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卷130 志一百五 兵一 八旗

Volume 130 Treatises 105: Military 1, Eight Banners

Chapter 130 of 清史稿 · Draft History of Qing
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1
Treatise 105
2
Military Affairs, Part One
3
西
The Qing dynasty secured rule over the empire through military prowess. When the Great Founder Taizu rose in the east, he first established the banner army system: every man of the Eight Banners was a soldier, so that the state was, in effect, a nation in arms. Under Taizong, who campaigned against the frontier peoples, and Shunzhi, who secured the Central Plains, the fighting power of the Eight Banners reached its height. Kangxi pacified the south, Yongzheng campaigned in Qinghai, and Qianlong secured the western borderlands, relying chiefly on banner forces supplemented by the Green Standard Army. Jiaqing suppressed the sectarian rebels and Daoguang met foreign incursions by employing garrison forces as well, aided by local militia. Under Xianfeng and Tongzhi the Taiping and Nian rebellions were suppressed in turn: the Hunan Army was raised first, the Anhui Army followed, and the trained militia corps first proved their worth—by this point the army system had undergone several transformations. After the Daoguang and Xianfeng eras the maritime frontier opened wide; Guangxu re-established a navy, and forces on inland rivers and the open sea operated alongside the water divisions. Trained corps and land armies were raised in turn; after years of unrest they culminated in the New Army mutiny. The dynasty that rose by force of arms was ultimately undone by force of arms. Alas—was this not the decree of Heaven! This Military Treatise is organized as follows: (1) the Eight Banners; (2) the Green Standard Army; (3) garrison troops, with land forces treated alongside; (4) local militia; (5) native levies; (6) the water forces; (7) the navy; (8) frontier defense; (9) coastal defense; (10) training; (11) arms manufacture; and (12) horse administration—each treated in its own section.
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The Eight Banners
5
滿 滿 滿 滿
In the founding years Taizu rose with thirteen suits of inherited armor; as followers flocked to him he first established four banners—Plain Yellow, White, Red, and Blue—then added four bordered banners, commanding Manchu, Mongol, and Han bannermen alike. Thus the Eight Banner system took shape. Each banner unit of three hundred men formed a niru, commanded by a niru captain. Five niru were grouped under a jalan commander. Five jalan formed a banner under a gushan commander. Each banner had left and right deputy commanders (meiren ejen). In the fifth year of Tianming (1620) all niru captains were redesignated as defense officers. In the eighth year of Tiancong (1634) banner ranks were standardized: the commander-in-chief as angbang janggin, deputy as meiren janggin, and brigade leader as jalan janggin, each in three grades. Defense officers were titled niru janggin. Squad leaders were known as zhunda. Banner field cavalry were designated alihaha caha, later known as the Vanguard Cavalry Brigade. Bayara camp scouts were gabushiha caha, later reorganized as the Guard Corps and Vanguard Brigade. Forces stationed at Mukden served as garrison troops; reserves served as relief troops. Garrisons at fortified towns and stockades served as frontier guards. The former Mongol left and right camps became the left and right wings. Former Han troops were organized as ujen caha (heavy artillery). Kong Youde's Tianyou corps and Shang Kexi's Tianzhu corps were incorporated into the Han banners. In the ninth year (1635) captured Chahar tribesmen and Kharachin levies were organized into eight Mongol banners on the same model as the Manchu banners. In the second year of Chongde (1637) the Han banners were split into two, with left and right wings. In the fourth year (1639) they were further divided into four banners: Plain Black, Black-Bordered Yellow, Black-Bordered White, and Black-Bordered Red. In the seventh year (1642) the full eight Han banners were established on the Manchu model. When Shunzhi made Beijing the capital, Manchu, Mongol, and Han banners were posted throughout the city. The military establishment was then systematically codified.
6
殿 宿宿 滿 滿 滿 宿 宿 宿 滿 滿宿 使使使輿簿
Palace guards fell into two broad categories: court attendants (langwei) and garrison guards (bingwei). Under the langwei system six grand ministers of the imperial bodyguard were appointed, two each from the Bordered Yellow, Plain Yellow, and Plain White banners. There were six inner grand ministers. Ministers of honorific rank had no fixed number. Bodyguards were ranked in four grades. There were also blue-plume bodyguards. Imperial-audience and Qianqing Gate guards were drawn from the three upper banners; Han guards from military jinshi graduates—with no fixed quotas for any of them. Originally the three upper banners were under the emperor's direct command; their young clansmen were chosen as bodyguards, and all who served in the palace halls were overseen by the grand ministers of the imperial bodyguard. Guards posted at the Qianqing, Inner Right, Divine Martial, and Ningshou gates formed the inner watch; those at the Gate of Supreme Harmony formed the outer watch. On imperial progresses and encampments they all accompanied the throne. The imperial escort comprised two rear guards, ten forward guides, and sixty bodyguards of the Leopard-Tail Company. Personal guards attached to company officers: the Bordered Yellow banner had eighty-five Manchu and twenty-eight Mongol companies, each contributing two personal guards; the Plain Yellow banner had ninety-three Manchu and twenty-four Mongol companies; the Plain White banner had eighty-six Manchu and twenty-nine Mongol companies. Sixty personal guards from the three banners marched with the bodyguard corps; the remainder stood regular watch duty. On imperial tours both the grand minister bodyguards and the Qianqing Gate guards accompanied the throne. In field camps they were posted in the two wings; the remainder ringed the tent enclosure on night watch. In the twenty-ninth year of Kangxi (1690) skilled military jinshi were promoted to bodyguards and posted on watch alongside the three banners. In the eleventh year of Yongzheng (1733) personal guards with less than ten years' service were drafted into the vanguard. Each wing of the Manchu and Han banners had a vanguard commander responsible for escort security and palace watch. The bodyguard corps included Imperial Stud guards in charge of bridles and saddles. Bodyguards who also served the Imperial Hunt, Falconry, Gyrfalcon Office, Fifteen-Skill Archery, Swan-Shooting, and Wrestling bureaus were all drawn from the three-banner quota, with no fixed numbers. The Imperial Procession Guard were also martial attendants of the court. The bureau had one inner grand minister, three procession commissioners, ten champion commissioners, and various cloud-banner commissioners, ritual rectifiers, and formation marshals, all charged with the imperial carriage and ceremonial regalia. Sergeants chosen by the Imperial Household were banner sergeants; those chosen by the Five Cities were civilian sergeants. Such was the Eight Banner langwei (court guard) establishment.
