奇。召來京修書。乾學未聞命卒，詔進呈遺書，並召其弟秉義來京。四十五年，大學士李光地薦直隸生員王蘭生入直內廷，尋賜舉人、進士，授編修，洊躋卿貳。歷康、雍、乾三朝，凡天祿秘書，靡不與校勘之役。同時江南何焯，亦以寒儒賜舉人、進士，直南書房，授編修。被劾解官，仍直書局。亦光地薦也。雍正中，侍郎兼祭酒孫嘉淦薦舉人雷鋐學行，為國子監學正。乾隆初，尚書管監事楊名時薦進士庄亨陽、舉人潘永季、蔡德峻、秦蕙田、吳鼐，貢生官獻瑤、王文震，監生夏宗瀾等，潛心經學，並為國子監屬官。三十八年，詔開四庫館。延置儒臣，以翰林官纂輯不敷，大學士劉統勛薦進士邵晉涵、周永年，尚書裘曰修薦進士余集、舉人戴震，尚書王際華薦舉人楊昌霖，同典秘籍。後皆改入翰林，時稱「五徵君」。此其著者也。

From the Kangxi and Qianlong reigns, practical learning was earnestly honored; the eminent scholars and great worthies of the age who received recommendation and promotion are especially too numerous to count. In the seventeenth year of Kangxi, the Sacred Ancestor asked the grand secretaries who among those at court was foremost in broad learning and ability in poetry and prose. Li Wei, Feng Pu, Chen Tingjing, and Zhang Ying unanimously recommended the Board of Revenue bureau director Wang Shizhen; summoned for audience at the Hall of Diligent Government, he composed poetry that pleased the emperor and was appointed reader of the Hanlin Academy. The transfer of a ministry bureau official to literary service began with Shizhen. In the thirty-third year, an edict ordered the grand secretaries to recommend men accomplished in letters; Wang Xi and Zhang Yushu memorialized recommending the retired minister Xu Qianxue, the left censor-in-chief Wang Hongxu, and the junior grand tutor Gao Shiqi. They were summoned to the capital to compile books. Qianxue died before the order reached him; an edict ordered his posthumous writings presented to the throne and also summoned his younger brother Bingyi to the capital. In the forty-fifth year, the grand secretary Li Guangdi recommended the Zhili licentiate Wang Lansheng to serve in the inner court; soon he was granted juren and jinshi status, appointed compiler, and repeatedly rose to vice ministerial rank. Through the Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong reigns, he took part in the collation of virtually every work in the imperial library. At the same time He Chuo of Jiangnan, also a poor scholar, was granted juren and jinshi status, served in the Southern Library, and was appointed compiler. Impeached and dismissed from office, he still served in the book bureau. He too had been recommended by Guangdi. During the Yongzheng period, the vice minister and concurrent chancellor of the National Academy Sun Jiagan recommended the juren Lei Hong for learning and conduct and appointed him director of study at the Imperial Academy. At the beginning of Qianlong, Minister Yang Mingshi, who also managed academy affairs, recommended the jinshi Zhuang Hengyang, the juren Pan Yongji, Cai Dejun, Qin Huitian, and Wu Nai, the tribute students Guan Xianyao and Wang Wenzhen, and the academy student Xia Zonglan and others—all devoted to classical learning—and appointed them subordinate officials of the Imperial Academy. In the thirty-eighth year, an edict ordered the opening of the Siku Library bureau. Confucian scholars were retained; because Hanlin officials alone were insufficient for compilation, the grand secretary Liu Tongxun recommended the jinshi Shao Jinhan and Zhou Yongnian, Minister Qiu Yuexiu recommended the jinshi Yu Ji and the juren Dai Zhen, and Minister Wang Jihua recommended the juren Yang Changlin—all of whom jointly managed the secret archives. Later all were transferred into the Hanlin Academy; at the time they were called "the Five Summoned Worthies." These are the most notable cases.

