Volume 132 Treatises 107: Military 3, Defense Forces, Army

志一百七

Treatise 107

兵三

Military, Part Three

防軍陸軍

Defense Forces and the Army

防軍初皆召募，於八旗、綠營以外，別自成營，兵數多寡不定，分佈郡縣，遇寇警則隸於專征將帥，二百年間，調發徵戍，咸出於此。若乾隆年台灣之役，乾、嘉間黔、楚征苗之役，嘉慶間川、陝教匪之役，道光年洋艘征撫之役，皆暫募勇營，事平旋撤。故嘉慶七年，楚北初設提督，即以勇丁充補標兵，道光十七年，以練勇隸於鎮筸鎮標，二十三年，以防守海疆之水陸義勇三萬六千人仍遣回本籍，無防、練軍之名也。道、咸間，粵匪事起，各省多募勇自衛，張國樑募潮州勇丁最多。咸豐二年，命曾國籓治湖南練勇，定湘軍營哨之制，為防軍營制所昉。迨國籓奉命東征，湘勇外益以淮勇，多至二百營。左宗棠平西陲，所部楚軍亦百數十營。軍事甫定，各省險要，悉以勇營留防，舊日綠營，遂同虛設。綠營兵月餉不及防勇四分之一，升擢擁滯，咸辭兵就勇。粵、捻既平，左宗棠諸臣建議，防營誠為勁旅，有事則兵不如勇，無事則分汛巡守，宜以制兵為練兵，而於直隸、江、淮南北扼要之處，留勇營屯駐，遂有防軍之稱。

Defense forces were originally raised entirely by recruitment. Outside the Eight Banners and the Green Standard Army, they formed separate corps of their own, with no fixed establishment. Scattered through the prefectures and counties, they passed under campaign commanders whenever bandit alarms arose. For two centuries, every call-up for garrison duty or field service came from these units. The Taiwan campaign under Qianlong, the Guizhou and Huguang campaigns against the Miao between the Qianlong and Jiaqing reigns, the Sichuan and Shaanxi sectarian rebellions under Jiaqing, and the wars of suppression and negotiation with foreign ships under Daoguang all relied on brave battalions raised for the occasion and disbanded as soon as peace returned. Thus in the seventh year of Jiaqing, when a provincial commander was first posted to northern Huguang, brave recruits were used to fill the regular garrison rolls. In the seventeenth year of Daoguang, drilled volunteers were attached to the Zhenqian garrison banner; in the twenty-third year, thirty-six thousand coastal militia on land and sea were sent home again. The titles “defense forces” and “training forces” did not yet exist. When the Taiping rebellion broke out in the Daoguang and Xianfeng era, provinces across the empire raised braves for local defense; Zhang Guoliang mustered the largest body of Chaozhou volunteers. In the second year of Xianfeng, Zeng Guofan was charged with training Hunan volunteers and codified the battalion-and-platoon organization of the Xiang Army, which became the model for later defense-force establishments. When Zeng Guofan marched east on imperial orders, Huai volunteers joined the Xiang forces, and the combined corps grew to some two hundred battalions. Zuo Zongtang’s pacification of the northwest was carried out by a Chu Army of well over a hundred battalions as well. As soon as the fighting ended, strategic posts in every province were held by volunteer battalions left behind for garrison duty, and the old Green Standard Army became a hollow formality. Green Standard pay amounted to less than a quarter of what defense volunteers received, promotion was blocked, and men left the regular rolls in droves to enlist as braves. After the suppression of the Taiping and Nian rebels, Zuo Zongtang and others argued that the defense camps had proved themselves elite formations: in war regulars could not match the volunteers, while in peace they could still be posted for patrol and garrison. Regular troops should be retrained as drilled forces, but volunteer battalions should remain stationed at the strategic junctions of Zhili and the Yangtze–Huai region. From this policy came the term “defense forces.”

練軍始自咸豐間，以勇營日多，屢令統兵大臣以勇補兵額，而以餘勇備緩急，尚無別練之師。至同治元年，始令各疆吏以練勇人數口糧，悉數報部稽核。是年於天津創練洋槍隊。二年，以直隸額兵酌改練軍。四年，兵部、戶部諸臣會議選練直隸六軍，始定練軍之名。各省練軍乃踵行之。練軍雖在額設制兵內選擇，而營哨餉章，悉准湘、淮軍制，與防軍同。其綠營制兵，分佈列郡汛地，練軍則屯聚於通都重鎮，簡器械，勤訓練，以散為整，重在屯防要地，其用亦與防軍同，故練軍亦防軍也。

Training forces date from the Xianfeng period. As volunteer battalions multiplied, field commanders were repeatedly told to fill regular quotas with volunteers and keep the remainder in reserve, but there was not yet a distinct drilled army as such. Only in the first year of Tongzhi were provincial governors required to report the full head count and ration rolls of drilled volunteers to the Board for audit. That same year a foreign-rifle training detachment was established at Tianjin. In the second year, a portion of Zhili’s regular establishment was reorganized as training forces. In the fourth year, officials of the Boards of War and Revenue met to select and drill the six Zhili armies, and the term “training forces” was formally adopted. The provinces then followed suit with training forces of their own. Training forces were drawn from the regular establishment, but their battalion organization, platoon structure, and pay scales followed the Xiang and Huai models, identical to those of the defense forces. Green Standard regulars were scattered across prefectural garrison posts, while training forces were concentrated in major cities and strategic towns, with better arms and constant drill, turning a dispersed force into a concentrated one to hold vital points. Their function matched that of the defense forces, and in practice the training forces were defense forces as well.

同治、光緒間，各省所增編防、練軍，兵部、戶部於光緒二十四年核其總數，直隸練軍一萬一千人，留防淮軍三萬一千人，新軍一萬一千四百人，毅軍一萬人，奉天練軍一萬一千四百人，吉林防軍八千五百九十八人，練軍四千四百三十八人，黑龍江練軍七千九百七十一人，山西練軍四千九百人，河南防軍九千一百九十人，陝西防、練軍一萬四千四百五十人，甘肅防軍一萬二千五百人，新疆防軍二萬七千八百四十五人，塔爾巴哈台勇營二千四百三十二人，四川勇營一萬五千六百九十八人，雲南防軍一萬五千三十三人，貴州練軍九千四百八十六人，廣東勇營一萬一千八百人，廣西勇營一萬六千九百四十人，湖南練軍一萬二千九百七十人，湖北勇營一萬二千六百九十人，新軍一千九十三人，江西防軍九千三百六十三人，安徽防、練軍一萬一千二百九十人，江蘇防軍二萬三千七百九十人，自強軍三千一百七十人，得勝軍三千人，浙江防軍二萬一千三百人，山東防軍一萬三千九百五十人，福建防軍一萬五百四十人，各省防軍、練勇凡三十六萬餘人，歲需餉銀二千餘萬兩。其後綠營兵屢加裁汰，各省衛戍之責，遂專屬於防、練軍。光緒中葉後，防、練軍改為巡防隊。光、宣之間，又改為陸軍。至宣統三年，各省巡防隊猶未裁盡也。茲列同、光、宣三朝改設防、練軍規畫於篇，而以陸軍新制附焉。

Between the Tongzhi and Guangxu reigns the provinces expanded their defense and training forces. In the twenty-fourth year of Guangxu the Boards of War and Revenue tallied them as follows: Zhili training forces, 11,000; Huai Army on garrison duty, 31,000; New Army, 11,400; Yi Army, 10,000; Fengtian training forces, 11,400; Jilin defense forces 8,598 and training forces 4,438; Heilongjiang training forces, 7,971; Shanxi training forces, 4,900; Henan defense forces, 9,190; Shaanxi defense and training forces, 14,450; Gansu defense forces, 12,500; Xinjiang defense forces, 27,845; Tarbagatai brave battalions, 2,432; Sichuan brave battalions, 15,698; Yunnan defense forces, 15,033; Guizhou training forces, 9,486; Guangdong brave battalions, 11,800; Guangxi brave battalions, 16,940; Hunan training forces, 12,970; Hubei brave battalions 12,690 and New Army 1,093; Jiangxi defense forces, 9,363; Anhui defense and training forces, 11,290; Jiangsu defense forces 23,790, Self-Strengthening Army 3,170, and Victorious Army 3,000; Zhejiang defense forces, 21,300; Shandong defense forces, 13,950; Fujian defense forces, 10,540. Defense forces and drilled volunteers in all provinces numbered more than 360,000 men and consumed over twenty million taels of silver a year. As the Green Standard Army was repeatedly reduced, provincial garrison duty passed entirely to the defense and training forces. After the mid-Guangxu period, defense and training forces were redesignated as patrol garrisons. Between the Guangxu and Xuantong reigns they were renamed again as the Army. As late as the third year of Xuantong, patrol garrisons had not yet been fully abolished in every province. This chapter records how defense and training forces were reorganized under Tongzhi, Guangxu, and Xuantong, with the new army regulations appended.