7
滿宿 西 西 滿 滿 宿 滿 宿 殿
Under the bingwei system, from the founding of the capital the three upper banners guarded the Forbidden City, commanded by guard corps leaders, brigade officers, and vanguard commanders. Gabushiha scouts of the Manchu and Mongol banners were organized in left and right wings for palace night watch. The Imperial Household's three banners each had three company officers and four banner-and-drum officers; the Plain Yellow banner also had a Korean company. One armored soldier was assigned per two men; each company had six squad leaders and fifteen guards, all under the grand ministers of the imperial bodyguard. Imperial Household troops assigned to traveling palaces were divided into eastern, northern, and western routes, with battalion commanders and varying troop strengths. The Rehe traveling palace followed the same arrangement. Guards for the imperial tombs: in early Shunzhi, the Yongling, Fuling, and Zhaoling mausoleums each had cloud-cavalry and cavalry commandants appointed. Later superintendents, defense officers, and vanguard cavalry captains were added at the three Mukden tombs. The eastern and western mausoleums near Beijing followed the same system. Attached vanguard cavalry from the various banners varied in strength. In the eighth year (1651) ranks from prince down to bulwark duke were each assigned chancellors, guards, and other officers in due order. In the seventeenth year (1660) Chinese titles for banner offices were standardized: gushan ejen as banner commander, meiren janggin as deputy commander, jalan janggin as brigade leader, niru janggin as company officer, angbang janggin as superintendent, and ujen caha as the Han Army. Four thousand eight hundred men were selected from the Manchu, Mongol, and Han banners as nurture-soldiers for skills training. Troop quotas were increased repeatedly thereafter. By the Qianlong reign Manchu and Mongol nurture-soldiers numbered more than twenty thousand three hundred. At Mukden's hunting ula, superintendents, assistant commanders, and company officers were appointed to oversee hunting troops. At Jilin the ginseng, honey, fishing, and hunting households, along with eagle, fox, otter, and crane specialists, all fell under the Imperial Household's three banners. The patrol battalion guarded the seven outer gates; twenty-five infantry posts were established above, and outside the walls central, southern, and northern camps were formed, with varying cavalry and infantry strengths under brigadiers and regimental commanders. Guards for the Changchun, Old Summer Palace, Jingming, and other imperial gardens were commanded by garrison commandants. In early Kangxi encampment sites were designated; Eight Banner guards patrolled in left and right wings, and when the procession moved the three-banner camp commanders and guard brigade officers accompanied the emperor. In the thirteenth year (1674) Eight Banner infantry were set at more than twenty-one thousand, including one thousand seven hundred thirty-seven musket infantry. Gate captains were also appointed for the nine inner and seven outer gates, commanding gate guards at sixteen gates in all. The infantry brigade used only Manchu troops for posts within the Imperial City; outside the walls Mongol and Han bannermen served together. It was soon ordered that when the emperor stayed at the gardens, the two banner wings—each divided into seven posts—would rotate palace guard duty. Seven hundred twenty vanguard and musket guards were on daily duty. In the twenty-first year (1682) three imperial hunts per year were mandated, with each banner selecting vanguard officers and sergeants to attend. In the twenty-second year (1683) the schedule for imperial progresses was fixed. The banner vanguard cavalry brigade added guard posts throughout the inner and outer cities. In the twenty-third year (1684) expert mounted archers and tiger hunters sent from Heilongjiang were formed into the Tiger Gun Battalion. In the thirtieth year (1691) the Firearms Battalion was established. In the first year of Yongzheng (1723) the Patrol Battalion was created with fifteen cavalry and fifty-two infantry posts. On days of court assembly, assistant and deputy marshals led infantry in patrol duty. In the second year (1724) all banners were ordered to select four thousand eight hundred training soldiers to drill in long spear, pole sword, and related skills. In the fourth year (1726) banner vanguard were required to practice archery six times monthly. Those assigned solely to fire prevention were called precaution troops. In the ninth year (1731) gate guards and armored soldiers of the five lower banners were ordered back to their home camps for drill. The three upper banners were ordered to add two thousand training soldiers organized into two battalions. In the thirteenth year (1735) armored troops were fixed at five thousand two hundred fifty, with joint drills each spring and autumn. In the fourteenth year of Qianlong (1749) a cloud-ladder (siege) battalion was established. Dragnet boats were also placed on Kunming Lake so the vanguard could drill in naval combat. In the twenty-fifth year of Qianlong, Hui who had come to the capital were formed into a single company under a khoja company commander, a precedent followed thereafter. In the thirty-ninth year of Qianlong the lead vanguard at the grand inspection was organized into eight teams of eight small banners and four conch horns each, serving as the rear guard. In the forty-first year of Qianlong, Tibetans newly arrived in the capital were registered in one company on the Hui model and assigned to the Imperial Household Department's Plain White Banner. In the forty-sixth year of Qianlong two left and right infantry battalions were added to the capital garrison, forming five camps with twenty-three posts and ten thousand troops drawn from Han-banner reserves, infantry soldiers, and idle bannermen. In the fourth year of Jiaqing the five patrol battalions were reorganized with the central battalion as brigade headquarters, five posts at the Old Summer Palace, and four colonels for the remaining camps covering eighteen posts under wing generals. In the seventeenth year of Jiaqing the Elite Sharp Vanguard Battalion joined the left wing and the Outer Firearms Battalion the right wing, for thirty-six battalions in all counting vanguard, inner firearms, and cavalry forces. In the third year of Xianfeng the throne ordered that the capital's 149,000-odd banner garrison troops be inspected in rotation by supervising ministers, with cavalry, infantry, and firearms kept at full strength and no shoddy fill-ins from ad hoc recruitment. In the tenth year of Xianfeng, at Sheng Bao's request, banner troops were directed to add drill in muskets, cannon, and punt guns. In the fourth year of Tongzhi Prince Chun was charged with training the Shenji Battalion, and banner and Green Standard units were to be inspected regularly. In the twenty-fourth year of Guangxu ten thousand Shenji cavalry and infantry were chosen as a vanguard and drilled in firearms and battlefield maneuvers. Such was the system of Eight Banner troops guarding the capital.
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Garrison banner forces fell into four broad categories: metropolitan garrisons, which included submitted frontier peoples and troops under the Imperial Household Department and Court of Colonial Affairs in the capital; garrisons in the Three Eastern Provinces; garrisons in the provinces, with Xinjiang garrisons counted among them; and frontier-domain troops.
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滿 滿 滿 滿
For metropolitan garrisons, early Shunzhi saw defensive officers posted one or two at a time at Dushikou, Zhangjiakou, Shanhaiguan, Xifengkou, and Gubeikou, while Caiyuli and Gu'an County received defense captains and defensive officers in varying numbers. In the fourteenth year of Kangxi each Chahar banner was given one superintendent, one deputy superintendent, three brigade commanders, and varying numbers of company commanders, cavalry captains, and guard captains. Each banner had two bandit-capture officers, two personal guards and two vanguard soldiers, seventeen guards, four squad leaders, and twenty-five cavalry. They were placed under the joint command of the Mongol banner commander in the capital. Shanhaiguan had one superintendent, eight defensive officers, and over seven hundred Manchu, Mongol, and Han soldiers. A Zhangjiakou superintendent was soon added with seven defensive officers and over 130 troops. Dushikou and Gubeikou each gained two defensive officers, Xifengkou two, and Lengkou and Luowenyu one apiece, with garrisons ranging from twelve to sixty-eight men. In the third year of Yongzheng the Tianjin Naval Brigade received one commander, six assistant commanders, thirty-two each of company commanders, defensive officers, and cavalry captains, 1,600 banner troops and 400 Mongols in left and right wings. In the third year of Qianlong 2,000 Rehe garrison troops were added with vanguard sergeants, squad leaders, musket troops, armored soldiers, artillerymen, and bow craftsmen in set numbers, 1,400 at Rehe, 400 at Kalahetun, and 200 at Huayugou. In the eighth year of Qianlong the Shanhaiguan superintendent became a deputy commander-in-chief with added assistant commanders and company officers, 800 Manchu, Mongol, and Han troops in left and right wings. In the twenty-sixth year of Qianlong one Chahar commander was posted at Zhangjiakou to oversee banner nomads and garrison troops, with two deputy commanders on the left and right nomadic frontiers. In the forty-fifth year of Qianlong 2,000 Manchu and Mongol troops were posted at Miyun. In the third year of Jiaqing a deputy commander was added for the Rehe hunting preserve. In the ninth year of Jiaqing the office was redesignated superintendent. In the fifteenth year of Jiaqing the post was again changed to a single commander-in-chief. Surrendered Oirat followers of Dashdava were resettled at Kobdo and soon organized into three banners with superintendents, deputy superintendents, company commanders, and cavalry captains. They were soon transferred to Rehe and incorporated as regular garrison troops. Earlier in the Kangxi reign the Mountain Resort was built at Rehe, with superintendents, garrison commanders, and platoon leaders assigned to guard each palace compound. Under Qianlong more palace compounds were added, each with one or two platoon leaders or acting platoon leaders and garrisons of six to ninety-eight men. The Mulan hunting preserve had one superintendent. In late Kangxi eight defensive officers and over one hundred Manchu and Mongol troops were posted there. By mid-Qianlong two wing chiefs and eight cavalry captains had been added, with 800 garrison troops in all. Each soldier received 1.2 qing of land, or cattle and sheep where the soil was unsuitable for farming. Mulan was enclosed by a palisade fence with eight barracks and forty karun outposts, five per banner, each manned by its own troops. In the fourth year of Daoguang the throne granted capital garrison troops extra grain rations in leap months, a privilege not extended to other provinces. Such was the metropolitan garrison system.
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The Three Eastern Provinces had forty-four garrison posts and more than 35,300 troops. Vanguard, squad leaders, armored soldiers, gate guards, infantry, night patrolmen, craftsmen, training soldiers, musket troops, and sailors were assigned as each post required, with no fixed quotas at first.
11
滿 滿滿滿滿
At Mukden the first garrisons, at Niuzhuang and Gaizhou with ninety-six men, date to the Tiancong period. In the first year of Shunzhi, as the emperor prepared to move the capital to Yanjing, Mukden Eight Banner garrisons were established under Hooge of the Plain Yellow Banner, with meiren janggin commanding the left and right wings. Each banner had one Manchu assistant commander, four company commanders, and one Mongol and one Han company commander apiece. Garrison commanders were posted at Xiongyue, Jinzhou, Fenghuangcheng, Ningyuan, Xingjing, Liaoyang, Niuzhuang, Xiuyan, Yizhou, Gaizhou, and Haizhou, each with Manchu and Han company commanders as needed, all commanding local garrison troops. In the first year of Kangxi the Mukden angbang janggin became the General Garrisoning Liaodong, with two meiren janggin as deputy commanders overseeing assistant commanders, company commanders, and cavalry captains. In the fourth year of Kangxi the Liaodong General was retitled the Fengtian General. In the fourteenth year of Kangxi garrison captains were posted at Jinzhou and Yizhou with company commanders and cavalry captains in set numbers. Each frontier gate received one defensive officer. Three defensive officers were soon added at Kaiyuan and one at Jinzhou, with officers and troops assigned as needed. In the fifty-fifth year of Kangxi a naval brigade was posted at Jinzhou with ten vessels, 500 troops, and 100 sailors. In the fifth year of Yongzheng one deputy commander was posted at Xiongyue, another from Guangning through Jinzhou and Ningyuan to Shanhaiguan, and a third at Fuzhou, Nanjinzhou, Fenghuangcheng, Xiuyan, Lüshun, and nearby posts to divide command of banner troops. In the twelfth year of Qianlong the Fengtian General was retitled General Garrisoning Mukden. Mukden's authorized strength totaled more than 15,000 troops.