嘉慶初，和珅敗，仁宗下詔求賢。諭滿、漢大臣，密舉操守端潔、才猷幹濟、居官事迹可據者，降敕褎擢廉吏劉清，風厲天下。十九年，御史卓秉恬請嚴禁濫保，帝是之。宣宗即位，尚書劉鐶之薦起名儒唐鑒，授廣西知府。四川總督蔣攸銛薦川東道陶澍治行第一，擢按察使。澍好臧否人物，開籓皖中，入覲論奏，侃侃多所舉劾。宣宗疑之。密諭巡撫孫爾准察其為人，爾准條列善政，密疏保薦。遂獲大用，擢兩江總督。臨歿遺疏薦粵督林則徐繼己任。澍以知人稱，咸、同中興諸名臣，多為所識拔。

At the beginning of the Jiaqing reign, after Heshen's fall, the Renzong emperor issued an edict seeking worthy men. An edict directed Manchu and Han ministers secretly to recommend men of upright and incorrupt conduct, capable talent, practical achievement, and verifiable records in office; an imperial rescript honoring and promoting the incorruptible official Liu Qing was issued to reform morals throughout the empire. In the nineteenth year, the censor Zhuo Bingtian requested strict prohibition of reckless recommendations, and the emperor approved. When the Xuanzong emperor ascended the throne, Minister Liu Huanzhi recommended the renowned scholar Tang Jian and appointed him prefect of Guangxi. The Sichuan governor-general Jiang Yohuan recommended the eastern Sichuan circuit intendant Tao Shu as first in administrative achievement and promoted him to surveillance commissioner. Shu was fond of judging men's merits and faults; when he established his provincial administration in central Anhui and came to court to discuss and report affairs, he spoke forthrightly and frequently recommended and impeached many men. The Xuanzong emperor was suspicious of him. A secret edict directed the governor Sun Erzhun to investigate his character; Erzhun itemized his good policies and recommended him in a secret memorial. Thereupon he received great employment and was promoted to governor-general of Liangjiang. On the eve of his death, in a final memorial he recommended the Guangdong governor Lin Zexu to succeed him in office. Shu was famed for knowing men; many of the renowned ministers of the Xianfeng and Tongzhi restoration were men he had recognized and promoted.

文宗嗣位，詔求直言。侍郎曾國籓疏陳：「本原至計，尤在用人。人材有轉移之道，培養之方，考察之法。」帝嘉納之。詔中外大臣薦舉人才。大學士穆彰阿奏保宗室文彩，聶澐。特旨用京堂。大學士潘世恩疏薦前總督林則徐、按察使姚瑩、員外郎邵懿辰、中允馮桂芬。尚書杜受田首薦則徐及前漕督周天爵。詔起則徐督師，天爵巡撫廣西。侍郎曾國籓薦太常少卿李棠階、郎中吳廷棟、通政副使王慶雲、江蘇淮揚道嚴正基、浙江知縣江忠源。尚書周祖培亦薦棠階、廷棟及郎中易棠等，多蒙擢用。雲貴總督吳文鎔、貴州巡撫喬用遷薦知府胡林翼，擢道員。

When the Wenzong emperor succeeded to the throne, an edict called for blunt speech. Vice Minister Zeng Guofan memorialized stating: "The fundamental plan lies above all in employing men. Talent has ways of transfer, methods of cultivation, and means of investigation." The emperor praised and accepted it. An edict ordered ministers at court and in the provinces to recommend talent. The grand secretary Mujangga memorialized recommending the imperial clansman Wencai and Nie Yun. A special edict appointed them to capital posts. The grand secretary Pan Shi'en memorialized recommending the former governor-general Lin Zexu, the surveillance commissioner Yao Ying, the bureau director Shao Yichen, and the palace secretary Feng Guifen. The minister of works Du Shoutian was the first to recommend Lin Zexu and the former grain transport commissioner Zhou Tianjue. An edict recalled Lin Zexu to take command of the armies, and Zhou Tianjue was appointed governor of Guangxi. The vice minister Zeng Guofan recommended the vice-president of the Court of Imperial Sacrifices Li Tangjie, the bureau director Wu Tingdong, the vice transmission commissioner Wang Qingyun, the Huai-Yang intendant of Jiangsu Yan Zhengji, and the magistrate of Zhejiang Jiang Zhongyuan. The minister Zhou Zupe likewise recommended Tangjie, Tingdong, the bureau director Yi Tang, and others, many of whom were promoted and appointed to office. The governor-general of Yunnan and Guizhou Wu Wenrong and the governor of Guizhou Qiao Yongqian recommended the prefect Hu Linyi, who was promoted to circuit intendant.