防軍，同治元年，直隸省於大沽協標六營內選練五百人，復增至二千五百人，分為五營，營分十隊，設總統一人，翼長二人，各營管帶一人，副管帶二人，正副令官二人，帶隊官十人，分隊官二十人。沈葆楨於江西省額兵一萬二千人內，嚴汰老弱，增補精銳，分為二班，一班調至省城操練，一班留防汛地，半年換班。其赴操者，酌加練費，較募勇之費不及其半，練成即調赴前敵助戰。

Defense forces: In the first year of Tongzhi, Zhili selected five hundred men from six cooperative garrison battalions at Dagu for drill, later expanded to 2,500 organized into five battalions of ten squads each, with one overall commander, two wing officers, a commandant and two deputies per battalion, two order officers, ten squad leaders, and twenty assistant squad leaders. Shen Baozhen took Jiangxi’s quota of 12,000 troops, culled the aged and unfit, filled the ranks with picked men, and divided them into two reliefs: one drilled at the provincial capital while the other held the garrison posts, with rotation every six months. Men under drill received extra training pay amounting to less than half the cost of hired volunteers, and once trained they were sent to the front as reinforcements.

二年，劉長佑以直隸省營務積年廢弛，各營兵數多寡懸殊，號令不一，乃改仿湘軍成規，以五百人為一營，設營官、哨隊官及親兵，分別隊伍旂幟，申明號令，改設六軍，凡築營結陣諸法，一律講求。其步隊營制，設營官一人，哨官四人，哨長五人，什長四十人，正兵三百六十人，營官親兵五十人，哨官護兵四十人，營官自率中哨，凡五百人。其馬隊營制，設營官一人，幫辦二人，督隊官五人，每哨五棚，每棚什長一人，正兵九人，營官自率中哨，合夥兵、馬夫凡三百十六人。保定練軍，馬、步、守兵一千九百五十人為一軍，宣化練軍，一千四百八十人為一軍，古北口練軍，二千四百十人為一軍，大名練軍，一千二百三十四人為一軍，正定練軍，一千四百八十人為一軍，通永練軍，一千七百五十四人為一軍，共編為六軍。

In the second year Liu Changyou found Zhili’s camps long neglected, with wildly uneven strengths and confused command. He adopted the Xiang Army model: battalions of five hundred with battalion, platoon, and squad officers plus bodyguards; distinct flags and clear signals; six armies reorganized; and systematic instruction in camp layout and battle formation. The infantry battalion comprised one battalion officer, four platoon officers, five platoon chiefs, forty corporals, 360 rank-and-file, fifty bodyguards for the battalion officer, forty escorts for the platoon officers, and the battalion officer commanding the center platoon — 500 men in total. The cavalry battalion had one battalion officer, two assistants, five squad supervisors, five tents per platoon with one corporal and nine troopers each, and the battalion officer leading the center platoon — 316 men including partners and grooms. The Baoding training army numbered 1,950 cavalry, infantry, and garrison troops; Xuanhua, 1,480; Gubeikou, 2,410; Daming, 1,234; Zhengding, 1,480; and Tongyong, 1,754 — six armies in all.

五年，令遵化等處各駐防軍，每軍定為步隊二千人，馬隊五百人，在督標、提標內選取，凡一萬五千人，分為六軍，頒練兵章程十七條，隸總督節制，以防畿輔。又於六軍外續練防勇二軍。以奉天留防隊伍調補直隸練軍缺額。其訓練京營，由神機營量增兵額。是年，左宗棠以福建省綠營額冘餉薄，乃裁兵十成之四，即以裁餉加留營之兵，並營操練。

In the fifth year the garrisons at Zunhua and elsewhere were fixed at 2,000 infantry and 500 cavalry per army, drawn from the governor’s and commander’s banners — 15,000 men in six armies under seventeen articles of drill regulations, all under the governor to defend the capital approaches. Two additional defense volunteer armies were drilled beyond the six armies. Garrison units left in Fengtian were transferred to fill gaps in Zhili’s training forces. Capital garrison training was handled by augmenting the Shenjiying establishment as required. That year Zuo Zongtang found Fujian’s Green Standard rolls bloated and pay meager. He cut forty percent of the troops and applied the savings to those who remained, consolidating camps for joint drill.

六年，丁寶楨于山東省增練馬隊三千人。

In the sixth year Ding Baozhen added three thousand cavalry to Shandong’s drilled forces.

七年，以各省綠營日益孱弱，令各省以壯健練勇易之。令曾國籓經理直隸省練兵事宜，就全省綠營內抽練六千人，仿勇營規制，分地巡防。海防議起，調駐天津，分中、左、右、前、後五營，與勇營相犄角。

In the seventh year, as the Green Standard Army weakened everywhere, the provinces were ordered to replace weak troops with fit drilled volunteers. Zeng Guofan was put in charge of drilling in Zhili. Six thousand men were drawn from the provincial Green Standard rolls, organized on the volunteer model, and assigned to regional patrol. When coastal defense became urgent, they were posted to Tianjin in five battalions — center, left, right, front, and rear — to work in concert with the volunteer camps.

八年，曾國籓以軍事既竣，宜練兵不宜練勇，而勇營良法為練軍所當參用者，一、文法宜簡，一、事權宜專，一、情意宜洽。減兵增餉，汰弱留強，嚴杜頂替之弊。於原有練軍四千人外，古北口、正定、保定各練千人，統以東南戰將。練成之後，分為四軍。以二軍駐京北，二軍駐京南，俟功效既著，增練五千人。全省防營於未撤之九營外，以劉銘傳全部淮軍駐防張秋，以督標親軍砲隊營及前營副營駐天津，以親軍砲隊營駐大沽砲台，以盛字中軍六營、左軍三營，仁軍二營，馬隊五營駐馬廠、青縣，於運河西岸築砲台五座，駐盛字前軍三營、右軍三營、老左軍一營，於滄洲駐樂字中、左各一營，其盛字營兼辦屯田，以衛畿輔。是年，丁日昌以江蘇省自淮軍全部撤防以後，江蘇撫標兵僅有一千六百餘人，乃裁汰老弱，補以勇丁，分左右二營，練習洋槍及開花砲諸技。馬新貽以江南全省額兵一萬二千七百餘人，分防各處，徒有其名，必須化散為整，始能轉弱為強，乃於督標內選千人為左右營，浦口、瓜洲營內選五百人為中營，揚州、泰州營內選五百人為前營，駐省城訓練，於徐州鎮標內選千人為徐防新兵左右營，以地方之輕重，定練兵之多寡。劉錦棠以新疆全境自回民亂後，旗營零落殆盡，乃於烏魯木齊創設標兵，於天山南北路各置額兵，新疆所有駐防旗兵，歸併伊犁整頓，別以精騎重兵居中屯駐，為南北各路策應之師。崇實以四川省軍事漸定，酌裁防軍，選練旗、綠各營。

In the eighth year Zeng Guofan argued that with the wars over, the state should drill regulars rather than volunteers, while the training forces should adopt three volunteer practices: simple regulations, concentrated authority, and close rapport between officers and men. He cut rolls and raised pay, kept the strong and discharged the weak, and cracked down on men who sent substitutes. Beyond the existing 4,000 training troops, he drilled 1,000 more each at Gubeikou, Zhengding, and Baoding, placing them under generals from the southeastern campaigns. When training was complete, they were organized into four armies. Two armies were posted north of Beijing and two south; once results were clear, another 5,000 men would be trained. Beyond nine defense battalions not yet disbanded, Liu Mingchuan’s entire Huai Army held Zhangqiu; the governor’s personal artillery and a front-battalion detachment held Tianjin; personal artillery held the Dagu forts; six Sheng center battalions, three left battalions, two Ren battalions, and five cavalry units held Machang and Qingxian, with five batteries built west of the Grand Canal; three Sheng front, three right, and one old left battalion held Cangzhou; one Le center and one Le left battalion were also posted there; Sheng units ran military farms as well, all to shield the capital district. That year Ding Richang found that after the Huai Army left Jiangsu, the governor’s banner could field only about 1,600 men. He cut the unfit, filled the ranks with volunteers, formed left and right battalions, and trained them in foreign rifles and breech-loading artillery. Ma Xinyi saw Jiangnan’s 12,700 quota troops scattered in name only across countless posts. Only by concentrating them could weakness become strength. He picked 1,000 from the governor’s banner for left and right battalions, 500 from Pukou and Guazhou for a center battalion, 500 from Yangzhou and Taizhou for a front battalion, all drilled at the provincial capital, and 1,000 from the Xuzhou garrison for new left and right battalions — scaling drill to each region’s strategic weight. Liu Jintang found Xinjiang’s banner garrisons shattered after the Muslim rebellions. He created garrison troops at Urumqi, posted quota forces on both sides of the Tianshan, consolidated Xinjiang’s banner garrisons under a reorganized Yili command, and stationed elite cavalry and heavy infantry in the center to support both routes. As Sichuan quieted, Chong Shi trimmed the defense forces and selected banner and Green Standard units for drill.