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At Jilin, in the tenth year of Shunzhi Ningguta received one angbang janggin, two meiren janggin, and eight company commanders and cavalry captains each. In the eighteenth year of Shunzhi the Jilin Naval Brigade was established. In the first year of Kangxi the Ningguta angbang janggin became a general and the meiren janggin a deputy commander. In the third year of Kangxi superintendents were appointed for the naval brigade. In the seventh year of Kangxi two assistant commanders were added at Ningguta. In the tenth year of Kangxi one Ningguta deputy commander with eleven company commanders and cavalry captains and 700 troops relocated to Jilin. Eight more assistant commanders were added at Jilin with twelve each of company commanders, defensive officers, and cavalry captains and 600 troops. Fifteen defensive officers were soon added. In the fifteenth year of Kangxi the Ningguta general moved to Jilin, leaving a deputy commander at Ningguta and adding one at Jilin. In the thirty-first year of Kangxi Boduna received two assistant commanders, thirty company commanders and cavalry captains each, and eight defensive officers. In the fifty-third year of Kangxi Sanxing and Hunchun each gained an assistant commander with company commanders, cavalry captains, and defensive officers as needed. In the third year of Yongzheng Aletukai received one assistant commander and five each of company commanders, cavalry captains, and defensive officers. In the tenth year of Yongzheng one deputy commander was posted at Sanxing. A Jilin Musket Battalion was soon added with one brigade commander, eight company commanders and cavalry captains, and 1,000 musket troops. In the thirteenth year of Qianlong the hunting ula corps was placed under the Jilin general's joint command. As early as Shunzhi two hunting ula assistant commanders and one superintendent had been appointed to oversee pearl convoys and ginseng, honey, fishing, and hunting households devoted to tribute collection. Over time the corps grew to eight company commanders and defensive officers, ten or eight cavalry captains, and 1,000 authorized troops. Because the corps lay within Jilin, it was now ordered under the Jilin general's joint command. In the twenty-first year of Qianlong one deputy commander was posted at Aletukai. In the sixth year of Daoguang capital banner colonists at Shuangchengbo were split into left and right wings, each with two chief and deputy colony overseers. Later one banner was subdivided into five colonies and six chief and six deputy colony overseers were added.
13
使使鹿 滿 滿 西
In Heilongjiang, early in the Kangxi reign the naval brigade was transferred from Jilin to Qiqihar and nearby posts with over 1,000 sailors. Able-bodied youths scattered across Mukden were enrolled in the banners as needed. Barhu and Xibe were settled near Jilin, Guwalgiya near Boduna, and Kurka near Hunchun, each with company commanders and cavalry captains posted separately. Farthest northeast were the Solon and Daur, who submitted during the Tianming and Tiancong reigns and were later distributed as quota troops among the garrison cities. The Oroqen lived still farther out; horse-using and deer-using bands in the forests hunted sable for a living, and all households were registered and their men listed in the military rolls. In the twenty-second year of Kangxi the first Heilongjiang general was appointed, absorbing the naval superintendent and staff, with two deputy commanders, four assistant commanders, twenty-four company commanders and cavalry captains, eight defensive officers, 1,000 Manchu and 500 Solon and Daur troops at Aihui. In the twenty-third year of Kangxi one hunting superintendent and two deputies were appointed, with Solon and Daur youths organized into company commanders and cavalry captains. Garrison troops were soon posted at Moergen. In the twenty-ninth year of Kangxi the general moved to Moergen with four more assistant commanders, seven company commanders and cavalry captains, and 400-odd Solon and Daur troops, while one deputy commander remained at Aihui. More than 1,000 troops were soon posted at Qiqihar. In the thirty-eighth year of Kangxi the general returned from Moergen to Qiqihar. In the forty-ninth year of Kangxi one deputy commander was posted at Moergen. In the sixth year of Yongzheng three hunting superintendents, sixteen Manchu, Solon, and Daur deputy superintendents, and sixty-two Solon and Daur company commanders and cavalry captains were added. In the tenth year of Yongzheng one Hulun Buir commander was appointed with two Solon and Barhu superintendents and deputies each, fifty company commanders and cavalry captains, 3,000 troops, and soon over 2,000 more. One Oirat superintendent and one deputy were also appointed. In the eighth year of Qianlong the Hulun Buir commander was retitled deputy commander. In the ninth year of Jiaqing armored soldiers farming official land at Qiqihar and elsewhere reverted to their home banners, and newly reclaimed fields were assigned to training soldiers for cultivation. In the eighth year of Xianfeng 1,000 armored soldiers were added to the Heilongjiang garrison. In the eighth year of Guangxu General Wenzu proposed seven relay stations from Heilongjiang to Maoxing and five from Maoxing to Hulan, 60 relay personnel in all, with one route-record defensive officer, two cavalry captains, and six squad leaders under divided command. Heilongjiang banner troops fell into five broad categories: vanguard, 146 in all, wearing quivers and sword-belts and bearing flags as guides; squad leaders who kept accounts and records and headed the armored soldiers, 748 in all; armored soldiers, also called mail-clad troops, 9,213 in all; Next came the artisans: musket-makers, bowyers, smiths, and saddlers, 152 in all. Training soldiers: in the late Kangxi period banner troops first took up military colonization, and by the Jiaqing reign tuntian armored soldiers were reclassified as training soldiers, 800 in all. Those not yet enrolled in the ranks were called xidan, meaning horse-handlers; they were barred from military campaigns. Such was the garrison system of the Three Eastern Provinces.
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西西滿 西滿 西 滿 西 滿滿 西
The provincial garrison system began in the second year of Shunzhi with the Left Wing Four Banners at Jiangning and the Right Wing Four Banners at Xi'an, each staffed with 2,000 Manchu and Mongol troops, 28 bowyers, and 56 smiths. In the sixth year garrison troops of the Plain Blue and Bordered Blue banners were placed at Taiyuan in Shanxi, together with nomadic Chahar troops. Earlier Taizong had campaigned in person against the Chahar and subdued the Tumed; they were later organized into two banners with left and right wings, their banner generals holding joint authority. The banner general posts were soon abolished, and the generals and deputy commanders who managed banner affairs were placed on the same footing as the Inner Eight Banners. The nomadic Chahar were henceforth assigned to the Shanxi garrison. In the eleventh year the Bordered Yellow and Plain Yellow banners placed Manchu and Mongol squad leaders, armored cavalry, and bowyers and smiths at Dezhou in Shandong. In the fifteenth year Xi'an received 28 company commanders and cavalry captains and 1,000 elite cavalry. At Hangzhou in Zhejiang the garrison was staffed with Manchu and Mongol banner armored cavalry, foot soldiers, and bowyers; Han banner armored cavalry, foot soldiers, and smiths; and Manchu and Han cotton-armor troops—more than 4,000 in all. Each banner thereafter received additional company commanders, cavalry captains, and elite cavalry. In the sixteenth year the Jingkou garrison was reorganized under one Zhenhai general and two deputy commanders-in-chief, with assistant commanders, regimental commanders, defensive officers, company commanders, and cavalry captains in fixed numbers. Jiangning and Xi'an each soon received 1,000 additional foot soldiers.
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西滿 西滿 滿 滿 西滿滿滿滿 滿 西滿 滿
In the thirteenth year of Kangxi Xi'an's Right Wing Four Banners gained 1,000 Manchu and Mongol armored cavalry, 14 bowyers and smiths, and Han banner armored soldiers; Jiangning gained 1,000 armored cavalry. Each garrison later received another 2,000 troops plus bowyers, smiths, and the like. That same year Jingkou received 1,000 foot soldiers. In the fifteenth year the Ningxia garrison in Shaanxi was established with Manchu and Mongol squad leaders, armored cavalry, foot soldiers, and bowyers and smiths across all eight banners. In the nineteenth year Fuzhou in Fujian received the Left Wing Four Han banner squad leaders, armored and foot soldiers, smiths, and Manchu and Mongol foot soldiers. In the twentieth year Guangzhou received squad leaders, armored cavalry, artillery troops, and bowyers from the upper three Han banners: Bordered Yellow, Plain Yellow, and Plain White. In the twenty-second year the Jingzhou garrison in Huguang was established with Manchu and Mongol squad leaders, armored cavalry, foot soldiers, and bowyers and smiths—more than 2,800 in all, soon raised to 4,000. That same year a general was added at Xi'an, with one deputy commander for each Manchu wing and matching Han banner deputies; eight Manchu and Mongol assistant commanders per banner; assorted Han assistant commanders, company commanders, defensive officers, and cavalry captains; 7,000 Manchu, Mongol, and Han troops; 700 Manchu and Mongol foot soldiers; and bowyers, smiths, and the like. In the twenty-third year the five remaining Han banners were added at Guangzhou—Plain White, Plain Red, Bordered Red, Plain Blue, and Bordered Blue—with one general, two deputy commanders, eight assistant and regimental commanders each, forty defensive officers and cavalry captains each, and more than 3,000 musket squad leaders, musket cavalry, squad leaders, elite cavalry, artillery cavalry, bowyers, and smiths across all eight banners; four Green Standard camps—Left, Right, Front, and Rear—were also established with eight officers and more than 3,400 troops. Musket squad leaders, musket cavalry, squad leaders, and elite cavalry were soon established separately at Fuzhou, Jingzhou, Ningxia, Jiangning, Jingkou, and Hangzhou in allotted numbers. The Jingkou foot contingent also included allotted posts for musketmen, archers, arrow troops, long-spearmen, and rattan-shield troops. That same year the Hangzhou garrison was expanded by 3,200 Manchu, Mongol, and Han banner troops. In the thirty-second year the Youwei garrison in Shanxi was established with Manchu, Mongol, and Han guards, squad leaders, armored cavalry, and smiths—more than 5,600 in all under one general—with forty-eight orderlies and six clerks. In the thirty-sixth year the Jingkou Green Standard naval commander was abolished and replaced by a vice commander overseeing Left and Right camps with eight subordinate officers and 1,900 troops. In the fifty-ninth year the Kaifeng garrison in Henan was established with Manchu and Mongol squad leaders, musket squad leaders, armored cavalry, musket-armed cavalry, and bowyers and smiths. In the sixtieth year the Chengdu garrison in Sichuan received one deputy commander, four assistant commanders, and company commanders, defensive officers, cavalry captains, musket squad leaders, musket cavalry, elite cavalry, foot soldiers, and bowyers, fletchers, and smiths.
