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卷119 志九十四 职官六

Volume 119 Treatises 94: Offices 6

Chapter 119 of 清史稿 · Draft History of Qing
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1
Treatise Ninety-Four
2
Offices Six: The New Official System
3
使
The Grand Secretariat, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, envoys abroad, Customs Office, Ministry of Civil Affairs, Inner and Outer Metropolitan Police Headquarters, Ministry of Revenue, Office for the Settlement of Public Accounts, and Imperial Bank of China
4
The General Mint, Ministry of Education, Directorate of Education, Imperial University, Army Ministry, Navy Ministry, Ministry of Justice, Law Revision Bureau, and Supreme Court of Justice
5
Capital trial and procuratorate offices at all levels, the Ministry of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce, Ministry of Posts and Communications, Military Advisory Council, Council of State, Political Consultative Council, and Salt Administration
6
使使
The Court of Rites, Institute of Ritual Learning, provincial education and judicial commissioners, provincial courts and procuratorates, departments of the three eastern provinces, and the Imperial Guard
7
Provincial Training Offices, army and division organization, army division prisons, patrol forces, and naval ship organization
8
沿
In the early Qing the official system was established and its duties and ceremonial forms were roughly in place. It was revised six or seven times, with institutions kept, altered, or carried forward so that no two eras were quite alike. By the Guangxu reign foreign crises came in quick succession, and the Translation Office was first established. It later became a dedicated ministry; Commerce, Police, and Education ministries followed; provincial offices and courts were consolidated into ten ministries. Constitutional plans brought a Colonial Affairs ministry, a Military Advisory office, and renamed ministries: Civil Affairs, Finance, Agriculture-Industry-Commerce, Army (with a naval office), Justice (with a separate Supreme Court), and Posts and Communications split from Works. Compared with earlier times, the institutions had become remarkably numerous. The Xuantong reforms merged the Grand Council into the cabinet, added a Navy Ministry, abolished the Board of Civil Appointments, made the Board of Rites a Court of Rites, and elevated the Salt Office to a Salt Administration. Fearing an overpowerful cabinet, the Council of State was added as a counterweight and the Political Consultative Council as a supervisory body. Building on past practice and borrowing from many regions, ad hoc offices multiplied; posts overlapped, duties blurred, and ranks were not yet clearly sorted. Imperial selection, memorial appointment, and consultative appointment are recorded here in full below—a forest of what worked and what did not.
9
The cabinet had one prime minister and one assistant prime minister. Both were specially selected by imperial appointment. There were ten state ministers. They were filled concurrently by the various ministry heads. There was one chancellor. The Proclamation Bureau had one director and one deputy director. Four bureaus—Drafting, Personnel Records, Statistics, and Seals—each had one director. From the chancellor downward, all were appointed by imperial selection upon request. Subordinates included secretaries and seal-casting master artisans, all appointed by memorial. Artisans and record clerks were appointed by consultation. Various posts. It oversaw the Legislative Drafting Court, with one president and one vice president. There were four counsellors. All were appointed by imperial selection upon request. Counsellor-assistants were appointed by memorial. Secretaries and record clerks were assigned according to workload.
10
The prime minister planned state secrets and drafted timely policy. Laws and edicts bore the countersignatures of the state ministers at the end. Matters touching one or more ministries were signed by the responsible ministers. In council he chaired meetings; the assistant prime minister assisted. The chancellor ran cabinet affairs, oversaw all bureaus, and coordinated the bureau chiefs. The Proclamation Bureau issued rescripts, upheld the legal canon, and managed documents and archives. Drafting handled edicts, sealed commissions, and drafts for imperial approval; it audited orders and medals and managed noble ranks for the domains. Personnel Records evaluated merit, fixed assessments, and verified fulfillment. Statistics compiled unified tables and published yearbooks. The Seals Bureau edited the Official Gazette. The rest followed the former system. See the Board of Rites. The Legislative Drafting Court compiled regulations, clarified statutes, and submitted drafts for imperial approval.
11
In 1906 the cabinet was reorganized with a Council of Government Affairs whose members were the ministry heads. In 1911 a responsible cabinet was formed from Grand Councilors as prime and assistant prime ministers, with subordinate offices as listed. As listed above.
12
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs had one minister and one vice minister. Both were specially selected. The Directorate had left and right vice directors; the Counselling office had left and right counsellors—one each. All were appointed by imperial selection upon request. There were four counsellor-assistants. They were appointed by memorial. It had two general-affairs office clerks. They were appointed by consultation. Four departments—Protocol, Engineering, Tariffs, and General Affairs—each had two directors, vice directors, and section chiefs. All were appointed by memorial. The same pattern applied to all ministries above.
13
使 貿使 調調
The minister directed diplomacy, displayed imperial virtue, and protected overseas Chinese and laborers. The vice minister assisted. The vice director handled confidential papers and oversaw all affairs. Counsellors reviewed laws; counsellor-assistants assisted. The same in all ministries. Protocol managed audiences, treaty gifts, consular rotation, and staff promotions. Engineering managed railways, mines, telegraphs, shipbuilding, ordnance, foreign advisers, labor, and study abroad. Tariffs managed foreign trade levies, public debt, and post, and audited ministry and legation finances. General Affairs handled coastal defense, boundaries, missionary travel, rewards and prohibitions, and treaty-based litigation. Active vice directors and counsellors, supernumerary staff, and seventh-rank junior capital officials served on detail. Civil Affairs, Posts and Communications, and Justice had fixed quotas of junior capital officials. It oversaw the Talent Repository with one chief and one assistant coordinator. They were chosen from ministry staff. Documentation, supplies, and general affairs each had assigned officers.
14
滿 滿 滿 滿
In 1727 the Kyakhta treaty was concluded and a commissioner for Russian affairs appointed; see item five. It was not a permanent post. In 1851 it passed to the Court of Colonial Affairs. In 1860, when the Xianfeng Emperor fled north, a dedicated negotiator was appointed. That winter the Zongli Yamen was founded under Prince Gong Yixin. Staff were titled zhangjing—eight Manchu and eight Han. A divided-office system was then in use. Revenue, Colonial Affairs, War, and Grand Secretariat staff handled customs, documents, couriers, and secrets under chief and assistant managers. In 1863 it was divided into British, French, Russian, and American sections. In 1869 a Coastal Defense section was added. It later became five sections: Russia, Germany, Britain, France, and Japan. In 1909 Russia and Germany were merged and Secretariat and Secret Affairs sections added. The next year four chief managers called chief zhangjing were appointed. In 1862 two supernumerary Manchu and two Han zhangjing were added. In 1863 six more were added for each. In 1883 four more were added for each. In 1884 four were cut from each. In 1897 two more were added for each. In 1863 a general-affairs office was set up with two clerks. In 1901, after the Boxer Protocol, it became the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, ranked above other ministries. A supervising prince, co-managing minister, and left and right co-managing vice ministers were appointed. Chief managers became left and right vice directors with left and right counsellors. Directors and subordinates were appointed without Manchu-Han distinction. The 1906 reform aimed to unite Manchu and Han, but the Hanlin Academy and Censorate kept old rules. That year fifteen translators were added. Fifteen translators of the seventh through ninth ranks served in the sections. In the third year of Xuantong (1911), the new cabinet took shape: the old concurrent titles of director-general and co-director were dropped, ministers became grand ministers, and vice ministers became deputy grand ministers. Each ministry likewise shed one vice-minister post. With that, the practice of assigning overseers to run the ministries came to an end.
15
使
First-class envoys held the top civil rank, 1a. They were specially selected by imperial appointment. Counselors held rank 3a. Interpreters held rank 5a. All were appointed by memorial to the throne. There was no fixed quota. Posts were created as needed and abolished once the mission ended.
16
使 使 西 使
Second-class envoys held rank 2a. They were specially selected by imperial appointment. Counselors were first grade 4, then reclassified as sub-grade 4. Appointed by memorial to the throne. One per legation. Britain, Russia, Germany, Japan, Austria, Italy, the Netherlands, and Belgium each had one. France, Japan, and Portugal each had one. The United States, Mexico, Peru, and Cuba each had one. Branch legations with acting envoys had two second-rank counselors. Spain had one. Portugal had one. Three second-rank counselors doubled as consuls-general. Mexico had one. Peru had one. Cuba had one. There were eight third-rank counselors. Originally grade 5, later fixed at regular grade 5. Appointed by memorial to the throne. Britain, France, Germany, and Russia each had one. The United States and Japan each had two. Second- and third-rank interpreters. Second rank was sub-grade 5. Third rank was sub-grade 6. Appointed by memorial to the throne. First- and second-rank secretaries. First rank was sub-grade 5. Second rank was sub-grade 6. Appointed by memorial to the throne. Commercial commissioners held rank 5a. Appointed by memorial to the throne. Each legation had one military attaché. Austria, Italy, the Netherlands, and Belgium alone had neither third-rank interpreters nor military attachés. Each branch legation had one second-rank interpreter and one secretary.
17
使 使 西使 使 使 使 使 使 使 使 使
Consuls-general held sub-grade 4. Appointed by memorial to the throne. There were thirteen. Singapore, Australia, South Africa, and Canada each had one, under the British minister. Vladivostok had one, under the Russian minister. Mexico, Cuba, San Francisco, the Philippines, Melbourne, and Panama each had one, under the American minister. Yokohama and Korea each had one, under the Japanese minister. Java had one, under the Dutch minister. Consuls held rank 5a. Appointed by memorial to the throne. There were fourteen. Penang, New South Wales, Rangoon, and Vancouver each had one, under the British minister. Honolulu and Rio de Janeiro each had one, under the American minister. Samoa had one, under the German minister. Kobe, Nagasaki, Inchon, Pusan, and Sinuiju each had one, under the Japanese minister. Surabaya and Padang each had one, under the Dutch minister. Vice-consuls held sub-grade 5. Appointed by memorial to the throne. There were two. Wonsan and Chinnampo each had one, under the Japanese minister. Foreign nationals also served as acting consuls in some posts. For France, Marseille; for Italy, Milan and Naples; for the United States, Boston, Philadelphia, and similar ports.