九年，曾國籓於直隸省增募馬勇千人，分為四營，原有額兵，增足萬人，分練馬隊、步隊，奏定各營哨之制，及底餉、練餉、出征加餉之制，為北方重鎮。

In the ninth year Zeng Guofan raised another 1,000 cavalry volunteers in four battalions, brought Zhili’s regular rolls up to 10,000, and drilled separate cavalry and infantry commands. He memorialized battalion and platoon tables plus base pay, training pay, and campaign supplements, making Zhili the empire’s northern bastion.

十年，鮑源深以山西省撫標兵仿曾國籓直隸練兵之法，選練馬隊一營，步隊二營，以次推行各鎮。吳棠以四川全省額兵類多疲弱，乃歸併訓練，得精壯萬人。王文韶以苗疆戡定，所有湖南省留防軍三十營，分布於湖南、貴州接壤之區，又於撫標、提標內各選練精壯一營。

In the tenth year Bao Yuanshen applied Zeng Guofan’s Zhili model to Shanxi’s governor’s banner: one cavalry and two infantry battalions drilled first, then extended to every garrison. Wu Tang found most of Sichuan’s quota troops unfit, consolidated them for training, and produced 10,000 effective soldiers. After the Miao frontier was pacified, Wang Wenshao kept thirty Hunan defense battalions along the Guizhou border and drilled one elite battalion each from the governor’s and commander’s banners.

十二年，令陝甘督臣左宗棠、雲貴督臣岑毓英各選所部勇丁，以補營兵之額。是時中外臣工皆注意練兵。李宗羲謂勇與兵有主客聚散勤惰之異，未可易勇為兵。王凱泰謂各省練兵，宜令更番換防，雲、貴蕩平以後，兩省制兵亦宜換防調操，以杜久駐疲惰之漸。兵部諸臣會議，以同治初年創議練兵，京師神機營及直隸省六軍，別籌練餉，特立營制。福建、浙江、廣東、江蘇等省，皆就所減之餉加於練軍。河南、山西、山東、湖南等省，則按直隸之法，於額兵內抽練，於正餉外略加練費。甘肅省則因軍事初定，先練千五百人。但各省所抽撥之兵，不過原額十之二三。若其餘之兵，置之不問，終成疲弱。應令各省統兵大臣，已練之兵，以時休息，其未練者，次第調操，期通省額兵咸成勁旅。

In the twelfth year Zuo Zongtang in Shaanxi-Gansu and Cen Yuying in Yunnan-Guizhou were ordered to fill regular quotas with picked volunteers from their commands. Court and provincial officials alike were now focused on military drill. Li Zongxi warned that volunteers and regulars differed in status, cohesion, and discipline, and that volunteers could not simply be swapped into the regular rolls. Wang Kaitai urged rotating garrisons for drill in every province; after Yunnan and Guizhou were pacified, their regulars should rotate as well, lest long postings breed idleness. The Board of War noted that early Tongzhi drill reforms for the Shenjiying and Zhili’s six armies had separate training funds and their own camp organization. Fujian, Zhejiang, Guangdong, Jiangsu, and others applied savings from troop cuts to their training forces. Henan, Shanxi, Shandong, Hunan, and others followed Zhili by drilling men drawn from the regular rolls and adding modest training pay on top of base rations. Gansu, with fighting only just ended, began by drilling 1,500 men. Yet in each province only twenty or thirty percent of the original rolls were actually put under drill. The rest were left alone and inevitably grew slack. Provincial commanders should rotate rested drill cycles through the trained men and bring the untrained onto the drill ground in turn, until every soldier on the rolls became an effective fighter.

十三年，都興阿於奉天各城額兵內選練馬隊二千人，於各城八旗內選蘇拉千人為餘兵，俟客兵裁撤，再行增練。

In the thirteenth year Duxing’a drilled 2,000 cavalry from Fengtian’s garrison rolls and 1,000 banner sulah as reserves in each city, planning further expansion once outside troops were withdrawn.

光緒二年，崇實因奉天換防旗兵日久弊生，乃於岫岩、熊岳、大孤山、青堆子等處改設練軍。

In the second year of Guangxu, Chong Shi replaced worn-out rotating banner garrisons in Fengtian with training forces at Xiuyan, Xiongyue, Dagushan, Qingduizi, and other posts.

三年，允李慶翱之議，於河南省增設練軍步隊。

In the third year Li Qing’ao’s proposal was approved to add infantry to Henan’s training forces.

六年，令各疆臣酌量裁兵。各省防軍自裁撤後，為數尚多。直隸、陝、甘須辦邊防，雲南、貴州則防軍較少，此外各省，均應大加裁汰。水師自設兵輪船後，舊式戰船水師，亦分別去留。旋廣西撫臣慶裕以廣西省兵單餉薄，乃酌裁防軍，以所節之餉，仿直隸練兵章程，在省標、提標內各選練二營，左右江兩鎮各選練一營。岐元以奉天省自同治間馬賊四齣肆擾，先後商調客軍，增練旗、綠各營，而營制餉章未能畫一。光緒五年，乃以直隸客軍歸併奉天省，合槍砲馬步各隊，釐定營制，編為奉字中、左、右、前、後馬步隊五營，中軍增步隊一營。丁寶楨因四川省自軍興以後，川勇而外，益以湖南、貴州各軍，多至六萬餘人，事定次第裁併，至光緒三年，實存防軍一萬餘人，須分守要隘，未可再裁。貴州防軍，較他省為少，李明墀於光緒五年後，陸續裁汰四千餘人。李瀚章以湖北省防軍，若升字三營、忠義八營、武毅七營、水師七營，皆扼要駐守，不宜裁汰，就湖北通省額兵酌量裁去三千餘人。裕祿以安徽省自捻寇平後，駐防皖南、皖北各軍，凡一萬八千餘人，次第歸併訓練，實存水陸防軍萬人。

In the sixth year provincial governors were ordered to trim their establishments as they saw fit. Even after cuts, defense forces remained numerous in many provinces. Zhili, Shaanxi, and Gansu still needed frontier troops; Yunnan and Guizhou already had relatively few defense forces; all other provinces should cut deeply. Once armed steamers entered service, the old war-junk fleets were also thinned or kept as needed. Soon afterward Guangxi’s Qing Yu, finding troops few and pay thin, cut defense forces and used the savings under Zhili’s drill rules to train two battalions each from the provincial and commander’s banners and one battalion each from the Zuojiang and Youjiang garrisons. Qi Yuan noted that since Tongzhi, horse bandits had ravaged Fengtian from every direction, prompting repeated calls for outside troops and expansion of banner and Green Standard camps, yet organization and pay remained inconsistent. In the fifth year of Guangxu, Zhili’s outside detachments were absorbed into Fengtian. Rifle, artillery, cavalry, and infantry units were unified into five Feng-designated mixed battalions — center, left, right, front, and rear — with an extra infantry battalion added to the center. Ding Baozhen explained that wartime Sichuan had swelled beyond local volunteers to include Hunan and Guizhou forces totaling more than 60,000 men. After peace, cuts proceeded in stages; by the third year of Guangxu about 10,000 defense troops remained holding vital passes and could not be reduced further. Guizhou already had fewer defense troops than most provinces; after the fifth year of Guangxu Li Mingchi cut more than 4,000 in stages. Li Hanzhang argued that Hubei’s defense battalions — three Sheng units, eight Zhongyi, seven Wuyi, and seven naval — held critical posts and should stand, while about 3,000 men were cut from the provincial regular rolls instead. Yulu reported that after the Nian rebellion, Anhui’s 18,000-odd garrison troops in the south and north were gradually consolidated for training, leaving 10,000 land and river defense troops on the rolls.