咸豐五年，以各省用兵，詔採訪才兼文武、膽識出眾之士。御史宗稷辰疏薦湖南左宗棠，浙江姚承輿，江蘇周騰虎、管晏，廣西唐啟華。命各督、撫訪察，送京引見。是時海內多故，粵寇縱橫。文慶以大學士直樞廷，屢密請破除滿、漢畛域，用人不拘資地。謂漢人來自田間，知民疾苦，熟諳情偽，辦賊當重用漢人。國籓起鄉兵擊賊，戰失利，謗議紛起。文慶獨謂國籓忠誠負時望，終當建非常功，宜專任討賊。又嘗奇林翼才略，林翼以貴州道員留楚帶勇剿賊，國籓薦其才堪大用，勝己十倍。一歲間擢湖北巡撫，文慶實中主之。袁甲三督師淮上，駱秉章巡撫湖南，文慶薦其才，請勿他調，以觀厥成。時論稱之。七年，林翼奏興國處士萬斛泉及其弟子宋鼎、鄒金粟，砥礪廉隅，不求仕進，請予獎勵。詔賞斛泉等七品冠服有差。時軍事方殷，迭飭疆吏及各路統兵大臣奏舉將才。林翼舉左宗棠，予四品京堂，襄辦國籓軍務。沈葆楨、劉蓉、張運蘭，命國籓、林翼調遣。他如塔齊布、羅澤南、李續賓、李續宜、彭玉麟、楊岳斌等，俱以末弁或諸生，拔自戎行，聲績爛然。曾、胡知人善任，薦賢滿天下，卒奏中興之功。

In the fifth year of the Xianfeng reign, with warfare raging across the provinces, an edict commanded that men of combined civil and military ability and exceptional courage and judgment be sought out. The censor Zong Jichen memorialized recommending Zuo Zongtang of Hunan, Yao Chengyu of Zhejiang, Zhou Tenghu and Guan Yan of Jiangsu, and Tang Qihua of Guangxi. The governors and governor-generals were ordered to investigate these men, send them to the capital, and present them for imperial audience. At that time calamities multiplied across the empire, and the Cantonese rebels ranged unchecked. Serving as grand secretary on the Grand Council, Wen Qing repeatedly urged in private that the barrier between Manchu and Han be dismantled and that appointments should not be bound by rank and pedigree. He argued that Han officials, drawn from the countryside, understood the people's sufferings and the realities on the ground, and that Han talent should be heavily relied upon in the suppression of rebels. Guofan raised local militia to fight the rebels, but after a defeat criticism and denunciation erupted on all sides. Wen Qing alone maintained that Guofan was loyal and commanded the esteem of the age, that he would eventually achieve extraordinary merit, and that he should be given sole charge of the campaign against the rebels. He had also admired Lin Yi's talent and strategic ability. Lin Yi, though a circuit intendant of Guizhou, remained in Hubei at the head of local braves to hunt down rebels, and Guofan recommended him as a man of talents far surpassing his own—ten times his equal. Within a year Lin Yi was promoted to governor of Hubei, with Wen Qing serving as the principal patron behind the appointment. Yuan Jiasan was commanding on the Huai River front and Luo Bingzhang was governing Hunan. Wen Qing praised their abilities and urged that they not be transferred elsewhere, so that their achievements might be allowed to ripen. Contemporary opinion widely approved. In the seventh year, Lin Yi memorialized on behalf of the recluse Wan Huquan of Xingguo and his disciples Song Ding and Zou Jinli, men of scrupulous integrity who sought no official advancement, requesting that they be rewarded. An edict conferred caps and robes of seventh rank upon Huquan and the others, with distinctions according to merit. With military affairs then at their height, frontier officials and commanding generals on every front were repeatedly ordered to memorial recommending men of military talent. Lin Yi recommended Zuo Zongtang, who was given fourth-rank Beijing official status and appointed to assist in managing Guofan's military affairs. Shen Baozhen, Liu Rong, and Zhang Yunlan were placed under the dispatch of Guofan and Lin Yi. Others such as Ta Qibu, Luo Zinan, Li Xubin, Li Xuyi, Peng Yulin, and Yang Yuebin—all low-ranking officers or mere licentiates plucked from the battle lines—won resounding fame for their achievements. Zeng and Hu knew how to recognize talent and put it to use, recommending worthy men across the empire until at last the work of national revival was accomplished.