18
使
Envoys conducted the empire's foreign relations. Counselors assisted them. Consuls protected Chinese communities abroad.
19
使 使使 使使使使使 使 使 使使 使 使 使 使 使使使使使 使使使 使
In early Kangxi, Russian missions came and went, but no standing system yet existed. In Tongzhi 6 (1867), the court first sent envoys to handle diplomacy; Zhigang, a circuit intendant, and the American minister Anson Burlingame were among those chosen. In Guangxu 1 (1875), the permanent envoy system was established: Vice Minister Guo Songtao to Britain, Hanlin expositor He Ruzhang to Japan, and capital official Chen Lanbin to the United States, Japan, and Peru—each with a deputy. Branch legations were opened for Peru and Japan, with consuls-general at San Francisco, Rio, and Cuba. When those countries were recognized as fully sovereign, the court began sending ministers plenipotentiary. In Guangxu 2, each legation was allotted two counselors and four silk-bureau translators. In Guangxu 14, the quota for translators and attachés was reset at two or three. Each branch had one counselor-consul, one silk-bureau translator, and one attaché, while full legations kept their counselors. In Guangxu 32, staff quotas from counselor downward were fixed as listed above. Envoys then fanned out abroad: the British minister also covered Italy and Belgium; the Russian minister was also posted to Germany, with Austria and the Netherlands under that legation. In Guangxu 4 a consul was posted to Singapore, later upgraded to consul-general. Superintendent officials were posted to Japanese treaty ports. They were later retitled consuls. The following year deputy envoys were abolished and a consul opened at Honolulu. In Guangxu 8 a consul was posted to New York. In Guangxu 13 posts opened at Manila (consul-general), Rangoon (consul), and Penang (vice-consul). Penang was later upgraded to consul. In Guangxu 17 consuls were posted across the South Seas. In Guangxu 21 a dedicated minister to France was appointed. In Guangxu 23 a dedicated minister went to Germany, and the Dutch legation was placed under him. A minister to Korea was added as well. In Guangxu 33 the Korean minister was recalled and the post became a consul-general. In Guangxu 26 consuls opened at Korean ports and a commercial commissioner at Vladivostok. Vladivostok was later upgraded to consul-general. In Guangxu 28 the French minister also covered Japan, the American minister Cuba (with branch legations), and separate ministers were appointed to Austria, Italy, and Belgium. The next year a Mexican branch legation opened. In Guangxu 30 a consul-general was posted to South Africa. In Guangxu 31 a Dutch minister handled Hague Peace Conference business; French and Japanese ministers briefly covered Portugal until a Portuguese branch legation opened. In Guangxu 34 envoys became dedicated second-rank posts, with formal ranks for counselors and staff. In Xuantong 1 consuls-general opened at Melbourne, Canada, and Panama. Consuls at Australia, Vancouver, Samoa, and New South Wales followed in quick succession. In Xuantong 3 a consul-general opened in Java, with consuls at Surabaya and Padang. That autumn a consul was posted to Sinuiju, Korea.
20
使
Third-class envoys held rank 3a. They were specially selected by imperial appointment. Counselors and interpreters had no fixed quota and were not standing posts.
21
使 西 使
One dedicated minister served the Hague Peace Conference. Rank 2a. Specially selected by imperial appointment. One army councillor. A military officer fluent in Western languages filled the post. In Guangxu 33 the Dutch minister's concurrent Hague role ended and this dedicated post was created.
22
調調 西 沿
The Commissioner of Customs and an Assistant Commissioner, one each. Grand secretaries, ministers, or vice ministers held the posts. Later grand ministers and deputy grand ministers filled them. They oversaw tariff collection and supervised customs staff. A director, assistant director, section chief, and assistant—one each. Foreign Ministry and Ministry of Revenue vice ministers and counselors served concurrently. Under them stood an Inspector General and Deputy Inspector General of Customs, one each. Four customs commissioners, six deputies, and fifty-nine station commissioners—including five at Chaozhou. Guangzhou, Yuezhou, and Beihai each had three. Jiaozhou, Zhenjiang, Donghai, Fujian, Tianjin, Nanjing, Suzhou, and Jilin each had two. Jianghai, Wuzhou, Gongbei, Harbin, Shanhaiguan, Zhejiang, Xiamen, Kowloon, Jiujiang, Yadong, Changsha, Dalian, Wenzhou, Fuzhou maritime, Sanshui, Longzhou, Hangzhou, Andong, Shashi, Chongqing, Jiangmen, Nanning, Qionghai, Yichang, Fengtian, Tengyue, Simao, and Mengzi each had one commissioner. There were thirty-seven deputy commissioners. Hankou, Guangzhou, Jianghai, Sanshui, Tianjin, and Hunchun each had three. Dalian, Chaozhou, Qionghai, and Kowloon each had two. Suzhou, Nanning, Longzhou, Chongqing, Fengtian, Hangzhou, Xiamen, Fujian, Harbin, Wuhu, and the Datong Likin Bureau each had one. All these posts were held by foreigners. Maritime customs originally had Chinese superintendents. Senior ministry officials filled them. Later governors-general and governors nominally supervised them—largely in name. From the Daoguang era onward, as treaty ports multiplied, Northern and Southern Commissioners for Trade were created, with circuit intendants and superintendents under them. Some ports were also overseen by generals. Tianjin fell under the Zhili Tianjin circuit, Shanhaiguan under the Fengtian Feng-Jin-Shan circuit, and Donghai under Shandong's Deng-Lai-Qing circuit—all under the Northern Commissioner. Zhenjiang, Jianghai, Wuhu, Zhejiang, Wenzhou, Hankou, Yichang, and Chongqing were managed by their respective provincial circuits—all under the Southern Commissioner. Fujian customs came under the Fuzhou general. Guangzhou, Chaozhou, Beihai, Qionghai, Kowloon, and Gongbei each had its own superintendent. Jiayu, Longzhou, and Mengzi fell under their provincial circuits and local governors. After Xianfeng, Thomas Wade and an American named Smith assisted customs work; Horatio Lay succeeded them. Lay was appointed Inspector General; every station gained a commissioner and deputy; later river and inland treaty ports were folded into the same system. That was when customs began relying on foreign administrators. Authority then rested with the Zongli Yamen (Foreign Office). In Guangxu 23 the Customs Office was created, bringing the Inspector General and all subordinates under its control. Household and works customs had belonged to the Revenue and Works ministries; now they were formally called native customs (changguan). The Foreign Ministry and the Customs Office later split native customs: stations beyond fifty li answered to Chinese superintendents, within fifty li to foreign commissioners—origin of the inner/outer changguan distinction.
23
Minister and deputy minister of Civil Affairs, with left and right vice ministers and counselors, one each. The Chancellery office: four vice directors, four section chiefs, and four junior capital officials each. The Counselor office: two counselor-assistants. Five bureaus—civil administration, police, boundaries, public works, and health—had eight directors: two each for civil administration, police, and boundaries; one for the others. Sixteen vice directors: four each for civil administration, police, and public works; two for the rest. Eighteen section chiefs: five each for civil administration and police; four for public works; two for the rest. Each bureau had one junior capital official. One vocational-institute vice director doubled as head of the fire brigade. Two section chiefs, five grade-5 police officers (three assigned to the fire brigade). Two for the vocational institute. Nine grade-6 and nine grade-7 police officers; six each for the fire brigade. Three each for the vocational institute. Twelve grade-8 and twelve grade-9 police officers. Eight each for the fire brigade. Four each for the vocational institute. All of the above belonged to the Police Bureau. One grade-6 and one grade-7 artisan master. Under the Public Works Bureau. One grade-6 and one grade-7 medical officer. Under the Health Bureau. Police officers and below were appointed by memorial. Twenty grade-8 and thirty-two grade-9 clerks. All were appointed by consultation.
24
The minister oversaw population registers, public morals and education, and civil order—the foundations of domestic governance. The deputy minister assisted him. Civil Administration managed household registration and baojia neighborhood governance. Police Administration enforced patrols and bans and oversaw civil and judicial police functions. Boundaries maintained cadastral maps and verified public and private landholdings. Public Works maintained imperial tombs and roads and protected historic sites and temples. Health managed medical inspection, epidemic prevention, and hospitals. It initially oversaw the Preliminary Review Office, later transferred to the Supreme Court. Road works and relief/education bureaus were run by selected officials.
25
仿
In Guangxu 30 the Police Ministry was founded with a minister, two vice ministers, two vice directors, and a counselor. Five police bureaus began with five directors; two more were added in Guangxu 32. Sixteen vice directors and sixteen section chiefs; Guangxu 32 added two vice directors and four section chiefs. Guangxu 34 added one public works director. Four junior capital officials, with five more in Guangxu 32. Ten first-, second-, and third-rank secretaries each. Modeled on the old grade 7–9 clerk (bitieshi) system. In Guangxu 32 they became grade-8 and grade-9 record clerks. The vocational institute had one vice director and two section chiefs. In Guangxu 32 it was renamed the Ministry of Civil Affairs. Chancellery and Counselor offices were established, with two counselor-assistants. Civil administration, boundaries, public works, and health bureaus were reorganized; police administration unchanged. In Xuantong 1 staffing for the vocational institute and fire brigade was fixed. As listed above. In Xuantong 3 ministers became grand ministers and vice ministers deputy grand ministers.