七年，岑毓英因苗亂已平，貴州之屯軍、防勇，量為裁併，屯軍裁去九千人，以裁軍補額兵，酌改練軍。旋移撫福建，乃率貴州練軍二千人赴閩，教練閩省制兵。譚鍾麟以浙江省防軍於光緒六年募足三十營，旋裁去四營，以練軍十營駐溫州，海門、省垣各一營，餘皆歸守汛地。是年，以各省防軍歲餉甚鉅，令統兵大臣一律嚴核，不得有吞蝕空額諸弊。

In the seventh year Cen Yuying, with the Miao rebellion over, trimmed Guizhou’s colony troops and defense volunteers, cutting 9,000 colony soldiers, filling regular quotas with the discharged men, and reorganizing training forces. Soon transferred to Fujian, he took 2,000 Guizhou training troops with him to drill Fujian’s regulars. Tan Zhonglin raised Zhejiang’s defense force to thirty battalions in the sixth year of Guangxu, then cut four; ten training battalions held Wenzhou, one each held Haimen and the provincial capital, and the rest returned to their garrison posts. That year, with provincial defense payrolls enormous, field commanders were ordered to audit accounts strictly and root out embezzlement and ghost rolls.

八年，崇綺裁併奉天各軍，於八旗捷勝營及東邊道標兵、蒙古練勇外，所有馬步營中之南方防勇，遷地勿良，乃裁併為一營，餘悉遣歸原省。任道鎔于山東省撫標及兗、曹鎮標內抽調步兵千二百人，分為三營，加餉訓練。張曜、劉錦棠以伊犁收復，就關外營勇選練制兵，改行餉為坐糧，略更舊制，增馬隊重火器，設游擊之師，復參用屯田法，以足軍食。

In the eighth year Chong Qi consolidated Fengtian’s forces. Aside from the Jiesheng banner camp, the Eastern Frontier garrison, and Mongol drilled volunteers, southern defense volunteers in the cavalry and infantry — posted on poor land — were merged into one battalion and the rest sent home to their provinces. Ren Daorong drew 1,200 infantry from Shandong’s governor’s banner and the Yanzhou and Caozhou garrisons into three battalions with extra pay for drill. After Yili was recovered, Zhang Yao and Liu Jintang drilled regulars from frontier camps and volunteers, converted campaign pay to fixed rations, revised the old system, added cavalry and heavy weapons, created mobile strike columns, and used military farming to feed the troops.

九年，張之洞練山西省軍隊，由省標先練，掃除積習，為全省軍營模範。李鴻章裁撤直隸省防軍，除裁撤外，實存直字、榮字、義勝各營數千人，與淮軍之親兵及仁軍、盛軍、銘軍、楚軍等馬、步、水師三十九營，分防各地。岑毓英以貴州苗疆多事，原設重兵數逾三萬，積久廢弛，專恃防軍定亂，事定後，以防軍歸入制兵。雲南省制兵，凡戰兵九千餘人，守兵七千餘人，塘汛堆卡，零星散布，而巡防緝捕，專任練軍，乃以戰兵屯聚於統將駐所，隨時整飭。潘霨裁併江西省防軍，實存七千八百餘人，每哨續裁十餘人，量為省並。曾國荃綜核廣東省募兵之數，於光緒六年，張之洞曾募沙民千人守虎門，楊玉科增募千人及惠清營五百人，鄭紹忠募安勇二千人，八年，募勁勇千人駐欽州，鄧安邦續募千人，散布廣州各屬，其廣東額兵實存九千餘人。

In the ninth year Zhang Zhidong reformed Shanxi’s army, beginning with the provincial banner to break old abuses and set the pattern for every camp in the province. Li Hongzhang trimmed Zhili’s defense forces but still kept several thousand men in Zhi, Rong, and Yisheng battalions, together with thirty-nine cavalry, infantry, and naval battalions of Huai personal guards and Ren, Sheng, Ming, and Chu units posted across the province. Cen Yuying explained that Guizhou’s turbulent Miao frontier had once fielded more than 30,000 troops, but long neglect left only the defense forces effective. After pacification, those defense units were folded into the regular establishment. Yunnan’s regulars included more than 9,000 combat troops and 7,000 garrison troops scattered across posts and checkpoints, while patrol and pursuit fell to the training forces. Combat troops were therefore concentrated at headquarters for constant inspection. Pan Yi consolidated Jiangxi’s defense forces to about 7,800 men, trimming more than ten soldiers from each platoon where consolidation allowed. Zeng Guoquan tallied Guangdong’s recruitment: in the sixth year of Guangxu Zhang Zhidong raised 1,000 sand fishermen for Humen; Yang Yukuo added 1,000 men and 500 for the Huiqing camp; Zheng Shaozhong raised 2,000 An volunteers; in the eighth year 1,000 elite troops garrisoned Qinzhou; Deng Anbang raised another 1,000 posted through Guangzhou’s dependencies — while Guangdong’s regular rolls still held more than 9,000 men.

十年，奎斌裁汰山西省兩鎮兵三千餘人，挑練大同鎮馬步隊各一營，太原鎮步隊一營。

In the tenth year Kuibin cut more than 3,000 men from Shanxi’s two regional commands and drilled one mixed cavalry-infantry battalion at Datong and one infantry battalion at Taiyuan.

十一年，卞寶第裁湖南省綠營，選精壯為練軍，給以雙餉，其未足之額，以營勇補之。希元等抽撥吉林防軍左右路馬步營千五百人，又於未練之兵及八旗台站西丹內選三千人，編為吉字營，分左右二翼，修築壁壘，歸營訓練。岑毓英以雲南省沿邊之防軍一萬六千人分編三十營，於每年瘴消之際，親歷邊疆，巡視防務。卞寶第分湖南全額兵之半，加以訓練，編為巡防營。

In the eleventh year Bian Baodi cut Hunan’s Green Standard rolls, picked the fit for training forces at double pay, and filled gaps with camp volunteers. Xiyuan and others drew 1,500 men from Jilin’s left and right defense cavalry-infantry camps, selected another 3,000 from untrained troops and banner station xidan, organized them into Ji-designated left and right wings, built fortifications, and put them under camp drill. Cen Yuying organized Yunnan’s 16,000 frontier defense troops into thirty battalions and each year, when the malarial season ended, toured the border himself to inspect the garrisons. Bian Baodi put half of Hunan’s entire regular establishment under training and organized them as patrol garrisons.

十二年，劉秉璋以四川省防營漸染習氣，所有壽字、武字等十營，巡鹽五營，一律選練整飭。

In the twelfth year Liu Bingzhang found that Sichuan’s defense camps had grown slack with old abuses, and had every one of the ten Shou- and Wu-designated battalions plus five salt-patrol battalions selected, re-drilled, and brought back into order.

十三年，穆圖善整理東三省練兵事宜，每省挑練馬隊二起，步隊八營，奉天、吉林、黑龍江各足成四千五百人，以克魯伯砲六十尊，分配三省防營。剛毅裁併山西省額兵六千人，就餉練兵，撫標馬隊一旗，步隊三營，太原鎮馬隊二旗，步隊四營，大同鎮馬隊七旗，步隊二營，編列成軍，其北路則以樹字各營分地巡防。

In the thirteenth year Mutushan reorganized drilling in the Three Eastern Provinces, raising two cavalry detachments and eight infantry battalions per province so that Fengtian, Jilin, and Heilongjiang each fielded 4,500 men, and distributing sixty Krupp guns among their defense camps. Gangyi cut 6,000 men from Shanxi’s rolls and used the savings to drill new units: one provincial cavalry banner and three infantry battalions; two cavalry banners and four infantry battalions at Taiyuan; seven cavalry banners and two infantry battalions at Datong. On the northern route, Shu-designated battalions took up district patrol duties.