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滿 滿 滿滿 滿 滿
In the first year of Yongzheng all Han banner foot soldiers at the Fuzhou garrison were reclassified as cavalry. In the second year Taiyuan and Dezhou each received 500 additional garrison troops. In the sixth year the Fuzhou garrison naval camp received one assistant commander, two company commanders and defensive officers each, six cavalry captains, and 500 naval troops. In the seventh year a naval garrison camp was established at Zhapu in Zhejiang. The Qingzhou garrison was established with one general and one deputy commander, four assistant commanders, sixteen company commanders, defensive officers, and cavalry captains, and Manchu and Mongol banner troops plus bowyers and smiths. The Guangzhou garrison naval camp received one assistant commander, two company commanders and defensive officers each, cavalry captains, and Han banner naval squad leaders in allotted numbers. In the eighth year, finding Han banner units in provincial garrisons had fallen into neglect, the throne ordered local generals to drill them. Two thousand Manchu banner troops were assigned to the Qingzhou garrison. The Youwei garrison gained 500 troops and, from the general and wing deputies downward, assistant commanders, company commanders, defensive officers, cavalry captains, Manchu and Mongol vanguard, and Manchu, Mongol, and Han squad leaders, with more than 3,000 elite cavalry. In the thirteenth year 2,000 Manchu, Mongol, and Han banner troops were assigned to the Liangzhou garrison in Gansu. One thousand Manchu, Mongol, and Han banner troops were assigned to the Zhuanglang garrison.
17
滿 滿 滿 西
In the second year of Qianlong a garrison was established at Suiyuan City with 2,400 registered Manchu, Mongol, and Han household retainers from the Dzungar campaign, 1,000 troops from the Rehe garrison, and 500 Mongol troops from Youwei—3,900 in all. The Liangzhou garrison received one general and one deputy commander, Manchu, Mongol, and Han company commanders, defensive officers, cavalry captains, and foot soldier officers, with 2,000 banner elite cavalry and 600 foot soldiers. The Zhuanglang garrison likewise received one deputy commander, Manchu, Mongol, and Han assistant commanders, company commanders, defensive officers, and foot soldier officers, with 1,000 banner elite cavalry and 400 foot soldiers. In the fourth year 600 foot soldiers at the Ningxia garrison were reclassified as training soldiers. Jingzhou received 400 additional training soldiers. In the tenth year training soldiers were established at the Jiangning garrison. In the twenty-first year the Kaifeng city garrison captain was placed under the provincial governor's command. In the twenty-second year the Jingkou general was abolished and the Green Standard Left and Right camps were reassigned to the Jiangning general. In the twenty-fifth year Suiyuan City's garrison quotas were revised to 400 foot soldiers and 400 training soldiers, with squad leaders, vanguard, and elite cavalry bringing actual strength to 2,400. In the twenty-eighth year the two Tumed banners were placed under the Suiyuan City general. One deputy commander was established at Guihuacheng. In the thirty-ninth year 128 foot soldiers at the Hangzhou garrison were reclassified as training soldiers. In the forty-first year a general was established at the Chengdu garrison. In the forty-ninth year one deputy commander was added at Xi'an. In the twelfth year of Jiaqing generals were forbidden to fill troop quotas with the aged and infirm. Such was the garrison system of the provinces.
18
滿 調 調 滿 貿 滿 滿滿
The Xinjiang garrison system began in the twenty-fifth year of Qianlong, when the court first resolved to post troops there. Agui was dispatched with 500 Manchu and Solon cavalry, 100 Green Standard troops, and 200 Muslim auxiliaries to Yili to hunt down Khoshut bands, win over the Oirat, and build fortified settlements for colonization. Colony troops were steadily reinforced from the interior until they reached 2,500, rotating every five years: 500 on active duty and 2,000 farming, organized in twenty-five colonies under a colonization brigade commander. The next year Agui proposed fixing fifteen karun guards and adding 1,500 cavalry to the Yili garrison, bringing total strength to 2,500 with the existing quota. In the twenty-seventh year 5,000 garrison troops and their families from Liangzhou and Zhuanglang were relocated to Yili. Once Xinjiang was pacified, a formal garrison system was instituted. Karun troops answered to guards, colonization troops to military colonization officers, garrison cavalry to company commanders, and Green Standard troops to camp officers, all under a specially appointed general. Guards, clerks, and similar officials rotated annually. In the twenty-ninth year 1,000 Green Standard troops built Huining City on the Ili River. Overseeing the construction force were one vice commander, two garrison commanders, two battalion commanders, and eight platoon commanders. 1,800 relocated Chahar households were organized into two angji under a brigade minister, with twelve company commanders in left and right wings, each commanding 200 troops. One thousand relocated Heilongjiang households formed one angji under a brigade minister with six company commanders. One thousand Xibe troops, 1,000 Rehe Manchu and Mongol troops, and 500 Dashdawa Oirat troops were also assigned, all relocating with their families to Yili. Cavalry were permanently posted; Green Standard troops rotated every five years. In the thirtieth year surrendered Oirat were organized into one angji; together with the Dashdawa tribesmen they formed the Oirat angji under a brigade minister. The original Oirat force became the Oirat Right Wing. Below the brigade minister, second- and third-rank guards and blue-plume guards had no fixed quota. In the thirty-first year Urumqi received a resident minister and assistant minister commanding garrison and construction forces and overseeing trade, karun inspection, and relay stations. In the thirty-second year the Oirat Left Wing's six company commanders were designated the upper three banners and the Right Wing's ten company commanders the lower five banners. In the thirty-fourth year Huining City gained one Manchu brigade minister. In the thirty-seventh year surrendered Shabinar and others joined the lower five Oirat banners under four new company commanders. In the twentieth year of Jiaqing one deputy superintendent was added among the four Shabinar company commands. In the tenth year of Daoguang, with more than 4,600 Manchu troops at Huining City and more than 2,100 at Bayandai, generals were forbidden to propose further increases to troop quotas. In the sixth year of Tongzhi, after Kazakh raids from the east, Li Yunlin was ordered to drill Oirat and Mongol troops for defense. A resident minister was added at Buruntokhai to supervise lamas and administer affairs from a new office, with one assistant. This covered the Northern Route of Xinjiang.
19
滿 滿 滿 滿
On the southern route Ush was garrisoned by a superintendent of Muslim affairs and an assistant minister commanding Manchu, Green Standard, and colonization forces and overseeing garrisons at Aksu, Sayram, and Baicheng. They were assisted by guards, clerks, and other officials. The Manchu camp fielded two brigade guards, one wing commander and one regimental commander, two deputy and acting regimental commanders each, six vanguard officers, eighteen Green Standard officers down to brigade commander, and eighteen colonization officers down to vice commander. Aksu was garrisoned by one clerk and one Green Standard brigade commander. Sayram held one wing commander who also commanded the Baicheng garrison. Yarkand was garrisoned by a resident minister and brigade minister commanding a Manchu camp deputy commander, guards, regimental and deputy regimental commanders, and the like on the Ush model. Khotan and Kashgar likewise received resident and brigade ministers commanding Manchu camp guards, clerks, brigade guards, regimental and deputy regimental commanders, and Green Standard brigade and regimental commanders. Kucha held a resident official commanding Green Standard officers from battalion commander downward and overseeing Shayar affairs. Karashahr held a resident official commanding Green Standard city garrisons and colonization troops. Pizhan held one brigade minister commanding assistant and company commanders and their subordinates along with foot soldiers and Green Standard troops.