26
The Inner and Outer City police headquarters each had one bureau chief. Originally grade 4a. In Guangxu 33 the post rose to sub-grade 3. Appointed by imperial selection upon request. They patrolled wards and districts and provided police escort on imperial routes. Each headquarters had one chief secretary for general affairs. Sub-grade 4. They were appointed by imperial memorial. The Administration, Judiciary, and Health sections each had three fifth-rank counselors. Their rank was regular fifth grade. All were appointed by imperial memorial. There were four fifth-rank police officers at each level. There were nineteen sixth-rank police officers in total. Ten served in the Inner City. Nine served in the Outer City. There were twenty seventh-rank police officers. Eleven were assigned to the Inner City. Nine were assigned to the Outer City. There were twenty-seven eighth-rank police officers. Fourteen were assigned to the Inner City. Thirteen were assigned to the Outer City. There were twenty-eight ninth-rank police officers. Fifteen were assigned to the Inner City. Thirteen were assigned to the Outer City. Posts of the seventh rank and above were filled by imperial memorial. Posts of the eighth rank and below were filled by ministerial consultation. There were four eighth-rank and four ninth-rank record clerks. They were appointed by delegation.
27
In 1904, Metropolitan Patrol general offices were set up for the Inner and Outer cities of the capital, each headed by one director. Three sections—General Affairs, Police Affairs, and Health—were created, each with one counsellor. The counsellors held regular fifth rank. In 1907 the title was changed to counselor (qian shi). The Inner City had five branch offices and the Outer City four, with nine directors in all. The directors held regular fifth rank. In 1906 a Judiciary section was added. Police Affairs was renamed Administration. The counselor of the General Affairs section was promoted in rank to serve as chief of the subordinate staff. Police officers of the fifth rank and below were appointed without fixed quotas. There were four eighth-rank and four ninth-rank record clerks. The Inner City's five branches were consolidated into Central, Left, and Right offices; the Outer City's four into Left and Right offices; and four director posts were cut. Twenty-six districts were set up in the Inner City and twenty in the Outer City, each headed by a district officer drawn from the sixth- and seventh-rank police ranks. The title was soon changed to district chief. District deputies were drawn from the eighth- and ninth-rank police officers. The title was soon changed to district officer. Each district had one such officer. In 1908 the number of districts in both cities was cut by half. In 1909 the branch offices were abolished and the director posts eliminated.
28
There was one minister of revenue and expenditure and one vice minister. There was one left vice minister, one right vice minister, one left counsellor, and one right counsellor. The two [executive] offices of Administration and Counselling each had three bureau directors, four vice directors, and three section chiefs. Ten bureaus—Land Tax, Grain Transport, Commodity Tax, Monopolies, Mining and Currency, Treasury, Salaries, Military Provisions, Disbursements, and Accounts—had thirty-one bureau directors in all, of whom four served in Disbursements. The other bureaus had three directors each. There were forty-four vice directors in all, six of them in Disbursements. Land Tax and Treasury each had five vice directors. The remaining bureaus had four each. There were thirty-five section chiefs. Land Tax, Monopolies, Mining and Currency, Salaries, and Accounts each had four section chiefs; the other bureaus had three each. The Gold and Silver Vault had one bureau director, four vice directors, and two section chiefs. The Dispatch and Audit Office replaced the former Supervision and Urging Office. It had one vice director and two section chiefs.
29
祿 調調 調
The minister directed public accounts, reconciled the affairs of banks and mints, and oversaw unified opium taxation to steward the national budget. The vice minister assisted in these duties. The Land Tax Bureau managed land revenues and audited acreage on banner and imperial estate holdings. The Grain Transport Bureau verified transport accounts and granary stocks and collated each province's military grain figures for imperial report. The Commodity Tax Bureau administered unified commercial taxes and compared receipts and shortfalls at maritime and inland customs posts. The Monopolies Bureau oversaw the salt monopoly and miscellaneous levies, inspected transport routes and treasury movements, and verified unified opium tax collections. The Mining and Currency Bureau directed mining policy and the currency system and audited correspondence from banks and mints. The Treasury Bureau managed state reserves and supervised the Dye and Satin storehouses. The Salaries Bureau verified official pay and audited departmental salary and ration allowances. The Military Provisions Bureau verified army rations and reconciled provincial submissions of cooperative military funds. The Disbursements Bureau audited works expenditures, allocated metropolitan and cooperative provincial funds, and handled miscellaneous routine payments. The Accounts Bureau managed state receipts and payments, audited public bonds and foreign [obligations], and drew up statements of revenue and expenditure. The Gold and Silver Vault handled scheduled deliveries of bullion and silk. The Dispatch and Audit Office handled the receipt and forwarding of documents for every bureau. Under its jurisdiction stood the Currency Bureau, with one chief coordinator and two assistants. These posts were filled concurrently by the ministry's vice ministers and counsellors. The General Affairs Office had Investigation, Planning, Audit, and Translation sections, each staffed to handle its own affairs.
30
In 1906 the Board of Revenue was reorganized into this ministry, the Finance Office was absorbed, and one minister, two vice ministers, two vice directors, and one counsellor were appointed. Fourteen bureaus were consolidated into ten, and directors and subordinate posts were re-established as listed. The staffing was as set forth above. In 1911 the minister was retitled grand minister and the vice ministers vice grand ministers.
31
調調 西西西西
The Office for the Settlement of Public Accounts had two chief coordinators and two assistant coordinators. They were filled concurrently by the ministry's vice directors and counsellors. There was one general superintendent and one assistant general superintendent. Chief auditors, seated coordinators, and clerks were appointed without fixed quotas. Twenty chief provincial fiscal supervisors were appointed, each granted an honorary third- or fourth-rank title, one for Fengtian, Zhili, Jiangsu, Anhui, Shandong, Shanxi, Henan, Shaanxi, Gansu, Xinjiang, Fujian, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Sichuan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan, and Guizhou. There were twenty-four deputy fiscal supervisors. One each was appointed by memorial for Jilin, Heilongjiang, Jiangning, and the Liang-Huai circuit; the rest matched the chief supervisors' provinces. The office was established in 1909.
32
The Imperial Bank of China had a chief superintendent of the regular third rank. He was appointed by imperial selection. There was one deputy superintendent. The Savings Bank had one general manager. There were twenty branch general managers. One manager served at each of Tianjin, Shanghai, Hankou, Jinan, Fengtian, Yingkou, Kulun, Chongqing, Guangzhou, Ganzhou, Shanxi, Kaifeng, Zhejiang, Fujian, Jilin, Shaanxi, Anhui, Hunan, Yunnan, and Ningbo. The above were appointed on the minister's memorial. In 1907 the Board of Revenue Bank was founded with a chief superintendent whose rank equaled that of the [left and right] vice directors. The title was soon changed to chief superintendent. The following year it became the Imperial Bank of China.
33
The General Mint had one chief superintendent of the regular third rank. He was appointed by imperial selection. There were two deputy superintendents. Branch mints at Fengtian, Jiangning, Guangzhou, Sichuan, and Yunnan were headed by general managers who concurrently served as chief fiscal supervisors. Assistant managers at Jiangning, Wuchang, Guangzhou, Sichuan, and Yunnan were concurrently deputy fiscal supervisors. There were five general managers and five assistant managers. The mint was established in 1907.
34
There was one minister of education and one vice minister. There was one left vice director, one right vice director, one left counsellor, and one right counsellor. There were four [section] counsellors. There were two [general] office clerks. Five bureaus—General Affairs, Specialized Education, General Education, Vocational Education, and Accounts—had two bureau directors each and fifteen vice directors in all. General Affairs had five vice directors, General Education four, and the other bureaus two each. There were eighteen section chiefs. General Affairs and General Education each had six section chiefs; the other bureaus had two each. First-class secretaries held regular seventh rank. They were appointed by imperial memorial. There were eleven second-class secretaries of the regular eighth rank. There were seventeen third-class secretaries of the regular ninth rank. There were fifteen persons on the establishment. Second- and third-class secretaries were filled by ministerial consultation.
35
調使
The minister directed the encouragement of learning and cultivation of talent, reviewed and issued school regulations, and sought to enlighten the people. The vice minister assisted in these duties. The General Affairs Bureau handled confidential correspondence and audited books and archives. The Specialized Education Bureau oversaw universities, higher schools, and political and technical programs in comprehensive charge of them all. The General Education Bureau supervised normal, middle, and primary schools, inspecting instruction under each institution's prescribed regulations. The Vocational Education Bureau directed agricultural, industrial, and commercial schools and reviewed provincial vocational enterprises to promote public welfare. The Accounts Bureau managed disbursements and receipts, supervised equipment, and administered educational grants. Also under its concurrent jurisdiction were the director and assistant director of the Eight Banners Education Office, school inspectors, chiefs and staff of investigation and library bureaus, the chief compiler of the Terminology Bureau, the chief and deputy superintendents of the Imperial Library, and other such officers—all appointed ad hoc without dedicated posts.
36
In 1896 a minister was appointed to manage the Official Book Bureau. Earlier the capital's Society for the Strengthening of Learning had run a book bureau devoted to current affairs. It was now brought under official management. In 1901 Minister Zhang Baixi was appointed superintendent of learning to direct the university. In 1903 the title was changed to Minister of Education. In 1906 the Ministry of Education was formally established with one minister, vice ministers, left and right vice directors, and one counsellor; each of the five bureaus had one director, there were twelve vice directors and fifteen section chiefs, and school inspectors were appointed without fixed quotas. Inspectors were fixed at the regular fifth rank. Bureau staff temporarily filled these posts. The following year Grand Secretary Zhang Zhidong was ordered to head the ministry—a temporary arrangement, not a permanent rule. In 1909 school inspectors became dispatched commissioners, and five bureau directors, four vice directors, and three section chiefs were added. In 1911 the minister was retitled grand minister and the vice ministers vice grand ministers.
37
簿
The Directorate of Education had one vice director. He held regular fourth rank. He was appointed by imperial selection. He presided over ceremonies at the Confucian temple and the Hall of Enlightenment. Registrars held regular seventh rank. They were appointed by imperial memorial. Four registrars managed sacrificial rites and temple households. Archivists held regular eighth rank. They were appointed by ministerial consultation. Four archivists managed sacrificial vessels and musical instruments. The Confucian temple had two seventh-rank, two eighth-rank, and two ninth-rank sacrificial officers. They were appointed by ministerial consultation. Chief intonation officers held subordinate sixth rank. They were appointed by imperial memorial. Deputy intonation officers held subordinate eighth rank. They were appointed by ministerial consultation. There were two of each. There were three second-class and three third-class secretaries. These posts were established in 1906.