十四年，岑毓英就雲南省內地防軍及邊關勇營內共選練九千六百餘人，以符通省戰兵五成之數。而邊境遼闊，分防尚屬不敷，乃增練三十營，凡一萬五千四百餘人，分防騰越、蒙自各邊及大理、普洱各府。

In the fourteenth year Cen Yuying picked and drilled more than 9,600 men from Yunnan’s interior defense forces and frontier volunteer camps to meet the provincial target of keeping half the force as combat troops. The border was too wide for the existing garrisons, so thirty more battalions—more than 15,400 men—were drilled and posted along the Tengyue and Mengzi frontiers and in Dali and Pu’er.

十五年，譚鈞培更定雲南省營制。雲南防軍，於光緒二年，劉長佑挑練戰兵，以三百七十人編為一營。十年，岑毓英以督師出關，改編二百二十人為一小營，營分五哨，哨各四隊，隊各十人。十一年，合練軍各營，以半防內地，半防邊境，仍以二百人上下為一小營。凡調防八成戰兵七十七營，留防粵勇十二營，裸黑防勇六營，西南土防二十五營。乃裁汰三成，歸併整齊，以三營為一營，每營分編五哨，中哨六隊，餘各三隊，以散合整。凡戰兵二十六營，粵勇五營，裸黑勇二營，土勇十三營。

In the fifteenth year Tan Junpei overhauled Yunnan’s camp organization. Yunnan’s defense forces dated their reorganization to the second year of Guangxu, when Liu Changyou picked combat troops and formed battalions of 370 men each. In the tenth year, when Cen Yuying led the army beyond the passes, he reorganized units into small battalions of 220 men, each divided into five platoons of four ten-man squads. In the eleventh year the training force battalions were merged so that half garrisoned the interior and half the frontier, still at roughly 200 men per small battalion. The force comprised seventy-seven combat battalions at eighty percent strength for rotation, twelve retained Guangdong volunteer battalions, six Luohé frontier volunteer battalions, and twenty-five southwestern native defense battalions. Thirty percent were then cut and the remainder consolidated: three old battalions became one, each reorganized into five platoons—the center with six squads, the rest with three—turning scattered units into a coherent whole. The result was twenty-six combat battalions, five Guangdong volunteer battalions, two Luohé volunteer battalions, and thirteen native volunteer battalions.

十六年，張曜練山東省步隊一營。

In the sixteenth year Zhang Yao drilled one infantry battalion in Shandong.

十七年，福潤增練步隊左營。鹿傳霖以陝西省自經亂後，兵制未復，乃酌留馬步防軍並練軍各營，居中策應，各路馬隊，利於巡緝，乃改步隊為馬隊以節餉糈，凡防、練軍馬隊千五百人，在平原及北山扼要駐守。張煦以湖南省自湘勇回籍後，專恃防軍彈壓各路，凡防軍萬人，水勇二千四百餘人，乃歸併損益，互為聲援。

In the seventeenth year Furun added a Left Infantry Battalion to the drill program. Lu Chuanlin explained that Shaanxi’s military system had not recovered from the recent troubles, so he kept selected defense and training battalions in the center for rapid response. Because cavalry patrolled more effectively, he converted infantry to cavalry to save pay, posting 1,500 mounted defense and training troops at key points on the plains and northern hills. Zhang Xu noted that after the Xiang volunteers went home, Hunan depended entirely on 10,000 defense troops and more than 2,400 naval volunteers to hold the province; he consolidated and rebalanced them so they could support one another.

二十一年，依克唐阿編定奉天省砲兵三哨，合原有之防軍為五營，又以效力獵戶二千人編為四營。是年張之洞創練自強軍十三營於江南，器械訓練，悉仿歐洲。

In the twenty-first year Yiketanga formed three artillery platoons in Fengtian, merged them with existing defense units into five battalions, and enrolled 2,000 hunter households as four battalions. That same year Zhang Zhidong raised thirteen Self-Strengthening Army battalions in Jiangnan, equipping and training them entirely on the European model.

二十二年，張之洞練洋操隊二營於湖北。聶士成於直隸駐防淮軍內選練馬步隊三十營，仿德國營制操法，編為武毅軍。

In the twenty-second year Zhang Zhidong drilled two Western drill battalions in Hubei. Nie Shicheng picked thirty cavalry and infantry battalions from the Huai Army garrison in Zhili, trained them on the German model, and organized them as the Wu Yi Army.

二十三年，張之洞以練軍重在操演，令分防各營，以十之一更番來省，教以新操，俟練成後，轉授各營。

In the twenty-third year Zhang Zhidong argued that training forces lived or died by drill, and ordered each garrison to send one man in ten in rotation to the provincial capital for the new drill, then back to train the rest.

二十四年，王毓藻練貴州軍隊，先就省防三營改習洋操，次第推及各營。王文韶挑留直隸全省淮、練各軍二萬餘人，編為二十營，分左右翼，駐守大沽口及山海關，以練軍三十三營分防內地及熱河等處。色楞額以熱河兼轄蒙古兩盟十七旗，而馬步防兵僅有千人，乃增練壯丁五百人為一營，馬隊五百人為二營，佐以砲隊百人。增祺以福建省多山，新練防軍，宜重步隊，參以砲隊，增制過山快砲十二尊。胡聘之以東、直、秦、豫各省皆有防軍，支餉自數十萬至百萬不等，而山西省屏蔽畿疆，僅有練軍五千人，乃增練新軍，固西路之防。榮祿因北洋四大軍訓練已成，分路駐防，以武毅軍駐蘆台為前軍，甘軍駐薊州為後軍，毅軍駐山海關為左軍，新建軍駐小站為右軍，別練萬人駐南苑為中軍，軍械不足，令江南機器局撥解新式快槍三千枝，快砲七尊，原有之淮軍一萬二千人，防、練軍一萬九千人，歸併訓練。劉坤一以江南省之江寧、鎮江、吳淞、江陰、徐州五路防軍悉改習洋操，所用軍械，統歸一律。是年，令王大臣選京師神機營馬步萬人為選鋒營。令北方各省營伍，由新建軍遣員教習，南方各省營伍，由自強軍遣員教習。東三省防練各營伍，由北洋武備學堂遣人教習。

In the twenty-fourth year Wang Yuzao reformed Guizhou’s army, starting with three provincial defense battalions on Western drill and extending the change battalion by battalion. Wang Wenshao kept more than 20,000 Huai and training troops in Zhili, formed twenty left- and right-wing battalions at Dagu and Shanhaiguan, and posted thirty-three training battalions across the interior and Rehe. Seleng’e pointed out that Rehe governed two Mongol leagues and seventeen banners but had only 1,000 defense troops, so he added one 500-man infantry battalion, two 250-man cavalry battalions, and a 100-man artillery detachment. Zeng Qi argued that Fujian’s terrain called for infantry-heavy newly drilled defense forces backed by artillery, and added twelve mountain quick-firing guns. Hu Pinyi observed that eastern provinces, Zhili, Shaanxi, and Henan all maintained defense forces costing from hundreds of thousands to a million taels, while Shanxi— guarding the capital’s western flank—had only 5,000 training troops; he therefore raised a new army to secure the western approaches. Once the Northern Four Armies were trained, Ronglu posted them as the Front Army at Lutai (Wu Yi), Rear Army at Jizhou (Gan), Left Army at Shanhaiguan (Yi), and Right Army at Xiaozhan (New Army), with 10,000 more at Nanyuan as the Central Army. Short of arms, he ordered 3,000 quick-firing rifles and seven quick-firing guns from the Jiangnan Arsenal and merged the existing 12,000 Huai troops and 19,000 defense and training forces into the new program. Liu Kunyi put Jiangnan’s five defense routes—Jiangning, Zhenjiang, Wusong, Jiangyin, and Xuzhou—on Western drill and standardized their weapons throughout. That year the court ordered princes and ministers to pick 10,000 cavalry and infantry from Beijing’s Shenji Camp to form the Vanguard Camp. Northern provincial units were to be drilled by instructors from the New Army; southern units by instructors from the Self-Strengthening Army. Defense and training units in the Three Eastern Provinces were to be drilled by instructors from the Beiyang Military Academy.