20
滿西滿 滿 西西 西
After the twenty-fourth year of Qianlong resident ministers were posted at Ush, a resident and assistant minister at Aksu, two resident ministers at Yarkand, plus guards and karun guards. The Manchu camp received one deputy commander overseeing Vanguard Camp regimental and deputy regimental commanders, Anxi Manchu fifth-rank company commanders, Solon fifth-rank officers, Chahar company commanders, and Green Standard brigade commanders and subordinates. Khotan also received a brigade commander and Green Standard officers down to brigade commander. Kashgar was garrisoned by one brigade commander, one minister for Muslim frontier affairs, and one assistant minister. The Manchu camp received one deputy commander and two brigade guards. The brigade guard also commanded Solon troops. The Solon received two acting assistant commandants and two company commanders; the Chahar received one commandant, two assistant commandants, and officers down to corporal-of-the-guard. The Green Standard Army received a regional commander and officers from battalion commander downward. Ying'asar held one brigade commander who also commanded Solon, Chahar, and Green Standard troops. Resident ministers were also posted at Kucha, Karashahr, and Pizhan. When the postal stations were first reorganized, six fell under Pizhan. Each station received one acting thousand-man or platoon captain. On Yarkand's western route six karun on the north and south routes each had a karun guard; on the east, south, and west routes twenty-one stations each had a clerk. Shayar's southern route had one karun. From Kucha's eastern route to Karashahr's west there were ten stations in all. Each station had one clerk. Every station and karun had garrison troops—up to ten men, as few as one—and ten Muslim households assigned for supply service. Soon the officers and troops were consolidated at Ush and Aksu, leaving only one clerk and officers down to brigade commander; this was soon changed to an assistant resident minister and brigade guards. Kashgar's superintendent minister was transferred to Yongning in Ush, and two resident ministers were soon appointed in his place. In the thirty-first year the Solon troops were withdrawn and nine hundred Vanguard Camp men sent on rotation; one wing commander, eighteen acting regimental and deputy regimental commanders, and twenty-four corporals-of-the-guard then distributed the garrison among the Muslim cities. In the forty-fourth year the Pizhan resident minister was abolished and replaced by a brigade minister. Soon Turfan received colonization officials from battalion commander downward.
21
In the eighth year of Daoguang Aksu, as the central point of the southern route, received one thousand additional troops; five hundred Korpin garrison troops were transferred there and Bay's regimental commander and his men were cut. Old and new garrisons totaled 2,200 men; apart from karun guards and detail troops, 1,300 drill troops remained to control all routes. In the ninth year eight karun officers and troops were added on the Kashgar frontier. Soon three of the eight karun—Karanggui, Tushukta, and Wopalat—were recognized as key routes to Kokand; a fort was built at Ming Yaoluo with one battalion commander and two hundred Green Standard troops. Forts were built at three places in Arhumachang, garrisoned by two hundred or sixty men. Yarkand had seven subordinate karun, with Liangge'er and Kukuyar as key passes to the frontier tribes; Yengisar had five, of which only Wuluk was a major route. All were provided with earthen forts and barracks, thousand-man captains, and below them platoon captains and acting officers; garrisons ranged from sixty men down to fifteen or ten.
22
滿 滿滿 滿 滿
In the third year of Xianfeng, with more than 40,000 troops garrisoned on Xinjiang's northern and southern routes and annual pay at 1.45 million taels, post-campaign supply had become difficult; an edict halted the dispatch of Shaanxi and Gansu officials to frontier garrisons from that year on. Garrisons for Kashgar, Yengisar, Yarkand, Khotan, and the other cities of the eight-city circuit were supplied from Manchu and Green Standard troops stationed at Urumqi. In the fourth year the rotation-garrison system for southern Xinjiang was revised. Ili received two hundred additional Manchu troops; Urumqi received 1,200 Green Standard and three hundred Manchu troops. One thousand garrison troops were cut from Yarkand, Kashgar, Ush, and Aksu. In the seventh year, with Kashgar pacified, Torghut Mongol troops were withdrawn and Ili officers and troops kept on for defense. In the eighth year southern-route rotation garrisons were ordered to rotate out in six annual stages from that year on, to reduce expense. South of the Tianshan, where the Muslim peoples lived, postal stations and karun sufficed without heavy garrisons. Ush, Yarkand, Kashgar, and Ying'asar all relied on joint Manchu and Han garrisons to guard the frontier. Khotan, Aksu, Kucha, Karashahr, and Pizhan were guarded by Green Standard troops. Manchu garrison troops rotated every three years; Green Standard garrison troops every five years. Such was the southern-route system.
23
滿
Since Tongzhi the Muslim frontier had been unsettled; Imperial Commissioner Zuo Zongtang gradually pacified the region, and Xinjiang gradually returned to the empire. In early Guangxu debate began over converting Xinjiang into a province. Zuo Zongtang proposed that the general lead banner troops at Ili, that Tarbagatai be made a military governorship, and that Green Standard and banner camps be unified under one command. When Ili was recovered in the eighth year, following Tan Zhonglin and Liu Jintang, quota troops were added on both routes and the former resident commissioners, resident ministers, and brigade ministers were all abolished. Posts from Hami to Ili, including the military governorship and various ministerial offices, were also partially abolished. Banner households remaining at Barkul, Gucheng, Urumqi, Kurkara Usu, and elsewhere were merged into the Ili Manchu camp and reorganized under the provincial garrison-general system. In the eleventh year the provincial system was completed. The Ili banner camp mustered seven thousand braves; the elite were kept and reorganized into nine cavalry and thirteen infantry banners under regional and brigade commanders. Ili colonization began at this point, with banner colonization as one component. In sum, from frontier-department status to provincial administration, Xinjiang's garrison banner system was roughly as described above.
24
西
Its frontier military systems covered Inner and Outer Mongolia, Qinghai, and Tibet. Inner and Outer Mongol troops were organized in banners, broadly on the inner Eight Banner model. Each banner had one Zasak, drawn from khans, princes, beile, beise, gong, and taiji ranks. Two or four banner-affairs coordinators were appointed, likewise from taiji rank and above. Registered males were organized into companies by quota. Each unit had one company commander and six vanguard corporals. Every six companies had one regimental commander. Banners with more companies also had clerks and deputy clerks. Each led his subordinates under the Zasak's command. Inner Zasak Mongols comprised twenty-four tribes and forty-nine banners in all. The Khorchin had six banners in left and right wings, each wing further divided into front and rear banners. In the first year of Chongde the Left Wing, Left Front, Right Wing, and Right Front and Rear banners were established. In the sixth year of Shunzhi the Left Rear Banner was established. The Gorlos Front and Rear banners, one Dorbed banner, and one Jasagt banner were all established in the fifth year of Shunzhi. The Jarud had two banners: the Left Wing established in the first year of Chongde and the Right Wing in the fifth year of Shunzhi. One Khalkha Left Wing banner was established in the third year of Kangxi. One Naiman banner and one Aohan banner were both established in the first year of Chongde. The Tumed had two banners: the Left Wing established in the first year of Chongde and the Right Wing in the second year of Shunzhi. The Kharachin had three banners: the Right Wing in the first year of Chongde, the Left Wing in the fifth year of Shunzhi, and one added in the Kangxi reign. The Onnigud Left and Right banners and one Aru Khorchin banner were all established in the first year of Chongde. The Bairin Left and Right banners were established in the fifth year of Shunzhi. One Keshiketeng banner was established in the third year of Shunzhi. The Ujimqin had two banners: the Right Wing in the sixth year of Chongde and the Left Wing in the third year of Shunzhi. The Khoit had two banners: the Left Wing in the third year of Shunzhi and the Right Wing in the tenth year. The Abag had two banners: the Left Wing in the fourth year of Kangxi and the Right Wing in the sixth year. The Abaga had two banners: the Right Wing in the sixth year of Chongde and the Left Wing in the eighth year of Shunzhi. The Sunid had two banners: the Left Wing in the sixth year of Chongde and the Right Wing in the seventh year. One Dörben Oirat banner was established in the eighth year of Shunzhi. One Urad Right Wing banner was established in the tenth year of Shunzhi. One Muuminggan banner was established in the first year of Shunzhi. The Urad Front, Middle, and Rear banners were established in the fifth year of Shunzhi. Ordos had seven banners: the two wings, central, front, and rear banners in the sixth year of Shunzhi, with one added in the ninth year of Yongzheng. The Guihuacheng Tumed Left and Right banners were established in the first year of Chongde; later a deputy commander was placed over them under the Suiyuan garrison general. Such was the Inner Mongolian military system.