38
調
The Imperial University had one superintendent-general. He held regular third rank. He was appointed by imperial selection. Each of the five faculties—Classics, Law, Letters, Engineering, and Commerce—had one superintendent. They were appointed on ministerial memorial. Coordinators for academic affairs, general affairs, and residential affairs were all recruited from persons experienced in school administration. In 1899 the Metropolitan University was founded under the direction of Grand Secretary Sun Jianai. In 1906 the superintendent-general was made a dedicated office.
39
調 調
The minister of the army held the rank of regular commandant-in-chief. He was appointed by special imperial selection. The vice minister held the rank of deputy commandant-in-chief. He was likewise appointed by special imperial selection. There was one of each. There were four counsellors. There were eight inspectors. There were four ministry adjutants. Provincial investigators were appointed without fixed quotas. All were drawn from regular staff officers and lower-ranking army officers. Deputy staff officers and above were appointed by special selection; cooperative staff officers and below by memorial; supernumerary officers and adjutants by consultation. There were two record clerks. They were filled by supernumerary officers and middle- and lower-grade sergeants. The same rule applied below. Six bureaus—Executive Administration, Organization, Personnel, Supplies, Medical Affairs, and Military Law—each had one chief filled by a deputy or cooperative commandant or a regular staff officer. Section chiefs were appointed on the same principle. Each bureau had one adjutant. Adjutants were drawn from regular and deputy company officers or civil officials of equivalent rank. There were sixteen section chiefs. The Executive Bureau had four sections: Secretariat, Regulations, General Affairs, and Receipts and Disbursements. The Organization Bureau had seven sections: Recruitment, Infantry, Cavalry, Artillery, Engineers, Transport, and Fortifications. The Personnel Bureau had four sections: Performance Review, Appointments, Rewards, and Banner Affairs. The Supplies Bureau had three sections: Statistics, Rations and Uniforms, and Construction. The Medical Bureau had two sections: Hygiene and Medical Affairs. The Military Materiel Bureau had two sections: Manufacture and Storage. Each section had one chief. Section chiefs were drawn from regular and deputy staff officers. There were one hundred sixty-two first-, second-, and third-class section members in all. The Executive Bureau had twenty-eight members. The Organization Bureau had forty-one members. The Personnel Bureau had forty-seven members. The Supplies Bureau had thirty members. The Medical Bureau had fourteen members. First-class members were deputy and cooperative staff officers. Second-class members were cooperative staff officers and regular company officers. Third-class members were regular and deputy company officers. There were four translators, three telegraph clerks, and seventeen dispatch officers. They were subordinate to the Executive Bureau. There was one draftsman, one master artisan, and one artisan. They were subordinate to the Organization Bureau. The above were filled by army officers, adjutants, or cadets. There were two chief general compilers of regulations and three compilers. They were subordinate to the Quartermaster Department. They were filled by civil and military personnel of comparable rank. Prison wardens, assistant staff colonels, and senior company officers served in these posts. Deputy prison wardens and deputy company officers served in these posts. One of each. There were fourteen judicial officers and three detention officers. They were subordinate to the Military Justice Department. Legally trained army officers filled these posts. The Audit Office had one director and one deputy adjutant. There were two section chiefs, one each for the General Inspection and Verification sections. There were twenty-eight section members. Fourteen in each section. Record clerks for the various departments and offices numbered 136. Provisional establishments included the Ordnance Department, with one director and one deputy adjutant. There were two section chiefs, one each for Manufacturing and Storage. There were ten section members. Four in Manufacturing. Six in Storage. The Remount Department had one director and one deputy adjutant. There were two section chiefs, one each for Equalization and Breeding. There were twelve section members. Six in each section. The Military Education Office had one director and one deputy adjutant. There were six section chiefs, one each for Education, Infantry, Cavalry, Artillery, Engineers, and the Train. There were thirty-four section members. Education had twelve; infantry eight; cavalry, artillery, and engineers four each. The Train had two. There were three general editors. There were six military affairs editors. There was one draftsman. He belonged to the Train.
40
調
The minister directed the army, reviewed and issued camp regulations and ration rules, and strengthened land defense. The vice minister assisted him. Counselors handled laws and institutional regulations. Inspectors oversaw troops, schools, and government workshops. Ministry deputy adjutants conveyed and proclaimed orders. The Secretariat director handled document flow and marked the merits and faults of personnel. The Organization Department managed establishment and mobilization, ordnance manufacture, communications construction, and the review of standards and methods. The Service of Ranks managed seniority lists and rank grades. The General-in-Chief and General, both first rank, were drawn from senior commandants of proven service.
41
The Senior Commandant was second rank; Deputy Commandant, first rank second grade; Assistant Commandant, second rank second grade; Senior Staff Colonel, third rank; Deputy Staff Colonel, third rank second grade; Assistant Staff Colonel, fourth rank; Senior Company Officer, fifth rank; Deputy Company Officer, sixth rank; Assistant Company Officer, seventh rank; chief clerks and chief technicians, eighth rank; senior sergeants, eighth rank second grade; sergeants, ninth rank; and junior sergeants, ninth rank second grade. There were fourteen grades in all. Grades comprised three classes and nine levels. Upper class, level one: the Senior Commandant post as army commander, equivalent in rank to a provincial military commander. Level two: Deputy Commandant as division commander, equivalent to a regional commander. Level three: Assistant Commandant as brigade commander, equivalent to a brigade general. Middle class, level one: Senior Staff Colonel as division commander, chief staff officer, engineer detachment leader, chief ordnance officer, or guard officer; At the same Senior Staff Colonel grade: chief quartermaster, chief medical officer, or chief judicial officer, equivalent to a colonel. Level two: Deputy Staff Colonel as training officer, first-class staff officer, line ordnance chief, or battalion officer; At the same Deputy Staff Colonel grade: line quartermaster, line medical officer, line judicial officer, chief veterinary officer, or first-class secretary, equivalent to a mobile battalion commander. Level three: Assistant Staff Colonel as company commander, second-class staff officer, deputy ordnance officer, or adjutant; At the same Assistant Staff Colonel grade: deputy quartermaster, deputy medical officer, line veterinary officer, or second-class secretary, equivalent to a garrison commander. Lower class, level one: Senior Company Officer as company supervisor, platoon leader, third-class staff officer, horse inspector, ordnance sergeant, or duty officer; At the same Senior Company Officer grade: quartermaster sergeant, medical sergeant, inspector, band officer, deputy veterinary officer, or third-class secretary, equivalent to a garrison captain. Level two: Deputy Company Officer as platoon leader or color sergeant; At the same Deputy Company Officer grade: clerk cadet, medic, bugler, band platoon leader, veterinary sergeant, or chief secretary, equivalent to a company captain. At the same Assistant Company Officer grade: chief bugler, medic, or clerk, equivalent to a platoon commander. Enfeoffments, posthumous honors, and hereditary yin privileges for officers and adjutants were all recorded on their registers. The Quartermaster Department managed grain, pay, granaries, and rations, and also trained quartermaster personnel. The Medical Department managed epidemic prevention and treatment, and also handled promotion and education of medical officers. The Military Justice Department managed trials and prisons and reviewed military treaties. The Ordnance Department's duties corresponded to those of the former Armory Department. The Remount Department's duties corresponded to those of the former Court of the Imperial Stud. Military Education managed schools and unit training. The Audit Office managed budgets and final accounts and audited expenditures. Its subordinate agencies included the Constitutional Preparation Office, the silver vault, the express dispatch office, and the remount stables, each with assigned officers to manage its affairs.
42
調 使 調 調
In the thirty-second year of Guangxu (1906) it was created by reorganizing the Ministry of War, which absorbed the abolished Training Office. It formerly had one supervising imperial prince, plus one co-manager, one assistant manager, and one coordinator. The three departments of Military Administration, Military Orders, and Military Education each had one director and one deputy director. From the prince downward, all were appointed by imperial selection. Merit evaluation, grain surveys, and rations; medical affairs, law, and ordnance fell under Military Administration; planning, guides, surveying, and materiel storage under Military Orders; and translation, training, education, and naval forces under Military Education. Each of the fourteen sections had one supervisor, all chosen and appointed by the supervising prince. It had one minister and one left and one right vice minister. It established Secretariat and Counsel offices, each with one left and one right vice director and one counselor. First-, second-, and third-class advisory officers and inspectors were drawn from capable civil and military officials. Principal and assistant staff officers were filled by deputy and assistant staff colonels. There was no fixed quota. Ten departments were established—Service of Ranks, Transport, Accounts, Ordnance, Organization, Quartermaster, Military Education, Medical, Military Justice, and Remount—each with one director, thirty-three section chiefs, 205 section members of three grades, twelve dispatch officers, and two Secretariat staff. All others had one each. Military Justice was not yet established. There were five translators; two draftsmen, master artisans, and artisans each; and 116 record clerks. Civil-style posts included sixteen bureau directors, eighteen vice directors, twenty-two section chiefs, and 110 clerks. The above were ministry-wide quotas, not attached to individual departments. Eight Senior Staff Colonels and four same-rank Senior Staff Colonels. Twelve Deputy Staff Colonels and six same-rank Deputy Staff Colonels. Eighteen Assistant Staff Colonels and eight same-rank Assistant Staff Colonels. Their quotas matched those of bureau directors, vice directors, and section chiefs. Eighteen Senior Company Officers and eight same-rank Senior Company Officers. Twenty-four Deputy Company Officers and twelve same-rank Deputy Company Officers. Thirty-two Assistant Company Officers and sixteen same-rank Assistant Company Officers. Their quotas matched those of seventh-, eighth-, and ninth-rank clerks. Officials were assigned to fill each post according to rank. In the thirty-third year (1907), Prince Qing Yikuang was ordered to head the ministry—an exceptional arrangement. In the first year of Xuantong (1909) the army officer system was revised: from Senior Staff Colonel downward for officers and from Deputy Commandant downward for adjutants, titles took branch prefixes—cavalry, infantry, artillery, engineers, train, police, and the like—for staff colonels, company officers, chief clerks, and sergeants. Specialist branches included quartermaster, medical, and ordnance deputy and assistant commandants; line commandants; line company officers; veterinary and surveying staff colonels and company officers; band assistant company officers; surveying and band chief clerks; and accounting and nursing sergeants of all grades. The character tong ('same-rank') was dropped from titles. In the second year (1910) the shangshu was retitled minister (dachen) and the shilang vice minister (fu dachen). The left and right vice directors, counselors, advisory officers, and dispatch officers were abolished. Two offices and ten departments were consolidated into eight. One Secretariat department was added; Transport, Accounts, and Military Education were abolished. Military Education and Audit offices were established. The following year the system for filling army officers and adjutants was fixed; ministry deputy adjutants and investigators were added; the Ordnance Department was merged into Organization; and the Remount Department and Military Education Office were made provisional, to lay groundwork for a Remount Directorate and a military academy. In the third year (1911) the appointment system for army officers and adjutants was again fixed as listed above. They were still used interchangeably with staff of the old departments.