二十五年，李秉衡上言奉天仁、育二軍，訓練已成，應擇地修築營壘，俾成重鎮。裕祿以直隸防、練各軍為數太多，乃挑留馬步精兵一萬八百餘人，編為練軍步隊十二營，馬隊二十營，更定營制，步隊以三百人為一營，馬隊以二百餘人為一營，凡三十二營，分為直隸練軍左右翼，以通永鎮總兵統左翼，天津鎮總兵統右翼，其新建等軍，仍與宋慶之二十五營各守原防。劉樹堂以浙江防軍雲字、吉字、勝字、旅字各營凡十一營二十三旗，並為五軍，名為兩浙新軍，用北洋武毅軍操法訓練。松壽以江西省防軍有忠新等營二千餘人，內江及贛防水師二千四百餘人，武威等營旗三千餘人，分佈各路，乃在省城設全省營務處，為訓練各軍之總匯。劉坤一以江南各軍歸併為三十七營，加以新法教練，漸有成效。文興以盛京八旗制兵，汰弱留強，仿北洋練軍新法教練。裕祥就四川駐防旗兵內選精銳為一營，陣法營制，與防軍一式。松壽以江西省新練防軍三千人，撥解南北洋新式槍砲，以資操練。黃槐森選廣西省各軍，先就省標、提標及左右江各營挑練一千四百人，為各軍模範。廖壽豐以浙江省寧波、鎮海各營次第改習洋操，省防各軍先練步隊三哨，砲隊一哨，凡標營及防、練軍，俟四哨教成，更番改練，推及全省。

In the twenty-fifth year Li Bingheng reported that Fengtian’s Ren and Yu armies were fully trained and urged that fortifications be built at chosen sites to turn them into major garrisons. Yulu found Zhili’s defense and training forces too large, kept 10,800 picked cavalry and infantry, and reorganized them into twelve infantry battalions of 300 men and twenty cavalry battalions of roughly 200—thirty-two battalions under left and right Zhili training wings commanded from Tongzhou-Yongding and Tianjin. The New Army and Song Qing’s twenty-five battalions remained at their old posts. Liu Shutang consolidated Zhejiang’s eleven Yun-, Ji-, Sheng-, and Lü-designated battalions and twenty-three banners into five armies called the Liang-Zhe New Army, drilled on the Beiyang Wu Yi model. Song Shou counted more than 2,000 men in Jiangxi’s Zhongxin and related defense battalions, 2,400 river-defense sailors on the Neijiang and Gan, and 3,000 in Wuwei and allied units scattered across the province, and set up a provincial camp affairs office in the capital to coordinate their training. Liu Kunyi consolidated Jiangnan’s forces into thirty-seven battalions, put them on the new drill, and began to see steady improvement. Wen Xing trimmed Mukden’s banner regulars to the fit and drilled them on the Beiyang training-force model. Yu Xiang picked an elite battalion from Sichuan’s garrison banner troops, using the same formations and organization as the defense forces. Song Shou armed Jiangxi’s 3,000 newly drilled defense troops with modern rifles and guns from the northern and southern arsenals for training. Huang Huaisen began reforming Guangxi’s forces by drilling 1,400 men from the provincial and command banners and Left and Right River battalions as a model for the rest. Liao Shoufeng put Ningbo and Zhenhai on Western drill first, then trained three infantry platoons and one artillery platoon as a provincial model; banner, defense, and training units would rotate through those four platoons until the whole province was converted.

二十六年，端方以陝西新練洋操之馬步十三旗，分防南北山隘。是年，令各省疆臣嚴定將弁貪墨之刑，並整理浙江省防營積弊。

In the twenty-sixth year Duanfang posted Shaanxi’s thirteen newly drilled Western-drill cavalry and infantry banners at mountain passes north and south. That year the court ordered governors to crack down on corrupt officers and clean up long-standing abuses in Zhejiang’s defense camps.

二十七年，李興銳以江西防軍人數不一，乃分為五路，釐定人數，以中軍為常備軍，前、後、左、右軍為續備軍，軍各五營，營各五哨。劉坤一以江南武衛先鋒軍、江勝軍各二千人為常備左右軍，其餘防軍四十餘營悉編為續備軍。岑春煊以山西省兵制紛歧，有練軍、防軍、晉威軍之判，乃仿北洋武衛軍制，以省標三千人分左右翼為常備軍，以太原、大同二鎮兵共練三千人為續備軍。魏光燾以雲南省防軍二十四營，營各二百五十人，改編為常備軍十二營，營各三百人，舊有練軍改為續備軍，均練習洋操。丁振鐸於廣西省防軍三營內選千人為常備軍，各屬防軍，就人數多寡，練一、二隊不等。鄧華熙以貴州防軍及威遠營並練五營，凡千五百人，為常備軍，東西路練軍及緝捕營共二十九營，選練五千七百人，為續備軍，分防各隘。是年，設軍政司於天津，總司直隸省淮、練各防軍操防事宜。

In the twenty-seventh year Li Xingrui standardized Jiangxi’s uneven defense rolls by dividing them into five routes: a Central standing force and Front, Rear, Left, and Right reserve forces of five battalions and five platoons each. Liu Kunyi designated the 2,000-man Wuwei Vanguard and Jiangsheng armies as left and right standing forces and folded the remaining forty-plus defense battalions into the reserve. Cen Chunxuan found Shanxi’s forces split among training troops, defense troops, and the Jinwei Army, and modeled a new scheme on the Beiyang Wuwei system: 3,000 provincial banner troops as left and right standing forces and 3,000 drilled men from Taiyuan and Datong as reserves. Wei Guangtao converted Yunnan’s twenty-four 250-man defense battalions into twelve 300-man standing battalions, turned the old training forces into reserves, and put all on Western drill. Ding Zhenduo picked 1,000 men from Guangxi’s three defense battalions as standing forces, with each subordinate unit drilling one or two squads according to its size. Deng Huaxi formed a 1,500-man standing force from Guizhou’s defense troops, the Weiyuan camp, and five drilled battalions, and a 5,700-man reserve from twenty-nine eastern and western training and pursuit battalions posted at the passes. That year a Military Administration Bureau was set up at Tianjin to supervise drill and garrison duties for all Huai, training, and defense forces in Zhili.

二十八年，升允以陝西省新舊各軍均已改習洋操，乃選精銳六旗為常備新軍，其忠靖八旗兩翼步隊，武威兩翼馬隊，改為步隊十二旗，以六旗為續備防軍，六旗為續備長軍，防軍有地方之責，長軍為開荒之需，以馬隊砲隊佐之。

In the twenty-eighth year Sheng Yun, with all Shaanxi’s old and new units on Western drill, picked six elite banners as a standing new army and reorganized the Zhongjing banner infantry and Wuwei cavalry into twelve infantry banners—six as reserve defense troops for local duty and six as reserve Chang troops for frontier reclamation, backed by cavalry and artillery.

二十九年，夏時以江西省新軍僅有千二百人，江防重要，殊苦不足，九江為全省門戶，乃別募一軍，亦為常備軍，合中、前常備兩軍共十營，專防省城及九江二處，以左、右、後續備三軍分防各地。

In the twenty-ninth year Xia Shi found Jiangxi’s 1,200-man new army too small for vital river defense, and since Jiujiang guarded the provincial gateway he raised another standing army. With the Central and Front standing forces, ten battalions now held the capital and Jiujiang while Left, Right, and Rear reserves covered the rest of the province.

三十年，曹鴻勛以貴州各軍於光緒二十六年改編為常備軍、續備軍，共二十四營，嗣因沿邊戒嚴，增募防勇十九營，而籌餉艱難，遂每營酌減人數，凡防、練軍及親兵減存一萬五百餘人，次第改習洋操。潘效蘇於新疆標、防、巡、練各軍三萬二千餘人內，選存正勇一萬三千餘人，於南北各路勺配分防。

In the thirtieth year Cao Hongxun reported that Guizhou’s twenty-four standing and reserve battalions of 1900 had swelled by nineteen frontier volunteer battalions during border alerts, but pay was tight so each unit was trimmed until defense, training, and personal guards totaled just over 10,500 men, who were then put on Western drill one by one. Pan Xiaosu cut Xinjiang’s 32,000 banner, defense, patrol, and training troops to 13,000 picked regulars and distributed them proportionally along the northern and southern routes.