25
西
Outer Zasak Mongols of the four Khalkha divisions comprised eighty-six banners in all. The Khalkha Tushiyetu Khan division, with twenty banners, formed the central route. In the thirtieth year of Kangxi seventeen banners were established. By the Yongzheng reign they had gradually increased to thirty-eight banners. Soon twenty banners were assigned to the Sain Noyan division, leaving eighteen. In early Qianlong two banners were added; outside the original banners nineteen Zasaks were appointed to govern them, still under the Tushiyetu Khan division. The Setsen Khan division, with twenty-three banners, formed the eastern route. In the thirtieth year of Kangxi twelve banners were established. They later increased to twenty-one banners. During Qianlong two banners were added; outside the original banners twenty-two Zasaks were appointed to govern them, still under the Setsen Khan. The Zasagt Khan division, with seventeen banners, formed the western route. In the thirtieth year of Kangxi eight banners were established. By the Yongzheng reign they had gradually increased to fifteen banners. During Qianlong two banners were added; outside the original banners sixteen Zasaks were appointed to govern them, still under the Zasagt Khan. The Sain Noyan princely division, with twenty-two banners, was established in the tenth year of Yongzheng by splitting twenty banners from the Tushiyetu Khan division. In early Qianlong two banners were added; outside the original banners twenty-one Zasaks were appointed to govern them, still under the Sain Noyan Zasak prince. The Ulan Usu Oirat division, with two banners, was split off in the twenty-fifth year of Kangxi. During Qianlong their jurisdiction was moved to Ulan Usu and they were placed under the Sain Noyan division. One Helanshan Oirat banner was established in the thirty-sixth year of Kangxi. The Qinghai Oirat division had twenty-one banners: twenty established in the third year of Yongzheng and one added in the eleventh year of Qianlong. Qinghai's nomadic Choros two banners, Khoid one banner, Torghut one banner, and Khalkha one banner were all established in the third year of Yongzheng. One Hami banner was established in the thirty-sixth year of Kangxi. One Turfan banner was established in the tenth year of Yongzheng. Fourteen Dorben banners were established in the eighteenth year of Qianlong (1753). The Torghut tribe was organized into banners in the thirty-sixth year of Qianlong (1771). In the thirteenth year of Kangxi (1674) it was ordered that each spring princes and beile conduct joint maneuvers with their banners' taiji and troops. In the first year of Qianlong (1736) the six Inner jasak leagues were instructed to ready pasture horses and arms for autumn border duty in two shifts: Xilin Gol, Ulan Cab, and Ike Juu as one, Zhorin, Juu Uda, and Josutu as the other, under senior jasak league chiefs, with an imperial envoy sent annually to inspect each banner's troops alongside the league chief. For the ten thousand Khalkha nomads serving as border-defense troops across four divisions, a supervising minister was sent with the Khalkha general, beile, and dukes to inspect troop strength in yearly rotation. In the third year (1738) troops on autumn border and pasture duty in the six leagues were rewarded according to Kangxi precedents with graded allotments of bows and arrows, clothing, and silver. In the fifty-first year (1786) Mongol troops required to train at the imperial hunting grounds were assigned: Tsetsen Khan and Tüsheet Khan divisions under the Urga prince and minister; Sain Noyon Khan and Zasagt Khan divisions under the Uliastai general and his staff. Each tribal khan, prince, and duke was to select four senior and ten junior taiji for service at Mulan. In the third year of Daoguang (1823), at Nayancheng's suggestion, Qinghai's twenty-four banners were split into left and right wings, each with a league chief and deputy. One hoshuu jargalchi was placed over every six banners, one meiren over every three, and one jalan over each banner, with banner soldiers rotating patrol duty with officials according to their numbers. In the eleventh year (1831) Yang Yuchun's proposal was approved: five hundred Mongol troops were split into two shifts to guard eight karun posts. In the fifteenth year (1835) Chahar troops were ordered to fill vacancies and join jasak nomads in guarding the northern border. In the tenth year of Tongzhi (1871) frontier postal stations were assigned to commandants or league chiefs for separate administration. Each station was allocated one hundred camels and fifty horses, with one hundred fifty camels held in reserve for Gobi routes. Such was the military system of Inner and Outer Mongolia and Qinghai.
26
西
During the Yongzheng and Qianlong reigns, when the court campaigned against the Dzungars and the Muslim regions, the Mongol leagues furnished troops that made those expeditions possible. Once Russians began to intrude, both sides of the Ulan Hai fell under foreign pressure; fields and pastures east and west of the Kerulen were overrun; peoples mixed without limit—and border karun and oboo posts became little more than fiction.
27
西 西
Tibetan banner troops dated from the fifty-seventh year of Qianlong (1792). Front Tibet and rear Tibet each received one thousand native troops. Tingri and Gyantse each received five hundred men. Front-Tibet native troops were led by daibing officers; beneath them stood rubing, then jia'bing and dingbing. Three daibing were originally posted—two in rear Tibet, one in Tingri—later augmented by a fourth stationed at Gyantse. Front-Tibet native troops fell under a brigade-general. Rear Tibet, Gyantse, and Tingri were each commanded by battalion commanders. Existing Tangut troops were assigned to daibing officers for training. At first each thousand native troops were armed three-tenths with bow and arrow, seven-tenths with musket. Later three thousand Tangut soldiers were selected, armed half with muskets and half with blade and spear. At this point three thousand new regular troops were created: per thousand, fifty percent muskets, thirty percent bow and arrow, twenty percent blade and spear. Tangut troops were drilled by the garrison commander along with native petty officers. Front Tibet held one brigade-general, one garrison commandant, two thousand-man captains, three platoon captains, and five acting subordinates. Rear Tibet held one brigade-general, one battalion commander, three garrison commandants, two thousand-man captains, seven platoon captains, and nine acting subordinates. That year, at Fuk'anggan's request, Gyantse gained a garrison commandant, an acting subordinate, and thirty troops; Tingri gained a garrison commandant, a platoon captain, an acting subordinate, and forty troops. Soon afterward, following Helin's memorial, the Tingri passes at Xia'erduo, Chamda Xingling, Gulagamudong, and Zongka each received a dingbing and twenty-five native troops. Such, in broad outline, was Tibet's military system.
28
西 西
In the fifteenth year of Qianlong (1750) the Tibetan kingly title was abolished, a resident minister was appointed for Tibet, the Dalai Lama was placed over front Tibet, and the Panchen over rear Tibet. Front and rear Tibet maintained four garrison zones with sixteen officers from brigade-general down to acting subordinates, 660 regular troops, 166 daibing through dingbing native officers, 3,000 native soldiers and 500 cavalry, all under joint supervision by the resident minister, the Dalai Lama, and the Panchen. After the Xianfeng and Tongzhi reigns Gorkha rose in the west and Britain pressed from the south; the court's hold over Tibet was largely nominal.
29
Eight Banner officer and troop quotas changed from reign to reign; the latest figures are given here by way of example. By the late Guangxu and Xuantong reigns the rolls recorded roughly 6,600 officers and 120,300 soldiers. Though dedicated seal-duty brigade commanders existed in each banner camp, the posts were usually held concurrently by brigade and deputy brigade commanders. Seal-duty secretaries and clerks likewise served in concurrent posts. Personal-guard officers, personal guards, and bondservants were paid by their banners but actually performed duties elsewhere. Guard troops for Prince Chun's mausoleum garden first gained vanguard and guard commandant posts in Guangxu; though later abolished, those offices had stood long enough and ranked high enough to remain listed. Other details are omitted here.
30
滿 滿 使
The Bordered Yellow Banner Manchu had one banner commander, two deputy commanders, two seal-duty brigade commanders, five brigade and five deputy brigade commanders, eight seal-duty secretaries, eighty-six company commanders and cavalry captains, eight seal-duty clerks—203 officers in all. It fielded 428 squad leaders, 1,562 armored cavalry, 86 attached armored cavalry, 2,227 nurture-soldiers, 11 personal-guard officers, 158 personal guards, 7 master bowyers and 78 bowyers, and 25 granary armored cavalry—19 at Tongzhou and 6 at Qinghe. Additional personnel included Tongzhou squad leaders, banquet armored cavalry, helmet, lathe, saddle, arrowhead, arrow, and iron smiths, bondservants for net households, pole-bearers, and arrow supply—one to nine men each—and three Army Ministry dispatch soldiers, totaling 4,630 men. The Plain Yellow Banner Manchu matched the Bordered Yellow Banner from banner commander through seal-duty secretaries and clerks, except for ninety-three company commanders and ninety-two cavalry captains—216 officers in all. It fielded 462 squad leaders, 1,628 armored cavalry, 93 attached armored cavalry, 2,393 nurture-soldiers, 11 personal-guard officers, 4 Aisin Gioro personal guards, 171 personal guards, 1 Nanyuan cavalry captain, 8 master bowyers and 84 bowyers, plus Nanyuan and banquet armored cavalry, granary armored cavalry, smiths, warehouse and gate staff, falconers, whip-bearers, pavilion soldiers, and bondservants—one to six each—and 1 Army Ministry dispatch soldier, totaling 4,912 men.