43
The Navy Minister held the rank of Senior Commandant. The vice minister held the rank of Deputy Commandant. One of each. There were two first-class and four second-class staff officers. Naval cadets filled these posts. There were two counselor officers. There were six secretary officers. Officers of comparable standing and civil officials filled these posts. Telegraph operators, master artisans, and artisans were drawn as appropriate from naval officers, adjutants, or civil trainees. Record clerks were drawn as appropriate from civil trainees and supernumerary officers and adjutants. There was no fixed quota. Seven departments—Organization, Naval Administration, Naval Education, Naval Secretariat, Naval Supply, Military Justice, and Medical—each had one director. Assistant Commandants and Senior Staff Colonels filled these posts. There were twenty-one section chiefs. Organization had five sections: Regulations, Examination, Selection, Navigation, and Engineering. Naval Administration had three: Manufacturing, Construction, and Ordnance. Naval Education had five: Education, Training, Strategy, Reconnaissance, and Compilation. The Naval Secretariat had three: Memorials and Consultations, Regulations and Archives, and Dispatch. Naval Supply had three: Receipt and Disbursement, Storage, and General Affairs. Medical had two: Medical Affairs and Hygiene. One chief per section. Senior and Deputy Staff Colonels filled these posts. The same applied below. There were sixty section members of three grades. Organization and Naval Education had fourteen each. The Naval Secretariat and Naval Supply had ten each. Naval Administration had eight. Medical had four. Appointments followed the Army Ministry pattern. There were two first-class judicial officers and eight second-, third-class, and trainee judicial officers. Legally trained army officers filled these posts. The Comptroller's Office had one chief accountant. A Senior Staff Colonel filled the post. There were two section chiefs. One each for Accounting and Statistics. Record clerks for the various departments and offices numbered forty-eight.
44
簿
The minister directed the navy, audited the fleet and headquarters, and secured the maritime frontier. The vice minister assisted him. Staff officers handled consultation and revision of reforms. Counselors handled laws and institutional regulations. Secretaries handled confidential correspondence. Organization managed regulations and selection rules, marked naval personnel's merits and faults, and oversaw enfeoffments, yin privileges, rewards, and pensions. Naval Administration managed shipbuilding, ordnance inspection, and naval port works. Naval Education managed schools and fleet training. The Naval Secretariat managed documents and archives and compiled staff records and training logs. Naval Supply managed operating funds and audited grain stores, clothing, and materiel. Military Justice, Medical, and Comptroller duties matched those of the Army Ministry.
45
使 使
In the eleventh year of Guangxu (1885) an edict established the Naval Yamen on the Grand Council model, with Prince Chun Yihui in overall charge and Grand Secretary Li Hongzhang in charge of planning. In the thirteenth year (1887) the Beiyang Fleet was completed and admirals, regional commanders, and other posts were established. In the Jiawu War (1894–95) the fleet was destroyed. Not until the thirty-third year (1907) was restoration discussed; a Naval Office was set up, temporarily under the Army Ministry. A director was appointed, equivalent to an Assistant Commandant. A deputy director was appointed, equivalent to a Senior Staff Colonel. One of each. There were two dispatch officers and four record clerks. Three departments were set up—Secret Affairs, Ship Administration, and Planning—each with one director and one deputy adjutant. There were seven section chiefs. Secret Affairs had four sections: Regulations, Ordnance Planning, Navigation, and Engineering. Planning had three: Strategy, Instruction, and Hydrography. One per section. Ship Administration had no subdivisions. There were three dispatch officers, one per department. There were eighteen section members of three grades. Secret Affairs had twelve; Planning six. Five examination and works officers were assigned by the Ship Administration Department. There were three master artisans: one in Ship Administration and two in Planning. There were four artisans. Ship Administration and Planning had two each. Section heads and members were assigned according to workload. There were eighteen record clerks. The following year six departments were established: Naval Administration, Ship Administration, Preparation, Storage, Medical Affairs, and Legal Affairs. A Comptroller's Office was soon added with one chief and one deputy chief accountant. In the first year of Xuantong (1909) Prince Su Shanqi and others were ordered to prepare the navy. An advisory office was set up with Secretariat and General Affairs departments, staff officers of three grades, and four numbered departments with directors and subordinate posts. That summer Prince Zaitao and others were appointed preparatory navy ministers and a Medical Affairs Department was added. In the second year (1910) a provisional navy official system was adopted: the first department became Organization, the second Naval Administration, the third Naval Education, the fourth Coastal Defense; Medical Affairs became Medical; Secretariat became Naval Secretariat; General Affairs became Naval Supply; and Military Justice was added separately, for eight departments in all. The advisory office and its posts were abolished. The office was soon upgraded to a ministry; Coastal Defense was abolished; and one minister and one vice minister were appointed.
46
There were one judicial minister and one vice minister. One left vice director, one right vice director, and one counselor. There were four counselors. Eight departments—Trial Review, Sentence Determination, Banishment Assignment, Clemency, Promotion Records, Prisons, Accounts, and General Affairs—had twenty-five bureau directors; Trial Review had four, including one reserved for the Imperial Clan. All others had three each. There were thirty-four vice directors; Sentence Determination and Banishment Assignment had five each, with one Imperial Clan slot in each. All others had four. There were thirty-three section chiefs. Clemency had five, including one Imperial Clan slot. All others had four. The Dispatch Office had two vice directors and two section chiefs. There were twenty-six seventh-rank junior capital officials. Two were reserved for the Imperial Clan. There were fifty-three eighth-rank record clerks and thirty ninth-rank clerks. Each grade included two Imperial Clan slots.
47
西 西 西 西 調 簿
The minister directed judicial administration, supervised the Supreme Court of Justice and trial and prosecution offices in the capital and provinces, and upheld the rule of law. The vice minister assisted him. Trial Review conducted court trials and prisoner reviews and re-examined criminal cases from the Supreme Court and trial chambers. It also audited case reports from Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangdong, Guangxi, and the Left Wing of Chahar. Sentence Determination handled autumn review classifications of capital and reprieved sentences and fixed statutory penalties. It also audited case reports from Sichuan, Henan, Shaanxi, Gansu, Xinjiang, Uliastai, and Kobdo. Banishment Assignment handled sentence reductions for theft convicts and fixed local banishment assignments. It also audited case reports from Fengtian, Jilin, Heilongjiang, Shandong, Shanxi, the Right Wing of Chahar, Suiyuan, and Guihua. Clemency handled grace edicts and amnesties and cleared ordinary prisons. It also audited case reports from Jiangsu, Anhui, Jiangxi, Fujian, Zhejiang, Hubei, and Hunan. Promotion Records managed promotions and transfers, recorded merits and offenses, and examined judges, lawyers, and clerks. The Prisons Department maintained prisons and locks, and oversaw handicraft institutes and convict registers. Accounts managed revenues and expenditures and audited fines and confiscated gold. General Affairs handled Manchu translation of memorials and the receipt and dispatch of prisoner documents. Subordinate posts included two chief prison supervisors and two principal wardens, six deputy wardens, and one principal prison physician of the eighth rank. The deputy prison physician was ninth rank. One of each.
48
In the thirty-second year of Guangxu (1906) it was created by reorganizing the Ministry of Punishments, with a minister, vice ministers, left and right vice directors, a counselor, and subordinate officials. Seventeen departments were consolidated into eight. A Dispatch Office was established. Vice directors, section chiefs, and other officials were appointed. The following year one Imperial Clan bureau director and one section chief were added; two vice directors, two junior capital officials, and two eighth- and ninth-rank record clerks. General clerks were merged into General Affairs and treasury clerks into Accounts. The prison warden post was assigned concurrently to Prisons Department junior capital officials as principal wardens; eighth- and ninth-rank record clerks served concurrently as deputy wardens. The former Detention Office had Prisons Department vice directors and section chiefs serving concurrently as chief supervisor wardens. In the thirty-fourth year (1908), following the former Detention Office arrangement, the posts were again defined as concurrent duties. Principal and deputy prison physicians were soon added, one of each. In the third year of Xuantong (1911) the shangshu was retitled minister and the shilang vice minister.
49
調
The Law Revision Bureau had ministers with no fixed quota. They were specially selected and served concurrently. There were two coordinators. There were four chief compilers and six compilers and six assistant compilers each. The General Affairs Office had one chief administrator. Translators and commissioners had no fixed quota. All were filled by persons versed in law. It was established in the thirty-third year of Guangxu (1907).