穆宗踐阼，以軍興後吏治廢弛，特擢天津知府石贊清為順天府尹，諭各省訪察循良，有伏處山林、德行醇備、學問淵通之士，督、撫、學政據實奏聞。尋國籓疏稱常州士民尚節義，城陷與賊相持。其士子多讀書稽古。如候選同知劉翰清，監生趙烈文、方駿謨、華蘅芳，從九品徐壽等，若使閱歷戎行，廓其聞見，有裨軍謀。詔譚廷襄、嚴樹森、左宗棠、薛煥訪求，遣送國籓軍營錄用。

When the Muzong Emperor ascended the throne, he found that administration had grown lax in the wake of prolonged warfare. He specially promoted the prefect of Tianjin, Shi Zanqing, to metropolitan magistrate of Shuntian, and instructed the provinces to seek out conscientious administrators, as well as scholars of pure virtue and profound learning dwelling in seclusion—governors, governor-generals, and education commissioners were to report on such men according to fact. Soon afterward Guofan memorialized that the people of Changzhou held fast to integrity and righteousness, continuing to resist the rebels even after the city had fallen. Many of their men of letters were steeped in classical learning and historical study. Among them were the expectant sub-prefect Liu Hanqing, the students Zhao Liewen, Fang Junmo, and Hua Hengfang, and the ninth-rank clerk Xu Shou. If given experience on campaign to broaden their horizons, they would prove valuable to military planning. An edict commanded Tan Tingxiang, Yan Shusen, Zuo Zongtang, and Xue Huan to seek out these men and forward them to Guofan's camp for appointment.

同治元年，諭廷臣曰：「上年屢降旨令保舉人才，各督、撫已將政績卓著人員登諸薦牘。在京如大學士周祖培，大學士銜祁■A4藻、翁心存，協辦大學士倭仁，侍郎宋晉、王茂廕，科道高延祜、薛春藜、郭祥瑞等，各有薦舉。人臣以人事君，不必俟有明詔，始可敷陳。其各臚列事實，秉公保奏。」復屢諭國籓保薦督撫大員。國籓言：「封疆將帥，惟天子舉措之。四方多故，疆臣既有征伐之權，不當更分黜陟之柄，宜防外重內輕之漸，兼杜植私樹黨之端。」帝優詔褒答。

In the first year of the Tongzhi reign, the emperor addressed the court: 'Last year I repeatedly issued edicts calling for the recommendation of talented men, and the governors and governor-generals have already entered men of outstanding achievement on their recommendation lists. In the capital, the grand secretary Zhou Zupe, Qi Zhizao and Weng Xincun with grand secretary rank, the assistant grand secretary Woren, the vice ministers Song Jin and Wang Maoyin, and the censorial officials Gao Yanhu, Xue Chunli, and Guo Xiangrui, among others—each submitted recommendations of their own. Ministers serve their sovereign through the recommendation of men; they need not wait for an explicit edict before presenting their views. Let each set forth the facts in full and recommend candidates with impartiality. The emperor also repeatedly instructed Guofan to recommend high provincial officials. Guofan replied: 'Governors-general and military commanders are for the Son of Heaven alone to appoint and remove. With trouble on every front, frontier officials already wield the power of war—they should not also share authority over promotions and dismissals. We must guard against the provinces growing stronger than the center, and forestall the rise of private patronage and factionalism. The emperor replied with an edict of gracious commendation.