31
滿 滿 使 滿 滿 滿 滿 使
The Plain White Banner Manchu matched the above from banner commander downward, with company commanders and cavalry captains identical to the Bordered Yellow Banner—203 officers in all. It fielded 430 squad leaders, 1,414 armored cavalry, 86 attached armored cavalry, 2,204 nurture-soldiers, 11 personal-guard officers, 5 Aisin Gioro personal guards, 156 personal guards, 10 master bowyers and 76 bowyers, and 30 granary armored cavalry—20 at Tongzhou and 10 at Qinghe. Additional personnel included Nanyuan and banquet armored cavalry, arrowhead, saddle, arrow, and helmet smiths, whip-bearers, net-household and arrow-supplier bondservants, and message soldiers—one to twelve each—and 3 Army Ministry dispatch soldiers, totaling 4,488 men. The Plain Red Banner Manchu matched the above from banner commander downward, except for seventy-four company commanders and cavalry captains—179 officers in all. It fielded 370 squad leaders, 1,287 armored cavalry, 74 attached armored cavalry, 1,888 nurture-soldiers, 16 personal-guard officers, 132 personal guards, 2 master bowyers and 72 bowyers, and 27 granary armored cavalry—19 at Tongzhou and 8 at Qinghe. Additional personnel included Nanyuan armored cavalry, gate keepers, warehouse clerks, message soldiers, and pole-bearer and slaughter bondservants—one to nine each—totaling 3,895 men. The Bordered White Banner Manchu matched the above from banner commander downward, except for eighty-four company commanders and cavalry captains—199 officers in all. It fielded 420 squad leaders, 1,414 armored cavalry, 84 attached armored cavalry, 2,180 nurture-soldiers, 13 personal-guard officers, 154 personal guards, 2 Aisin Gioro personal guards, 2 master bowyers and 72 bowyers, 2 ledger-room foremen, and 27 granary armored cavalry—20 at Tongzhou and 7 at Benyu Granary. Additional personnel included lathe and helmet smiths, whip-bearers, message carriers, ferry clerks, pavilion soldiers, and arrow-supplier and slaughter bondservants—one to four each—and 3 Army Ministry dispatch soldiers, totaling 4,397 men. The Bordered Red Banner Manchu matched the above from banner commander downward, with company commanders and cavalry captains identical to the Bordered Yellow Banner—203 officers in all. It fielded 430 squad leaders, 1,548 armored cavalry, 86 attached armored cavalry, 2,204 nurture-soldiers, 19 personal-guard officers, 3 Aisin Gioro personal guards, 150 personal guards, 6 master bowyers and 80 bowyers, and 27 granary armored cavalry—20 at Tongzhou and 7 at Benyu Granary. Additional personnel included helmet and lathe smiths, whip-bearers, Nanyuan armored cavalry, dispatch and message soldiers, pavilion soldiers, and slaughter bondservants—one to four each—totaling 4,577 men. The Plain Blue Banner Manchu matched the above from banner commander downward, except for eighty-three company commanders and cavalry captains—197 officers in all. It fielded 417 squad leaders, 1,491 armored cavalry, 83 attached armored cavalry, 2,139 nurture-soldiers, 17 personal-guard officers, 11 Aisin Gioro personal guards, 140 personal guards, 2 master bowyers and 83 bowyers, and 19 granary armored cavalry—17 at Tongzhou and 2 at Qinghe. Additional personnel included lathe and helmet smiths, whip-bearers, dispatch and message soldiers, pavilion soldiers, Nanyuan armored cavalry, gate keepers, bondservants, and slaughter bondservants—one to five each—totaling 4,433 men. The Bordered Blue Banner Manchu matched the above from banner commander downward, with company commanders and cavalry captains identical to the Bordered White Banner—199 officers in all. It fielded 439 squad leaders, 1,590 armored cavalry, 86 attached armored cavalry, 24 public-quota and 1 grace-quota armored cavalry, 2,249 nurture-soldiers, 15 personal-guard officers, 6 Aisin Gioro personal guards, 155 personal guards, 6 master bowyers and 88 bowyers, plus Nanyuan armored cavalry and squad leaders, ledger foremen, lathe smiths, whip-bearers, vinegar-bureau clerks, warehouse clerks, message and pavilion soldiers, and slaughter soldiers—one to eight each—and 1 Army Ministry dispatch soldier, totaling 4,690 men.
32
The Bordered Yellow Banner Mongol had one banner commander, two deputy commanders, one seal-duty brigade commander, two brigade and two deputy brigade commanders, four seal-duty secretaries, twenty-eight company commanders and cavalry captains, four seal-duty clerks—72 officers in all. It fielded 140 squad leaders, 497 armored cavalry, 28 attached armored cavalry, 592 nurture-soldiers, 4 personal-guard officers, 52 personal guards, 1 master bowyer and 27 bowyers, plus chief trumpeters, trumpeters, helmet and saddle smiths, net households, park armored cavalry, dispatch and message soldiers, and pavilion soldiers—one to six each—totaling 1,363 men.
33
The Plain Yellow Banner Mongol matched the Bordered Yellow Banner from banner commander through seal-duty secretaries and clerks, except for twenty-four company commanders and cavalry captains—64 officers in all. It fielded 120 squad leaders, 452 armored cavalry, 508 nurture-soldiers, 4 personal-guard officers, 44 personal guards, and 24 bowyers, plus trumpeters, bondservants, tea bondservants, and saddle smiths—one to seven each—totaling 1,171 men.
34
The Plain White Banner Mongol matched the above from banner commander downward, except for twenty-nine company commanders and cavalry captains—74 officers in all. It fielded 145 squad leaders, 487 armored cavalry, 29 attached armored cavalry, 609 nurture-soldiers, 4 personal-guard officers, 54 personal guards, 2 master bowyers and 27 bowyers, plus trumpeters, bondservant chiefs and bondservants, net-household bondservants, Nanyuan armored cavalry, helmet and saddle smiths, and pavilion soldiers—one to seven each—totaling 1,378 men.
35
The Plain Red Banner Mongol matched the above from banner commander downward, except for twenty-two company commanders and cavalry captains—60 officers in all. It fielded 110 squad leaders, 381 armored cavalry, 22 attached armored cavalry, 460 nurture-soldiers, 6 personal-guard officers, 38 personal guards, 3 master bowyers and 18 bowyers, plus Nanyuan and Hanaki armored cavalry, helmet smiths, pole-bearer bondservants, and pavilion soldiers—one to five each—totaling 1,050 men.
36
The Bordered White Banner Mongol matched the above from banner commander downward, with company commanders and cavalry captains identical to the Plain Yellow Banner—64 officers in all. It fielded 120 squad leaders, 440 armored cavalry, 508 nurture-soldiers, 2 personal-guard officers, and 48 personal guards—1,118 men in all.
37
The Bordered Red Banner Mongol matched the above from banner commander downward, with company commanders and cavalry captains identical to the Plain Red Banner—60 officers in all. It fielded 110 squad leaders, 388 armored cavalry, 22 attached armored cavalry, 459 nurture-soldiers, 3 personal-guard officers, 41 personal guards, 1 master bowyer and 18 bowyers, plus 1 dispatch soldier and 1 helmet smith—1,045 men in all.
38
The Plain Blue Banner Mongol matched the above from banner commander downward, except for thirty company commanders and cavalry captains—76 officers in all. It fielded 150 squad leaders, 544 armored cavalry, 30 attached armored cavalry, 630 nurture-soldiers, 9 personal-guard officers, 51 personal guards, 2 master bowyers and 28 bowyers, plus 1 dispatch soldier, helmet smith, armored cavalryman, pavilion soldier, and Mongol interpreter—1,448 men in all.
39
The Bordered Blue Banner Mongol matched the above from banner commander downward, except for twenty-five company commanders and cavalry captains—66 officers in all. It fielded 125 squad leaders, 442 armored cavalry, 25 attached armored cavalry, 527 nurture-soldiers, 5 personal-guard officers, 44 personal guards, 2 bondservant guard officers, 1 master bowyer and 22 bowyers, plus 1 saddle smith, helmet smith, grace-quota armored cavalryman, attendant armored cavalryman, and pavilion soldier—1,198 men in all.
40
The Bordered Yellow Banner Han Army had one banner commander, two deputy commanders, two seal-duty brigade commanders, five brigade and five deputy brigade commanders, six seal-duty secretaries, forty-one company commanders and cavalry captains, six seal-duty clerks—109 officers in all. It fielded 205 squad leaders, 1,681 armored cavalry, 41 attached armored cavalry, 328 aorabu, 937 nurture-soldiers, 39 blue-armor troops, 6 master bowyers and 31 bowyers, 40 gunners, plus night watchmen, dispatch soldiers, bondservants, coppersmiths, helmet and saddle smiths, and pavilion soldiers—one to five each—totaling 3,332 men.
41
The Plain Yellow Banner Han Army matched the Bordered Yellow Banner from banner commander through seal-duty secretaries and clerks, except for forty company commanders and cavalry captains—107 officers in all. It fielded 200 squad leaders, 1,680 armored and attached armored cavalry, 320 aorabu, 914 nurture-soldiers, 31 blue-armor troops, 3 master bowyers and 36 bowyers, 40 gunners, plus night watchmen, dispatch soldiers, bondservants, arrow-supplier bondservants, coppersmiths, helmet and saddle smiths, attendant soldiers, and pavilion soldiers—one to twelve each—and 1 seal-attendant clerk, totaling 3,260 men.