50
簿簿 簿 簿
The Supreme Court of Justice had a Chief Justice of the second rank. The Associate Chief Justice was third rank. Both were specially selected. One of each. Each division had one presiding judge. They were fourth rank. They were appointed by imperial selection. There were twenty-eight judges. They were fifth rank. Each division's first chamber had four judges; the second and third chambers had five each. The Archives Office had one chief archivist of the fifth rank, second grade. There were four archivists. They were sixth rank, second grade. There were six registers of the seventh rank. All of the above were appointed on memorial. There were thirty eighth- and ninth-rank record clerks. They were appointed on recommendation.
51
簿簿 簿 調 簿
The Chief Justice redressed wrongs and adjudicated cases, interpreted the law, supervised courts at all levels, and unified judicial authority. The Associate Chief Justice assisted him. Presiding judges handled civil and criminal dockets respectively and deliberated on doubtful cases. The Criminal Division conducted imperially ordered interrogations of Imperial Clan officials and reviewed criminal appeals filed in the capital. The Civil Division handled Imperial Clan disputes and reviewed civil appeals filed in the capital. The chief archivist kept registers of convicted prisoners. Archivists handled document flow. The Supreme Court was the court of final appeal for serious crimes. In court trials five judges sat jointly—the collegiate bench system. An attached Procuratorate General oversaw prosecution in the Supreme Court's civil and criminal cases, supervised procuratorates at all levels, and directed judicial police. There was one bureau director of the third rank, second grade. He was appointed by imperial selection. There were six prosecutors of the fifth rank. They were appointed on memorial. There were two registers and four eighth- and ninth-rank record clerks. The detention house had one director of the fifth rank, second grade. He was appointed on memorial. There were four house officers of the eighth rank. They were appointed on memorial. There were two ninth-rank record clerks.
52
簿 簿 簿
In the thirty-second year of Guangxu (1906) it was created by reorganizing the Court of Judicial Review, with one Chief Justice, one Associate Chief Justice, and two presiding judges. The Criminal Division had four chambers and nineteen judges. The Civil Division had two chambers and nine judges. An Archives Office and subordinate officials were also established. The Procuratorate General also had one bureau director, six prosecutors, one register, and four record clerks. A detention house was established with a director and other officials. In the first year of Xuantong (1909) the four criminal chambers became three civil chambers, each with fourteen judges. In the third year (1911) a chief archivist was added to the Procuratorate General, and record clerks were set at two each for the eighth and ninth ranks.
53
The Capital High Court of Trial had one bureau director of the fourth rank. He was appointed by imperial selection. He managed the court's affairs and supervised subordinate trial chambers. The same applied below. The Criminal and Civil Divisions had twelve judges. They were fifth rank, second grade. Each division's first and second chambers had three judges each.
54
簿簿 簿
The Archives Office had two archivists of the seventh rank. There were four registers of the seventh rank, second grade. All of the above were appointed on memorial. There were six ninth-rank record clerks. For serious crimes it was the court of second instance; for minor crimes, final instance. Trials used the same five-judge collegiate bench as the Supreme Court.
55
簿簿
The procuratorate had one chief prosecutor of the fourth rank. He was appointed by imperial selection. He corrected errors in trials at the same level and supervised subordinate procuratorates. The same applied below. There were four prosecutors of the fifth rank, second grade. They were appointed on memorial. There was one archivist, one register, and two ninth-rank record clerks. The detention house director was sixth rank. He was appointed on memorial. House officers were eighth rank, second grade. Appointed on provincial recommendation. One of each post; six recorders.
56
簿簿
It was established in 1907 (Guangxu 33). In 1911 (Xuantong 3), one registrar and one chief clerk were added to the Procuratorate, and the full complement of detention-house officers was created.
57
簿 簿 簿 簿
At the Capital Local Court of Judicature there was one vice director. Rank: fourth sub-grade (7b). Filled by special imperial selection. Thirty judicial commissioners in the criminal and civil divisions. Rank: fifth sub-grade (6b). Six each in the first and second criminal and civil chambers, and three each in the third. Two registrars of the principal seventh grade. Two chief clerks of the principal eighth grade. All of the above were appointed by memorial to the throne. Fourteen recorders. It heard serious crimes at first instance and minor crimes on appeal. Three judicial commissioners sat together for trial; this court also used the collegiate bench. In the Procuratorate there was one chief procurator of the principal fifth grade. Appointed by memorial to the throne. Five procurators of the principal sixth grade. Appointed by memorial to the throne. Registrar and chief clerk of the seventh sub-grade. Chief clerk of the eighth sub-grade. Two recorders for each office. The detention house had one warden of the sixth sub-grade. Appointed by memorial to the throne. Two ward officers.
58
簿簿 簿簿 簿簿
It was established in 1907 (Guangxu 33). Earlier, preliminary hearing offices had been established in and around the capital to handle litigation under the Ministry of Civil Affairs. They were now abolished and absorbed, and one vice director was appointed. Two civil and two criminal chambers were created, staffed with twenty-four judicial commissioners. Two registrars and two chief clerks each, and ten recorders. In the Procuratorate were one chief procurator, four procurators, and one registrar and one chief clerk each. In 1909 (Xuantong 1), as caseloads grew, one civil and one criminal chamber were added, each with three judicial commissioners and four recorders. One additional procurator was added to the Procuratorate. In 1911 (Xuantong 3), the Procuratorate gained one more registrar and one more chief clerk.
59
The Capital Primary Court of Judicature was divided into five districts. One judicial commissioner each in the criminal and civil divisions. Rank: sixth sub-grade (7a). Appointed by memorial to the throne. Two recorders. Minor cases were tried at first instance by a single judicial commissioner— the sole-judge procedure. In the Procuratorate were two procurators of the sixth sub-grade. Appointed by memorial to the throne. One recorder. Primary courts initially had no presiding officer; the ministry designated a senior official as supervisor.
60
The ministry had one minister and one vice minister of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce. One left and one right vice director, and one left and one right counselor. Four bureaus—Agriculture, Industry, Commerce, and General Affairs—each with three directors (twelve in all). Sixteen assistant directors, four in each bureau. Eighteen secretaries. Six in General Affairs; four in each of the others. First- and second-grade technical officers ranked at the principal sixth and seventh grades respectively. Appointed by memorial to the throne. Technical aides of the principal eighth and ninth grades. Appointed on provincial recommendation. Two of each grade.
61
The minister directed agricultural, industrial, and commercial policy and promoted practical enterprise to improve livelihoods. The vice minister assisted him. The Agriculture Bureau oversaw farming, sericulture, reclamation, forestry, and livestock, coordinated provincial waterworks, and audited expenditures. The Industry Bureau supervised crafts training, manufacturing, and state regalia, surveyed provincial minerals, and devised plans for their development. The Commerce Bureau regulated markets, promoted commerce, drafted patent and insurance rules, and enforced trade-protection and litigation regulations. General Affairs handled documents, ministry accounts, and personnel records. Technical officers and aides managed specialized professional work. Subordinate offices included an agricultural experiment station, crafts bureau, industrial exhibition hall, assay office, bureau of weights and measures, trademark office, and commercial law institute, each run by specialists.
62
In 1898 (Guangxu 24) a General Bureau of Mining and Railways was created, soon joined by a General Bureau of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce under a supervising minister. Both were soon abolished. In 1903 (Guangxu 29) the Ministry of Commerce was created, absorbing the mining and railway bureau. It was staffed with a minister, left and right vice ministers, left and right vice directors, and one counselor. The General Affairs Office had two clerks. In 1906 (Guangxu 32) it became the Ministry of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce; the Equalization Bureau became Agriculture and absorbed revenue-board sericulture functions. The Crafts Bureau became Industry, while railway affairs passed to the Ministry of Posts and Communications. The Protection and Benefit Bureau became Commerce. Each bureau gained one director, two assistant directors, and two secretaries. The General Affairs Office and Accounts Bureau were merged into General Affairs; two clerks were eliminated while one director, two assistant directors, and four secretaries were added. In 1911 (Xuantong 3) the minister became a grand minister and vice ministers became vice grand ministers.
63
The ministry had one minister and one vice minister of Posts and Communications. One left and one right vice director, and one left and one right counselor. The Executive and Counselor offices each had associate commissioners of the principal fifth grade. Appointed by memorial to the throne. Two assistant directors, two secretaries, and two junior capital clerks in each office. Four bureaus—Shipping, Railways, Telegraphy, and Postal Service—each with two directors; ten assistant directors (two in Shipping and Postal, three in Railways and Telegraphy). Three assistant directors each in Railways and Telegraphy. Twenty secretaries—four each in Shipping and Postal. Six each in Railways and Telegraphy. Two junior capital clerks in each bureau. Eighth- and ninth-grade recorders without a fixed quota.
64
調 調 調 調 調 調
The minister directed communications policy—steam transport, railways, telegraphy, and related services—for public benefit. The vice minister assisted him. The Shipping Bureau drafted maritime law and managed dockyards and hydrographic surveys. The Railways Bureau drafted railway law, fixed track standards, and planned lines. The Telegraphy Bureau drafted telegraph regulations and supervised government and commercial line rules. The Postal Bureau drafted postal law and managed remittances and international postal treaties. Subordinate agencies included the Postal Service Directorate, whose director-general was concurrently the vice minister. The chief administrator was a French national. One of each post. The Railway Directorate had two supervising coordinators. The Beijing–Hankou Railway Bureau had a director-general and coordinator, with associate directors for its southern and Beijing offices. The Beijing–Fengtian Railway Bureau had two directors-general and one coordinator each. The Beijing–Kalgan Railway had one director-general and one associate director. The Shanghai–Nanking Railway Bureau had one director-general. The Jilin–Changchun and Canton–Kowloon railway bureaus each had a director-general and coordinator. The Zhangjiakou–Suiyuan Railway had one director-general and one associate director. The Pingxiang–Zhuzhou line and the Zhengding–Taiyuan, Bian–Luoyang, and Daokou–Qinghua bureaus each had one director-general. The Telegraph Directorate had one director-general and two coordinators. Each branch bureau had a director-general, deputy director, and coordinator. Each provincial branch had one director-general. The Telephone Bureau had a director-general and associate director. Tianjin, Canton, Taiyuan, and Yantai each had one director-general. The Bank of Communications had a general manager and deputy manager. The Beijing head office and branches in Shanghai, Hankou, and Canton each had a director-general. Tianjin and Yingkou each had one manager. Thirty-four dispatch officers. Thirteen imperial courier-station officers. They had formerly been under the Board of War. Selected officials handled each function separately.