三十一年，練兵處王大臣以山東省武衛先鋒隊二十營分防散漫，令擇地屯駐，增募成鎮。是年，命鐵良校閱江蘇、安徽、江西、湖北各省防軍、練軍、陸軍、旗兵、巡警兵。鐵良遍閱各軍，大都軍械不一，操法亦未盡嫺，舊營改練，進步甚遲。惟安徽練軍二隊，九江常備五營，湖北二鎮，較為生色。

In the thirty-first year the Army Training Office found Shandong’s twenty Wuwei Vanguard battalions too scattered and ordered them concentrated at chosen posts and expanded into a full brigade. That year Tie Liang was sent to inspect defense forces, training forces, Army units, banner troops, and constabulary in Jiangsu, Anhui, Jiangxi, and Hubei. Tie Liang toured every unit and found weapons still mixed, drill uneven, and converted old camps advancing painfully slowly. Only Anhui’s two training squads, Jiujiang’s five standing battalions, and Hubei’s two regional commands looked noticeably better.

三十三年，張之洞以沿江督捕營、下游緝匪營改編為水陸巡緝隊。王士珍以江北巡防隊改為步隊六營，馬隊二營，其餘淮海水師、練軍衛隊，悉仍其舊。錫良以雲南防軍二十七營，鐵路巡防十一營，土勇一營，凡三十九營，次第改編新軍，以全省防軍每營二百五十人為定額，分南防、西防、普防、江防、鐵路巡防為五路，凡四十七營。

In the thirty-third year Zhang Zhidong converted the river-bank pursuit camps and downstream bandit-suppression camps into a combined land-and-water patrol corps. Wang Shizhen converted northern Jiangsu’s patrol garrisons into six infantry and two cavalry battalions while leaving the Huai-Hai naval force and training guards unchanged. Xi Liang gradually converted Yunnan’s thirty-nine defense, railway patrol, and native volunteer battalions into the new army, fixing defense battalions at 250 men each and organizing forty-seven battalions across five routes: south, west, Pu’er, river, and railway patrol.

宣統元年，以熱河巡防強勝營改編常備軍，以察哈爾原有之精壯、精健等營改編為巡防馬隊一營，步隊二營。徐世昌以奉天巡防隊分駐五路剿匪，旋合編為步隊一標，其河防營亦一律改編。王士珍因江南防軍步隊六營、砲隊二營改隸江北，乃合原有之巡防隊及留防各營編為巡防第七營，共巡防步隊八營，以備練成一鎮，原有衛隊，增募一哨，編為一營，尚有練軍三百人，水師十棚，均改為巡防隊。沈秉堃以雲南防軍內有各屬之保衛隊，系舊日團營，名為營隊，實即鄉團，未能遽改為巡防隊。廣福以伊犁軍標漢隊，系金順西征營勇之舊，其營制餉章，均仿湘軍，乃遵新章，以步隊一營、馬隊二旗為左路巡防隊，馬隊二旗為右路巡防隊，分駐惠遠、惠寧各城。袁樹勛以山東省原駐淮軍，於光緒二十四年移防長江，新增防兵二營駐兗、沂二府及德州，均當南北要道，未能遽裁。聯魁以新疆籌餉維艱，就原有防營改編為步隊三營、馬隊二營，又增編工程兵一隊，馬隊一營，勉成一協。寶棻以山西省軍隊，向分太原、大同、口外三大支巡防隊，乃歸併分編為中、前、後三路，各以統領節制之，凡馬步二十二隊。吳重熹以河南省巡防營不合部章，就通省巡防步隊二十八營、馬隊十二營分為五路，豫正左軍為中路，南陽鎮為前路，歸德鎮為左路，河州鎮為右路，豫正右軍為後路。趙爾巽以四川省防軍二十九營，編為六軍，每軍六營，分中、前、後、左、右、副中為六路，分駐防境。其防守寧遠之靖字二營、游擊步隊二營，增募寧遠之靖字後營，改為巡防副左路、副右路兩軍，每三營為一軍。成都駐防滿營亦改編巡防隊三營，俾臻一律。瑞澂以江蘇省各營練成一協外，尚有太湖水師巡防隊、陸師左右巡防隊，系陸路三旗及蘇捕營衛隊等先後改編者，乃次第換防調操，以免弛懈。

In the first year of Xuantong Rehe’s Qiangsheng patrol battalion became standing forces, and Chahar’s Jingzhuang and Jingjian battalions were reorganized into one patrol cavalry battalion and two infantry battalions. Xu Shichang posted Fengtian’s patrol garrisons on five bandit-suppression routes, then merged them into one infantry regiment and reorganized the river-defense camps on the same model. When six Jiangnan infantry and two artillery battalions moved to northern Jiangsu, Wang Shizhen merged the remaining patrol and garrison units into eight patrol infantry battalions—including a new Seventh Battalion—aiming at a full brigade; he expanded the guard into a battalion and converted 300 training troops and ten naval sheds into patrol garrisons. Shen Bingkun explained that Yunnan’s subordinate “guard units” were really old local militia still called battalions, and could not yet be turned into formal patrol garrisons. Guang Fu explained that the Han companies of the Ili banner descended from Jin Shun’s western expedition volunteers on the Xiang Army model; under the new rules he formed a Left Route patrol garrison of one infantry battalion and two cavalry banners and a Right Route patrol garrison of two cavalry banners, posted at Huiyuan and Huining. Yuan Shuxun reported that Shandong’s Huai garrison had moved to the Yangtze in 1898, leaving two new defense battalions at Yanzhou, Yizhou, and Dezhou on vital north-south lines that could not yet be disbanded. Lian Kui, with Xinjiang’s finances stretched thin, reorganized existing defense camps into three infantry and two cavalry battalions, added an engineering squad and another cavalry battalion, and barely scraped together one brigade. Bao Fen consolidated Shanxi’s three old patrol branches at Taiyuan, Datong, and beyond the passes into Central, Front, and Rear routes under single commanders—twenty-two cavalry and infantry squads in all. Wu Zhongxi found Henan’s patrol garrisons out of compliance and reorganized the province’s twenty-eight infantry and twelve cavalry patrol battalions into five routes: Central (Yuzheng Left), Front (Nanyang), Left (Guide), Right (Hezhou), and Rear (Yuzheng Right). Zhao Erxun formed Sichuan’s twenty-nine defense battalions into six six-battalion armies on Central, Front, Rear, Left, Right, and Deputy Central routes posted across the province. The two Jing-designated battalions, two detached infantry battalions, and a newly raised Jing Rear battalion at Ningyuan became Deputy Left and Deputy Right patrol armies of three battalions each. Chengdu’s Manchu garrison was likewise reorganized into three patrol battalions for uniformity. Rui Cheng, beyond forming one brigade from Jiangsu’s battalions, also had Taihu naval patrol units and left and right land patrol forces converted from land banners and Suzhou pursuit guards; he rotated posts and drills to keep them from going slack.

二年，岑春蓂改編湖南省巡防隊，酌定餉章，即日成軍，其餘緝私三旗，改為南路巡防隊。孫寶琦改編山東省巡防隊，所有中、前、後、左、右五路，各就坐營之中哨改編，其砲隊以快砲六尊為一隊，各府州縣巡勇悉改為巡防隊，兗、沂、曹三府原有之巡防營，亦遵新章編練。恩壽以陝西省巡警軍悉改為巡防隊。楊文鼎以湖南省巡防隊分為中、東、西、南四路，駐防各府。昆源以察哈爾八旗壯丁編練巡防馬隊。松壽以裁撤福建全省之綠營兵改為巡防隊十六營，分五路駐防各府。張人駿以兩江巡緝隊及師船十艘改為探訪隊，其沿江巡防隊深資得力，以協解北洋之淮軍餉為巡防軍餉，並以江防軍分駐江寧省城。錫良以奉天原有之協巡隊、備補隊、砲隊、衛隊各防營，遵章改編為陸軍步隊一標、砲隊一營。是年，山東、山西撫臣咸擬緩裁巡防軍，以靖地方。

In the second year Cen Chunming reorganized Hunan’s patrol garrisons, set their pay scale, and stood them up at once; three anti-smuggling banners became the Southern Route patrol garrison. Sun Baoqi reorganized Shandong’s five patrol routes from each camp’s center platoon, formed artillery squads of six quick-firing guns, converted every county patrol volunteer unit into patrol garrisons, and brought Yanzhou, Yizhou, and Caozhou’s old patrol camps under the new drill scheme. En Shou converted all of Shaanxi’s constabulary troops into patrol garrisons. Yang Wending split Hunan’s patrol garrisons into Central, Eastern, Western, and Southern routes posted across the prefectures. Kunyuan recruited and drilled Chahar banner militia into patrol cavalry. Song Shou turned Fujian’s disbanded Green Standard troops into sixteen patrol battalions on five routes across the prefectures. Zhang Renjun turned the Two Jiangs patrol corps and ten command vessels into an investigation corps, funded patrol garrisons from coordinated Huai Army pay from Beiyang, and posted river-defense troops in the Jiangning capital. Xi Liang reorganized Fengtian’s auxiliary patrol, reserve, artillery, and guard camps into one Army infantry regiment and one artillery battalion. That year the governors of Shandong and Shanxi both urged postponing cuts to patrol garrisons to keep the peace locally.