42
The Plain White Banner Han Army matched the above from banner commander downward, with company commanders and cavalry captains identical to the Bordered Yellow Banner—107 officers in all. It fielded 200 squad leaders, 1,640 armored cavalry, 40 attached armored cavalry, 320 aorabu, 914 nurture-soldiers, 52 blue-armor troops, 2 master bowyers and 38 bowyers, 40 gunners, plus night watchmen, dispatch soldiers, bondservants, coppersmiths, and helmet and saddle smiths—one to six each—and 3 seal-attendant clerks, totaling 3,268 men.
43
The Plain Red Banner Han Army matched the above from banner commander downward, except for twenty-eight company commanders and cavalry captains—83 officers in all. It fielded 138 squad leaders, 1,153 armored cavalry, 1 attached armored cavalry, 220 aorabu, 5 blue-armor troops, 641 nurture-soldiers, 8 master bowyers and 14 bowyers, 39 gunners, plus night watchmen, bondservants, helmet and saddle smiths, pavilion soldiers, and dispatch soldiers—one to five each—totaling 2,232 men.
44
The Bordered White Banner Han Army matched the above from banner commander downward, except for thirty company commanders and cavalry captains—87 officers in all. It fielded 150 squad leaders, 1,230 armored cavalry, 30 attached armored cavalry, 240 aorabu, 699 nurture-soldiers, 4 master bowyers and 15 bowyers, 40 gunners, plus night watchmen, arrow-supplier bondservants, dispatch soldiers, and helmet smiths—one to five each—and 1 seal-attendant clerk, totaling 2,424 men.
45
The Bordered Red Banner Han Army matched the above from banner commander downward, except for twenty-nine company commanders and cavalry captains—85 officers in all. It fielded 145 squad leaders, 1,187 armored cavalry, 29 attached armored cavalry, 233 aorabu, 674 nurture-soldiers, 2 master bowyers and 20 bowyers, 40 gunners, plus bondservants, night watchmen, dispatch soldiers, helmet smiths, and pavilion soldiers—one to four each—and 2 seal-attendant clerks, totaling 2,342 men.
46
The Plain Blue Banner Han Army matched the above from banner commander downward, with company commanders and cavalry captains identical to the Bordered Red Banner—85 officers in all. It fielded 145 squad leaders, 1,194 armored cavalry, 22 attached armored cavalry, 232 aorabu, 676 nurture-soldiers, 4 master bowyers and 22 bowyers, 20 artillery-armor troops and 20 gunners, plus helmet smiths, armored-helmet smiths, princess-gate armored cavalry, night watchmen, bondservants, dispatch soldiers, and pavilion soldiers—one to seven each—totaling 2,362 men.
47
The Bordered Blue Banner Han Army matched the above from banner commander downward, with company commanders and cavalry captains identical to the Bordered Red Banner—85 officers in all. It fielded 145 squad leaders, 1,218 armored cavalry, 232 aorabu, 675 nurture-soldiers, 18 blue-armor troops, 5 master bowyers and 24 bowyers, 40 gunners, plus night watchmen, bondservants, helmet smiths, artisan laborers, and pavilion soldiers—one to five each—and 2 seal-attendant clerks, totaling 2,376 men.
48
The Old Summer Palace garrison had 2 attendant camp chiefs, 6 camp chiefs, 8 guard brigade commanders, 16 deputy guard brigade commanders, 32 acting guard brigade commanders, 128 guard officers and 128 deputy guard officers, 1 bondservant camp chief, 3 bondservant guard brigade and deputy brigade commanders, and 9 bondservant guard officers—336 officers in all. Its ranks comprised 3,672 guards, 300 armored cavalry, 400 musket-armor troops, 1,826 nurture-soldiers, 120 bondservant guards, 30 bondservant armored cavalry, and 60 bondservant nurture-soldiers—6,408 men in all.
49
The Elite Vanguard Brigade had 4 wing chiefs, 8 senior brigade commanders, 16 deputy brigade commanders, 32 acting brigade commanders, 1 Tibetan defensive officer, and 70 vanguard officers and 70 deputy vanguard officers—102 officers in all. Its ranks comprised 1,960 vanguard soldiers, 1,000 acting vanguard soldiers, 4 squad leaders, 81 armored cavalry, and 833 nurture-soldiers—3,878 men in all.
50
The Inner Firearms Battalion had two camp superintendents, one regular and one acting wing chief, four camp commanders, four brigade commanders, eight deputy brigade commanders, sixteen acting brigade commanders, and one hundred twelve guard sergeants—148 officers in all. Its ranks comprised 2,512 musket guards, 528 artillery-armor troops, and 880 nurture-soldiers—3,920 men in all.
51
The Outer Firearms Battalion had one wing chief and one acting wing chief for the whole camp, three camp commanders, four brigade commanders, eight deputy brigade commanders, sixteen acting brigade commanders, and one hundred twelve guard sergeants—145 officers in all. Its ranks comprised 2,530 musket guards, 352 gun-armor troops, and 818 nurture-soldiers—3,700 men in all.
52
The Left and Right Vanguard Brigades had two wing vanguard commanders, sixteen vanguard brigade commanders and sixteen vanguard bodyguards per wing, eight acting vanguard bodyguards, sixteen honorary peacock-feather ranks, ninety-six vanguard sergeants, eight honorary vanguard sergeants, forty-eight blue-plume chiefs, sixteen acting blue-plume chiefs, and four seal-clerk scribes—230 officers in all. Vanguard troops numbered 1,668 men.
53
The Eight Banners Guard Brigade had eight guard commanders, 112 guard brigade commanders and 112 deputy guard brigade commanders, 56 acting guard brigade commanders, 112 honorary peacock-feather ranks, 882 guard sergeants, 56 honorary guard sergeants, 112 blue-plume chiefs, 36 gate scribes, and 16 seal-clerk scribes—over 1,502 officers in all. Guard troops numbered 14,081 men.
54
Bondservants under the Bordered Yellow banner had five brigade and five deputy brigade commanders, eleven company commanders, ten stewards, one secretary, five guard and five deputy guard brigade commanders, thirty-five guard sergeants, and eleven cavalry captains—88 officers in all. Its ranks comprised 79 squad leaders, 400 guards, 1,689 armored soldiers, 11 attached armored troops, 88 nurture-soldiers, and 421 bondservants—2,688 men in all. Bondservants under the Plain Yellow banner had five brigade and five deputy brigade commanders, thirteen company commanders, ten stewards, five each of guard, deputy guard, and acting guard brigade commanders, thirty-three guard sergeants, two vanguard sergeants, and thirteen cavalry captains—96 officers in all. Its ranks comprised 95 squad leaders, 478 guards, 1,809 armored soldiers, 13 attached armored troops, 89 nurture-soldiers, and 347 bondservants and others—2,831 men in all. Bondservants under the Plain White banner had five brigade and five deputy brigade commanders, twelve company commanders, ten stewards, five each of guard, deputy guard, and acting guard brigade commanders, thirty-three guard sergeants, two vanguard sergeants, and twelve cavalry captains—94 officers in all. Its ranks comprised 88 squad leaders, 360 guards, 40 vanguard troops, 1,738 armored soldiers and others, 12 attached armored troops, 85 nurture-soldiers, and 635 bondservants and others—2,958 men in all. Bondservants under the Plain Red banner had five brigade commanders, eleven company commanders, nineteen stewards, sixteen bondservant overseers and others, sixty guard sergeants, and twelve cavalry captains—123 officers in all. Its ranks comprised 34 squad leaders, 85 guards, 846 armored cavalry, 332 blue-armor troops, and 70 Mongol guards—1,367 men in all. Bondservants under the Bordered White banner had five brigade commanders, fourteen company commanders, eleven stewards, thirty-two bondservant overseers and others, one personal-guard sergeant, eighty guard sergeants, and thirteen cavalry captains—156 officers in all. Its ranks comprised 74 squad leaders, 142 guards, 566 blue-armor troops, 1,131 white-armor troops, and 3 bondservants—1,916 men in all. Bondservants under the Bordered Red banner had five brigade commanders, seventeen company commanders, six stewards, sixty-three bondservant overseers and others, fifty-eight guard sergeants, and twelve cavalry captains—161 officers in all. Its ranks comprised 47 squad leaders, 108 guards, 1,118 red-armor troops, and 545 blue-armor troops—1,818 men in all. Bondservants under the Plain Blue banner had five brigade commanders, six company commanders, seven stewards, fifty-nine bondservant overseers and others, 103 guard sergeants, and sixteen cavalry captains—196 officers in all. Its ranks comprised 78 squad leaders, 226 guards, 1,624 armored cavalry, 761 blue-armor troops, and 15 bondservants—2,704 men in all. Bondservants under the Bordered Blue banner had five brigade commanders, twenty-one company commanders, thirty-eight stewards, ninety-two warehouse clerks and others, 137 guard sergeants, and sixteen cavalry captains—over 309 officers in all. Its ranks comprised 78 squad leaders, 189 guards, 1,386 armored cavalry, and 1,282 blue-armor troops—2,935 men in all.
55
Prince Chun's mausoleum garden had one wing commander, one defensive officer, and one cavalry captain—three officers in all. Its garrison comprised two squad leaders and forty-six armored soldiers—48 men in all.
56
In all, commissioned officers numbered 6,680. Rank-and-file troops numbered 120,309.
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