二年，河南學政景其濬奏副貢生蘇源生等學行，授本省訓導。命各學臣訪舉經明行修之士，酌保數人，不為恆制。九年，浙江學政徐樹銘，以採訪儒修，疏薦已革編修俞樾，請賞還原銜，送部引見；秀水教諭譚廷獻、舉人趙銘、江西拔貢楊希閔等，比照召試博學鴻詞例，予廷試。帝以樹銘私心自用，下部嚴議，鐫四級。此因薦舉獲譴，乃其變也。光緒七年，兩廣督臣張樹聲、撫臣裕寬，薦在籍紳士山西襄陵知縣南海進士硃次琦，國子監典籍銜番禺舉人陳澧篤行。詔予五品卿銜，以勵績學。

In the second year, the education commissioner of Henan, Jing Qijun, memorialized on the scholarship and conduct of the vice tribute graduate Su Yuansheng and others, who were appointed instructors within the province. Education commissioners throughout the empire were ordered to seek out men of classical learning and upright conduct and recommend a suitable number—not as a standing rule, but as occasion warranted. In the ninth year, the education commissioner of Zhejiang, Xu Shuming, while seeking out learned Confucians, memorialized recommending the dismissed compiler Yu Yue, asking that his original rank be restored and that he be sent to the ministry for audience; The instructor of Xiushui Tan Tingxian, the provincial graduate Zhao Ming, the selected tribute graduate of Jiangxi Yang Ximin, and others were, following the precedent of the special examination for erudition and literary excellence, granted a palace examination. The emperor deemed Shuming guilty of acting from private motive on his own authority; the case was referred for severe deliberation, and he was demoted four ranks. Thus did a recommendation lead to punishment—a departure from the usual course. In the seventh year of the Guangxu reign, the governor-general and governor of the two Guang provinces, Zhang Shusheng and Yu Kuan, recommended two home-dwelling scholars of eminent character: Zhu Ciqi of Nanhai, a jinshi and former magistrate of Xiangling in Shanxi, and Chen Li of Panyu, a provincial graduate holding lexicographer rank at the Imperial Academy. An edict conferred honorary fifth-rank chamberlain titles upon them, to encourage men of profound scholarship.

十年，以外釁迭啟，時事日艱。諭大學士、六部、九卿、直省將軍、督、撫：「無論文武兩途，有體用賅備，謀勇俱優，或諳習吏治兵事，熟悉中外交涉，或善制船械，精通算術，或饒有機智，饒勇善戰，或諳諫水師及沿海情形者，廣為訪求，具實陳奏。」二十一年，訪求奇才異能，精天文、地輿、算法、格致、製造學者。二十四年，翰林院侍讀學士徐致靖疏薦工部主事康有為、刑部主事張元濟、湖南鹽法長寶道黃遵憲、江蘇知府譚嗣同、廣東舉人梁啟超，特予召見。徵遵憲、嗣同至京，賞啟超六品銜，任譯書局事。時德宗親政，激於外勢，亟圖自彊。詔求通達時務人才，中外紛紛薦舉。而草茅新進之臣，刻勵求新，昌言變法矣。未幾黨禍起，慈禧皇太后訓政，有為竄海外，其弟廣仁及御史楊深秀、軍機章京譚嗣同、林旭、楊銳、劉光第棄市，致靖以黨附下獄禁錮，復追論原保諸臣罪。御史宋伯魯、湖南巡撫陳寶箴，開缺戶部尚書、協辦大學士翁同龢，俱削官永不敘用。禮部尚書李端棻謫戍邊，內閣學士張百熙下部議處。其他言新政者，斥逐殆盡。