65
It was established in 1907 (Guangxu 33). Previously shipping had been under the Northern Grand Minister, inland shipping under the Board of Works, post under the Inspector-General of Customs, and railways and telegraphy under separate ministers—all were now consolidated here. A minister, vice ministers, vice directors, a counselor, and associate commissioners for the Executive and Counselor offices were appointed. Five bureaus were created with ten directors, twelve assistant directors, twenty-four secretaries, and fourteen junior capital clerks. In 1909 (Xuantong 1) General Affairs lost two directors, two assistant directors, two junior clerks, and four secretaries. The Executive and Counselor offices each gained two assistant directors and two secretaries. In 1911 (Xuantong 3) the minister became grand minister and vice ministers became vice grand ministers.
66
使 西西西
The Military Advisory Council had two specially selected grand ministers. They received imperial orders and assisted military planning. The General Affairs Department had two military advisors drawn from deputy commandants and senior staff officers. They supervised all administrative work. Two adjutants. Filled by staff colonels and company-grade officers. The same below. One dispatch chief and five dispatchers. Filled by army officers. Chiefs of the First through Fourth Departments were commandants and senior staff officers. Each department had one adjutant. Each department had four sections with one chief each. Section chiefs were senior and junior staff officers. First-grade section members were deputy and associate deputy staff colonels. Second- and third-grade members were staff colonels, field officers, company officers, and associate equivalents. Numbers were set according to workload. Subordinate agencies included the Survey Bureau, whose director concurrently headed the Fourth Department. Three clerks. Triangulation, topography, and cartography sections each had one chief. Section chiefs of the Fourth Department served concurrently. Squad leaders, members, printing staff, technical aides, and clerks had no fixed quota. The Military Gazette Bureau had a director and deputy director. General affairs, documents, accounts, editing, translation, and proofreading had no fixed quota. All were subordinate to the Fourth Department. Only the Fifth Department had three compilers and one translator appointed separately. Sixty-three recorders. Filled by supernumerary officers and noncommissioned officers. Fifteen military advisory officers. One each for Zhili, Jiangning, Jiangsu, Northern Jiangsu, Anhui, Jiangxi, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Shandong, Shanxi, Fujian, Guangdong, Zhejiang, and Shaanxi. Filled by commandants and deputy staff colonels.
67
使使 使
In 1907 (Guangxu 33) the Military Advisory Office was created with ranks from commandant down to warrant officer filling department and section posts. The First and Second Departments were staffed by deputy and junior staff officers. The Survey Department used associate field and staff officers. Eighteen section chiefs were drawn from the First and Second Departments. The Survey Department used associate junior and staff officers. The First Department had sixteen members and the Second four, drawn from field and company officers. The Survey Department had six members of associate field and company rank. One dispatch officer and five interpreters served under the First Department. The Survey Department had four technical officers and six technical aides. All were army officers or cadets. It was subordinate to the Army Ministry. In 1909 (Xuantong 1), under the constitutional outline making the emperor supreme commander, a separate Military Advisory Council was placed under Prince Zaitao and others. A General Affairs Department was established with two military advisors. Four departments were created, each with a chief and sixteen section chiefs; section members had no fixed quota. A system for supplementing posts with civil officials was also established. As listed above. The prefix tong- for associate ranks was soon dropped. See the Army Ministry section above. The following year a Military Conference Office was established. In 1911 (Xuantong 3) it was renamed a council and placed under the army minister.
68
The Council of State Studies had one chancellor and one vice chancellor. Filled by special concurrent appointment. Thirty-two grand counselor ministers. Filled by special concurrent appointment. They took part in confidential deliberation, advised the throne daily, and reviewed major state questions. Ten counselors, specially selected. They drafted regulations and memorials. The Secretariat had one secretary-general, specially selected. Three first-grade and three second-grade secretaries, and six third-grade—all appointed by memorial. They handled general affairs in sections. Established in 1911 (Xuantong 3).
69
滿
The Political Consultative Assembly had a president specially chosen from princes, dukes, and grand ministers. The vice president was chosen from ministers of the third grade and above. One of each. They rendered decisions based on public deliberation. Members debated revenue, expenditure, law, court ritual, public debt, tax rates, and other referred matters, then memorialized jointly with state ministers for imperial approval. The Secretariat had one secretary-general, specially selected. Four secretaries of each of the first three grades—appointed by memorial. They managed accounts and documents. Members included nobles, capital officials, scholars, and wealthy taxpayers—mostly by imperial selection. Six from each provincial consultative assembly. Chosen by popular election.
70
Established in 1907 (Guangxu 33) with two presidents. Four associate directors were soon added. The following year three deputy directors and three counselors were added. In 1909 (Xuantong 1) the secretariat establishment was fixed. In 1910 (Xuantong 2) the posts of president and vice president were fixed at one each.
71
The Salt Administration had one minister, a specially selected concurrent grand minister. One vice director. Directors of General Affairs, Southern Salt, and Northern Salt, and one counselor—one each. All of the above were specially selected. Two referendaries and associate commissioners of four grades—all appointed by memorial. Recorders of three grades—appointed on provincial recommendation. Numbers were set according to workload.
72
沿
The minister directed salt administration. The vice director assisted in managing the salt monopoly framework. General Affairs supervised administration and confidential records. Counselors drafted regulations, assisted by associate commissioners. Southern Salt oversaw the Huai, Zhe, Fujian, and Guangdong trades; Northern Salt oversaw Fengtian, Zhili, Shanxi, and eastern salt. Under the Ming pattern, censors had been dispatched to inspect salt revenue. The post was later renamed salt commissioner. Filled by special imperial order. Censorate appointees also used the title salt commissioner. Officials drawn from internal affairs still retained the censor title. Where governors-general and governors oversaw provinces, local arrangements became permanent practice. In 1909 (Xuantong 1) a Salt Administration Office was created under Prince Zai Ze, with producing-province governors as associates. In 1911 (Xuantong 3) it became a dedicated Salt Administration as part of national tax reform.
73
簿簿
The Directorate of Ceremonial had one grand chancellor and one vice grand chancellor. Specially selected. Eight chancellors and eight direct chancellors. Specially selected. The General Affairs Department had one director. Chief registrars, registrars, and treasurers—all appointed by memorial. Without a fixed quota. Directors of Ritual Regulations, Sacrificial Rites, Court Ceremonial, and Imperial Banquets—one each. Associate commissioners of three grades and intoning officers—all appointed by memorial. Ceremonial ushers and recorders—provincial recommendation. Numbers were set according to workload. Readers of prayers, ritual masters, and mausoleum officers remained unchanged.
74
簿 簿 使
The grand chancellor maintained ritual and music, presided over court assemblies, and oversaw solemn sacrifices. The vice grand chancellor assisted him. Chancellors and direct chancellors discussed and revised ritual matters. General Affairs supervised all administrative work. Chief registrars managed treasury accounts, furnishings, and prison affairs. Registrars kept treasury registers and audited receipts and disbursements. Treasurers managed storehouses and supervised attendants and guards. Ritual Regulations handled court assemblies and celebrations. Sacrificial Rites handled altars, temples, and imperial tombs. Court Ceremonial directed ceremonial ushering and guidance. Imperial Banquets managed banquets and sacrificial food offerings. Established in 1911 (Xuantong 3) by reorganizing the Ministry of Rites. Administrative functions were transferred to the line ministries.
75
使 使使 調 -{}-
Provincial government changed little except for renamed provincial and circuit posts; patrol and industry intendants are described above. Staff quotas increased further. Education intendant posts became provincial education commissioners. Surveillance commissioners became provincial judicial commissioners, to whom all courts were subordinate. Previously, on important local affairs the treasurer and surveillance commissioner had deliberated with the governor or governor-general and reported upward, including on official promotions. They were now collectively termed the three commissioners.
76
使使
The Provincial Education Commissioner’s Office had one commissioner of the principal third grade. He directed educational administration, audited school regulations, and examined teachers and scholarship. The office had six sections: General Affairs, Specialized Studies, General Education, Practical Training, Library, and Accounts. Section chiefs and members handled each section. Filled by officials versed in education. A separate Education Council with a chairman and councilors discussed policy. Appointed by memorial to the throne. Reorganized in 1905 (Guangxu 31). One commissioner each was added for Jilin, Heilongjiang, Jiangning, Jiangsu (replacing the former Jiangnan post), and Xinjiang. Other provinces retained the former education commissioner quota.
77
使使 調 使 使使
The Provincial Judicial Commissioner’s Office had one commissioner of the principal third grade. He directed judicial administration, supervised courts, and coordinated prosecution. Three sections: General Affairs, Civil and Criminal Affairs, and Prisons. One section chief each of the principal fifth grade. One first-grade section member each of the principal sixth grade. Second-grade members of the principal seventh grade. Without a fixed quota. Only Fengtian had associate-commissioner-grade section members. There were also chief clerks of the principal eighth grade; and deputy chief clerks of the principal ninth grade. In 1907 (Guangxu 33) each of the three eastern provinces received a judicial commissioner. In 1910 (Xuantong 2) provincial surveillance commissioners became judicial commissioners and ceased managing courier stations.
78
簿 簿
The High Court of Judicature had one vice director. Rank: fourth sub-grade (7b). In treaty-port branch courts the chief judicial commissioner acted as vice director. Six judicial commissioners in the criminal and civil divisions. Principal sixth grade. One registrar. Principal seventh grade. Two chief clerks of the principal eighth grade. Recorders without a fixed quota. Ninth sub-grade. Procuratorate: one chief procurator of the fourth sub-grade. One procurator of the principal sixth grade. Two recorders.
79
簿 簿
The Local Court of Judicature had one chief judicial commissioner. Fifth sub-grade (6b). Six judicial commissioners in the criminal and civil divisions. Sixth sub-grade (7a). Registrar of the seventh sub-grade. Chief clerk of the eighth sub-grade. Two were appointed where caseloads were heavy; none where light. One of each post; recorders without fixed quota. Procuratorate: one chief procurator of the fifth sub-grade. One procurator of the sixth sub-grade. Two recorders. Detention house: one ward officer of the principal ninth grade. Recorders without fixed quota.
80
The Primary Court of Judicature had two judicial commissioners. Principal seventh grade. Three or four where caseloads were heavy. Recorders without fixed quota. Procuratorate: one procurator of the principal seventh grade. Two recorders. Detention house: one ward officer.
81
仿
Prison warden: one of the fifth sub-grade. Deputy prison warden: one. Sixth sub-grade (7a). Three section chiefs. Principal eighth grade. One each for documents, guard, and general affairs. Two ward directors. Principal ninth grade. One each for instruction and medical affairs. Prefectural prison warden: one. Seventh sub-grade. Subprefectural and county deputy wardens: one each. Eighth sub-grade. In 1908 (Guangxu 34) Fengtian opened a model prison with a chief warden, abolishing prefectural jailers and county clerks. In 1910 (Xuantong 2) a deputy warden was added. Other prefectures, departments, and counties later followed suit. Prisons in Tianjin, Baoding, and Hubei were then complete but still lacked dedicated officers.
82
The three eastern provinces, strategically vital, added circuit posts when converted to regular provinces. Education and judicial commissioners were established province-wide and need not be repeated here. Newly established departments are summarized below. When the provinces were first created, the governor’s office briefly had Announcement and Consultation departments with left and right senior counselors of the second sub-grade. An associate commissioner and section members of three grades assisted them. They were soon abolished.
83
使使 使調
The Civil Affairs Commissioner’s Office had one commissioner of the second sub-grade. He directed household registration and civil affairs. Associate commissioner of the fourth sub-grade. Section members of the fifth sub-grade, principal sixth, and principal seventh grades. The same for all departments. Each had fixed duties. First- and second-grade medical officers without fixed quota. First grade principal sixth; second grade principal seventh. Established in 1907 (Guangxu 33) at the principal third grade. In 1909 (Xuantong 1) rank was raised to the second sub-grade on the provincial treasurer model, with authority over subordinate promotions.
84
使使
The Foreign Relations Commissioner’s Office had one commissioner of the principal third grade. He directed foreign relations. Associate commissioners, section members, and interpreters of two grades assisted. First grade principal sixth; second grade principal seventh. In 1907 (Guangxu 33) Fengtian and Jilin each received one commissioner. In 1910 (Xuantong 2) Zhili, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, Hubei, Guangdong, and Yunnan followed Fengtian’s example.
85
使使 使
The Finance Commissioner’s Office had one commissioner of the principal third grade. He directed fiscal affairs. Associate commissioners, section members, and treasury officers of two grades assisted. First grade principal sixth. Second grade principal seventh. In 1907 (Guangxu 33) each of the three provinces received one commissioner. In 1909 (Xuantong 1) Heilongjiang’s finance commissioner was abolished and duties passed to Civil Affairs. Also in 1907 (Guangxu 33) Fengtian created a Banner Affairs Commissioner’s Office with staff like other departments. It was abolished in 1909 (Xuantong 1).
86
After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–95, reformers modeled army organization on foreign states, beginning with the Imperial Guard and provincial training offices. Just as three armies and two brigades were formed, revolution broke out. What can be verified is recorded below.
87
The Imperial Guard had three training grand ministers, concurrently princes and grand ministers. They directed all guard regulations. Six military advisors and ten executive officers handled documents and audited four sections. Brigade, regiment, battalion, and company executive officers assisted. Five clerks—one first grade and two each of second and third grades. Two draftsmen; one each for printing, accounts, general affairs, and dispatch. Supervisors of Ordnance, Military Law, Supply, and Medical sections with fifteen members (four in Ordnance). Supply: five members. The other sections two each. Selected officials handled each function. Brigade headquarters: one commanding officer of commandant rank. He commanded the entire brigade. Staff officer: staff colonel. He assisted in planning; the adjutant was a field officer. He managed general affairs; one of each post. One chief bugler. Filled by a warrant officer. Two clerks. The same as above. Regimental headquarters: one commanding officer of senior staff-officer rank. He commanded the entire regiment. Drill officer: junior staff officer. Adjutant and color officer: company-grade officers. Deputy ordnance, supply, and medical officers were staff colonels. Deputy veterinary officer: field officer. One chief bugler each. Two clerks. Company commanders for infantry, cavalry, engineers, transport, signals, field and machine-gun artillery, and police were staff colonels. Adjutants, supply chiefs, and medical chiefs were field officers—one each. One of each post. Platoon leaders were field officers. Four in each company. Three squad leaders in each company. One company officer and two warrant officers. Originally there were twelve infantry and machine-gun companies, eight cavalry, nine field artillery, and six each in engineer, transport, signals, and police companies. Reorganized to the present establishment in 1911 (Xuantong 3). Seventy-nine company clerks. Four each in cavalry, infantry, and machine-gun companies; three in field artillery; two in engineer, transport, and signals. Initially filled by warrant officers. Changed to formal warrant appointment in 1909 (Xuantong 1). Four ordnance chiefs. Filled by field officers. One each in engineer, signals, field artillery, and machine-gun companies. Horse inspectors were field officers. Veterinary chiefs were company officers. Three of each. Thirty-five company clerks. Six each in cavalry, infantry, and machine-gun; five in field artillery; four in engineer, transport, and signals. Three technical officers. Subordinate to the Signals Company. The military band had one company officer and one platoon leader.
88
Established in 1908 (Guangxu 34) under the regent prince, with Prince Zaitao directing training. In 1909 (Xuantong 1) three training grand ministers and subordinate staff were fixed. Earlier brigade, regiment, and battalion executive posts became adjutants, eliminating separate chief clerk posts.
89
The Provincial Training Office had one superintendent—the governor, governor-general, general, or military governor. He reorganized all new and old provincial forces. One military advisory officer of commandant or senior staff-officer rank. He supervised sections and bureaus. One first-grade adjutant of staff-colonel rank. Two second-grade adjutants of field-officer rank. They handled documents and general affairs. Five clerks of three grades, filled by fifth- through seventh-grade civil officials. Sixteen company clerks. Filled by eighth- and ninth-grade civil officials. Preparations and Pay sections each had a chief overseeing new-army drilling, old-camp reductions, accounts, and equipment. The Ordnance Bureau had one director over old and new firearms, artillery, and ammunition. All filled by company-grade officers. Five first-grade section members—two each in Preparations and Pay, one in Ordnance. One in Ordnance. Staff colonels. Eleven second-grade members—four in Preparations. Five in Pay. Two in Ordnance. Field officers. Twelve third-grade members. Five in Preparations. Four in Pay. Three in Ordnance. Warrant officers. The survey branch had vacant posts.
90
調 仿
In 1904 (Guangxu 30) provinces created Training Offices with equipment, staff, and drill departments. In 1911 (Xuantong 3) they were reorganized on the new army model with formal ranks. As listed above.
91
Army organization: one commander-in-chief of senior commandant rank. He directed all army regulations. Chief of staff: commandant. First-grade staff officer: senior staff officer. Second-grade staff officer: staff colonel. They assisted in orders and operational planning. First- and second-grade staff assisted. The engineer company senior officer directed company affairs. The guard officer managed administration and commanded troops. The artillery company associate officer had duties like the engineer company. Chief ordnance, judge-advocate, supply, and medical officers—as in the Imperial Guard. From engineer companies downward, posts were filled by senior staff officers. Chief veterinary officer: junior staff officer. One of each. Fifteen clerks. Filled by deputy company officers. Army, division, brigade, and regiment once all had clerks; later abolished. Division organization: one commanding officer of vice-commandant rank. He commanded the entire division. Senior staff officer of senior staff-officer rank. Second- and third-grade staff officers as in army organization. Executive officers were field officers. Central staff officer: deputy staff colonel. He managed general affairs. Chief ordnance, judge-advocate, supply, and medical officers were deputy staff colonels. Chief veterinary officer: staff colonel. Chief bugler: company officer. One of each. Fifteen clerks. Brigade, regiment, and battalion organization followed the Imperial Guard model.
92
In 1904 (Guangxu 30) new-army reforms planned thirty-six divisions with fixed division-through-battalion ranks. In 1909 (Xuantong 1) provinces formed mixed brigades with temporary executives, soon abolished. By 1911 (Xuantong 3) twenty-six divisions were reported complete with one commander-in-chief. Chief of staff and subordinate posts remained unfilled. Others had only two brigades or one brigade and one regiment; the thirty-six-division plan was unfinished.
93
Army division prison warden and chief warden of staff-colonel or field-officer rank. Deputy warden of field- or company-officer rank. One of each. Two clerks. In 1908 (Guangxu 34) the prison staff establishment was fixed.
94
仿
Patrol forces had route commanders only where needed. Deputy commander, clerk, accountant, and executive officer—one each. One cavalry and infantry company commander. Three outpost and squad officers each. One chief clerk. All posts were concurrently filled by Green Standard officers. In 1907 (Guangxu 33) heterogeneous defense units were reorganized as patrol forces on the new-army model.
95
Navy organization: the Cruiser and Yangtze Fleet had one commander. A vice commandant bearing the senior commandant title. Two squadron commanders. Of commandant rank. Captain and chief engineer of the Haixi cruiser: senior staff officer. Junior staff officers commanded listed cruisers, training ships, gunboats, and the Baomin transport. Staff colonels commanded smaller torpedo craft and gunboats. Superintendents at British Vickers and Armstrong shipyards were senior staff officers. One of each post. All other navy posts remained unfilled.
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