In the tenth year, as foreign crises erupted in succession, the situation grew daily more desperate. An edict addressed to the grand secretaries, the six ministries, the nine chief courts, and the governors and generals of the provinces: 'Whether civil or military, seek out widely those who unite breadth of learning with practical ability, who excel in counsel and courage alike, who are versed in administration and military affairs and familiar with dealings between China and foreign powers, who are skilled in shipbuilding and armaments and masterful in mathematics, who possess ingenuity and boldness in equal measure, or who understand foreign navies and coastal conditions. Report on such men truthfully in memorial.' In the twenty-first year, the court sought out men of extraordinary talent and rare ability—scholars skilled in astronomy, geography, mathematics, natural science, and engineering. In the twenty-fourth year, the Hanlin reader Xu Zhijing memorialized recommending Kang Youwei, director in the Ministry of Works; Zhang Yuanji, director in the Ministry of Punishments; Huang Zunxian, salt controller of Hunan; Tan Sitong, prefect of Jiangsu; and Liang Qichao, provincial graduate of Guangdong. All were specially summoned to audience. Huang Zunxian and Tan Sitong were summoned to the capital. Liang Qichao was granted sixth-rank status and put in charge of the Translation Bureau. The Guangxu Emperor had then assumed personal rule. Stirred by foreign pressure, he urgently pursued policies of self-strengthening. Edicts called for men of talent versed in affairs of the day, and recommendations poured in from across the empire. Meanwhile a new generation of officials risen from humble ranks, burning with zeal for innovation, openly championed reform. Before long the purge of the reform faction began. Empress Dowager Cixi resumed regency. Kang Youwei fled abroad. His younger brother Kang Guangren, the censor Yang Shenxiu, and the Grand Council clerks Tan Sitong, Lin Xu, Yang Rui, and Liu Guangdi were executed in the marketplace. Xu Zhijing was imprisoned for his factional ties, and those who had originally recommended the reformers were prosecuted in turn. The censor Song Bolu, the governor of Hunan Chen Baozhen, and the discharged minister of revenue and assistant grand secretary Weng Tonghe were all stripped of office and permanently barred from further appointment. The minister of rites Li Duanfen was banished to penal servitude on the frontier, and the grand secretary Zhang Baixi was referred for deliberation and punishment. Nearly every voice still advocating the new policies was driven from office.

迨庚子京師遘亂，越年和議成，兩宮西幸迴鑾，時事日棘。三十三年，詔中外大臣訪求人才，不拘官階大小，有無官職，確知才堪大用，及擅專長者，切實薦舉。派王大臣察驗詢問，出具考語，召見。於時被薦人員，分起赴京，除官錄用者，至宣統間猶未已。然自光緒之季，改訂官制，增衙署，置官缺，破格錄用人員輒以千數，薦擢亦太濫矣。宣統元年，御史謝遠涵言：「變法至今，長官但舉故舊，士夫不諱鑽營。請嚴定章程，以貪劣聞者，反坐薦主，加以懲處。」疏下所司而已。

After the Gengzi upheaval in the capital, peace was negotiated the following year and the two empresses returned from their flight west—but the situation grew more urgent by the day. In the thirty-third year, an edict commanded officials throughout the empire to seek out talent without regard to rank or official status—men known to be capable of great service, or men of proven specialized skill—and to recommend them with concrete substantiation. Imperial princes and senior ministers were dispatched to examine and question the candidates, submit evaluations, and present them for audience. Recommended men set out for the capital in successive groups; appointments continued to be made from their ranks even into the Xuantong reign. Yet from the late Guangxu period onward, as the bureaucracy was reorganized, new offices multiplied and new posts were created. Extraordinary appointments ran into the thousands, and recommendations and promotions had grown recklessly permissive. In the first year of the Xuantong reign, the censor Xie Yuanhan memorialized: 'Since the reforms began, chief officials have recommended only their old associates, and men of letters no longer shrink from currying favor. I request that strict regulations be established so that when a recommended man proves corrupt or incompetent, his patron shall be held accountable and punished accordingly. The memorial was referred to the responsible office—and nothing more was done.

薦舉不拘流品。清代才臣，以佐雜洊躋開府者，如雍正間之李衛、田文鏡，乾隆間之楊景素、李世傑，政績最著。厥後捐納日廣，起家雜流，膺顯擢者無算，其人大都饒有幹局，以視科目循資遷轉，以資格坐致高位，蓋不侔也。薦舉之尤異者，康熙初，陝西提督王進寶，薦其子用予材武可勝副將，後以功擢總兵，父子同建節鉞。雍正間，雲南總兵趙坤擢貴州提督，請以其子秉鐸為貴州提標參將，帝允所請。孫嘉淦為祭酒，舉其弟揚淦為國子監學正，湖南衡永郴桂道汪榯，且薦其父原任刑部司官澐學問優裕，政事練達，授四川知府。此則舉不避親，其破除成例又如此。

Recommendations were not confined to any single social category. Among Qing officials of talent who rose from lowly assistant ranks to provincial governorships, none achieved more renown than Li Wei and Tian Wenjing in the Yongzheng reign, and Yang Jingsu and Li Shijie in the Qianlong reign. Thereafter, as the purchase of office grew ever more common, countless men of miscellaneous origins won prominent promotion. Most among them possessed genuine administrative capacity—quite unlike examination graduates who ascended by seniority alone and attained high office through qualification rather than merit. Among the most unusual cases of recommendation: in early Kangxi, the provincial commander of Shaanxi Wang Jinbao recommended his own son Wang Yong as a man of martial ability fit for deputy commander. Wang Yong was later promoted to commander-in-chief by merit, and father and son alike came to bear the seals of military authority. During the Yongzheng reign, the regional commander of Yunnan Zhao Kun was promoted to provincial commander of Guizhou and requested that his son Bingduo be appointed deputy commander of the Guizhou garrison. The emperor granted his request. Sun Jiagan, chancellor of the Imperial Academy, recommended his younger brother Yanggan as a director of studies at the Guozijian. Wang Qi, intendant of the Heng-Yong-Chen-Gui circuit in Hunan, went further and recommended his own father Yun, a former clerk in the Ministry of Punishments, as a man of ample learning and seasoned administration; Yun was appointed prefect of Sichuan. In such cases recommendation did not shrink from nepotism—and the breaking of precedent could go just as far.

徵辟幕僚，雍正元年詔吏部，嗣後督撫所延幕賓，將姓名具奏，稱職者題部議敘，授之職位，以示砥礪。乾隆元年，侍郎吳應棻以鼓勵賢才，請立勸懲之法。洎道光間，幕友濫邀甄敘，台諫屢以為言，詔督、撫、鹽政，一切議敘，不許保列幕友，並嚴禁本省屬員濫充，違者吏部查參議處。然康熙時，布衣陳潢佐靳輔治河，特賜僉事道銜。雍正時，方觀承為定邊大將軍平郡王記室，以布衣召見，賜中書銜。乾、嘉間，名臣如王傑、嚴如煜、林則徐輩，皆先佐幕而後通籍。迨咸、同軍興，左宗棠、李鴻章、劉蓉等，多以幕僚佐績戎旃，成中興之業。曾國籓總制軍務，幕府號多才，賓從極一時人選，尤卓卓可紀者也。

As for the recruitment of private secretaries: in the first year of the Yongzheng reign, an edict to the Ministry of Personnel directed that henceforth governors and governor-generals were to memorialize the names of their retained staff; those who performed competently would be referred to the ministry for promotion and granted official posts, as a measure of encouragement. In the first year of the Qianlong reign, the vice minister Wu Yingfen petitioned for the establishment of a system of rewards and punishments to encourage worthy talent. By the Daoguang reign, private secretaries were routinely petitioning for formal promotion, a practice repeatedly decried by the censoriate. An edict directed governors, governor-generals, and salt controllers that staff were no longer to be included in promotion deliberations, and that the unauthorized appointment of local subordinates as private secretaries was strictly forbidden; violators were to be investigated and punished by the Ministry of Personnel. Yet in the Kangxi reign, the commoner Chen Huang, who assisted Jin Fu in river conservancy, was specially granted the rank of vice intendant. During the Yongzheng reign, Fang Guancheng, secretary to the Pacifying Prince, frontier-pacifying general, was summoned to audience as a commoner and granted the rank of secretariat compiler. During the Qianlong and Jiaqing reigns, eminent officials such as Wang Jie, Yan Ruyu, and Lin Zexu all first served as private secretaries before entering official ranks. When warfare erupted in the Xianfeng and Tongzhi reigns, Zuo Zongtang, Li Hongzhang, Liu Rong, and others rose largely through staff service, assisting at the battlefront and helping to accomplish the work of national revival. Under Zeng Guofan's overall command of military affairs, his staff became legendary for its abundance of talent—his retainers counted among the finest men of the age, a fact above all worthy of record.

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