三年，張人駿以兩江巡防軍關係重要，其屬於江寧者，馬步三十二營，屬於江蘇者，步隊六營，屬於江北者，步隊八營一哨、馬隊一營，江南北地勢扼要，未可議裁，並擬以新兵中副二營留防三隊改為第一、二、三巡防隊，以一哨為提督衛隊。丁寶銓以山西太原滿營，於光緒二十八年已改練新操，乃遵章改編為巡防隊。恩壽以陝西省巡警軍已改編巡防隊，並設馬步巡防營務處。慶恕以青海墾荒，已開墾六萬餘畝，原有巡防隊不敷分佈，增練防軍一旗。誠勛以熱河雖有直隸練軍八營，僅防朝、建一帶，其先後所練巡防隊十三營，分防各屬，未能遽改陸軍。張勳以長江巡防馬、步、砲隊十三營，分駐浦口、六合、江寧、蘇州、懷遠各府縣，並在沿江一帶廣布偵探，以靖盜源。瑞澂以湖南六營已裁，所有撫標之兵，選精壯編巡防一營。此改設防練軍之大略也。

In the third year Zhang Renjun argued that Two Jiangs patrol forces were too important to cut: thirty-two cavalry and infantry battalions at Jiangning, six infantry battalions in Jiangsu, and eight infantry battalions, one platoon, and one cavalry battalion in northern Jiangsu guarded terrain too vital to reduce. He proposed forming three patrol units from retained new-army squads and one platoon as the provincial commander’s guard. Ding Baoquan reported that Taiyuan’s Manchu garrison, on the new drill since 1902, was reorganized as a patrol garrison under the regulations. En Shou reported that Shaanxi’s constabulary had become patrol garrisons and that a joint cavalry-infantry patrol affairs office had been set up. Qing Shu reported that with more than 60,000 mu reclaimed in Qinghai, existing patrol garrisons could not cover the ground, so one defense banner was added. Cheng Xun explained that Rehe’s eight Zhili training battalions covered only Chaoyang and Jianping, and its thirteen newly drilled patrol battalions scattered across the prefecture could not yet become formal Army units. Zhang Xun posted thirteen Yangtze patrol cavalry, infantry, and artillery battalions at Pukou, Luhe, Jiangning, Suzhou, Huaiyuan, and other counties and spread scouts along the river to choke off bandit networks. Rui Cheng reported that after six Hunan battalions were disbanded, picked men from the provincial banner force were formed into one patrol battalion. Such was the broad pattern of reorganizing defense and training forces.

自咸豐軍興，由綠營改為勇營，為留防營，為練軍，為巡防隊，為陸軍，兵制變而益新。至宣統年，非特綠營盡汰，即湘、淮營勇駐防南北洋者，所存亦無幾矣。

From the Xianfeng wars onward, forces evolved from Green Standard troops to volunteer camps, retained defense camps, training forces, patrol garrisons, and finally the Army—the military system renewing itself at each stage. By the Xuantong era the Green Standard was gone altogether, and the Xiang and Huai volunteers once posted on the northern and southern coasts had nearly vanished as well.

陸軍新制，始於甲午戰後，步軍統領榮祿疏保溫處道袁世凱練新軍，是曰新建陸軍。復練兵小站，名曰定武軍。兩江總督張之洞聘德人教練新軍，名曰江南自強軍。其後榮祿以兵部尚書協辦大學士節制北洋海陸各軍，益練新軍，是為武衛軍。

The modern Army system began after the Sino-Japanese War, when Infantry Commander Ronglu recommended Wenzhou circuit intendant Yuan Shikai to raise a new force—the Newly Created Army. Yuan also drilled troops at Xiaozhan in what became the Dingwu Army. Two Jiangs Governor-General Zhang Zhidong hired German instructors to raise the Jiangnan Self-Strengthening Army. Later, as Minister of War and Associate Grand Secretary commanding all Beiyang land and sea forces, Ronglu expanded the new armies into the Wuwei Army.

庚子亂後，各省皆起練新軍，或就防軍改編，或用新式招練。至光緒三十年，畫定軍制，京師設練兵處，各省設督練公所，改定新軍區為三十六鎮，新軍制始畫一。

After the Boxer upheaval of 1900 every province set about raising new armies, either by converting defense forces or by fresh recruitment on the new model. By 1904 the system was codified: Beijing got an Army Training Office, each province a training supervision office, and the new army was divided into thirty-six brigades—finally bringing the new force under one standard.

三十三年，京、外新練陸軍，除禁衛軍外，統計近畿第一鎮駐京北仰山窪，官七百四十八員，兵一萬一千七百六十四名。第六鎮駐南苑，官七百四十七員，兵一萬一千八百四十六名。直隸第二鎮駐保定、永平等府，官七百三十七員，兵一萬一千七百三十一名。第四鎮駐馬廠，官七百四十八員，兵一萬一千七百五十六名。山東第五鎮駐省城、濰縣、昌邑等處，官七百四十八員，兵一萬一千七百六十四名。江蘇第二十三混成協駐蘇州等處，官二百七十四員，兵四千三百四十五名。江北第十三混成協駐清江浦，官三百七十六員，兵二千四百八十一名。安徽步隊二標、馬隊一營、砲隊一隊駐省城，官二百五十三員，兵四千一百五十五名。江南第九鎮步隊一營、馬隊二隊駐省城，官七百八十九員，兵八千二百五十五名。江西步隊一協、馬隊二隊駐省城，官二百三十一員，兵四千二百八十七名。河南第二十九混成協駐省城，官三百三十八員，兵五千六百十八名，步隊一協、馬砲隊各一營調駐京城，官一百六十二員，兵三千八十五名。湖南步隊一協、砲隊一營駐省城，官二百四十八員，兵四千五十六名。湖北第八鎮駐省城，官七百二員，兵一萬五百二名，第二十一混成協駐武昌、漢陽及京漢鐵路，官二百八十八員，兵四千六百十二名。浙江步隊一協駐省城，官一百五十九員，兵二千三百八十四名。福建第十鎮駐省城及福寧、延平等處，官四百五十五員，兵六千七百八十八名。雲南步隊一協、砲隊一營駐省城及臨安，官二百三十八員，兵四千二百四十八名。貴州步隊一標、砲隊一隊駐省城，官一百七員，兵一千八百四十六名。四川步隊駐省城，官十二員，兵六十一名。山西步隊二標、馬砲隊各一營駐省城，官二百六十二員，兵四千五百五十七名。陝西步隊一協、砲隊一隊駐省城，官二百二十員，兵三千九百三十六名。甘肅步隊二標、砲隊一營駐省城、河州、固原、西寧，官二百二十一員，兵四千一百二十八名。新疆步隊一協、馬隊一標、砲隊一營駐省城，官一百六十七員，兵二千三百二十二名。東三省第三鎮駐吉林省城、長春、寧安、延吉及奉天錦州等處，官七百五十三員，兵一萬一千八百八十三名，第一混成協駐奉天省城，官三百三員，兵三千五十九名，第二混成協駐奉天新民等處，官三百四員，兵五千五十三名，步隊一協一標、砲隊一營駐吉林，官三百六十一員，兵七千八百七十名。宣統三年統計，除前列外，浙江成第二十一鎮，雲南成第十九鎮，四川成第十七鎮，奉天成第二十鎮，吉林成第二十三鎮，廣東成第二十六鎮駐省城，廣西成第二十五鎮駐省城及桂林等處，先後共成二十六鎮。未幾，武昌陸軍先變，各省應之，而三十六鎮卒未全立雲。

In 1907, counting newly drilled Army units in the capital and provinces apart from the Imperial Guard, the First Brigade of the metropolitan region alone—garrisoned at Yangshanwa north of Beijing—numbered 748 officers and 11,764 soldiers. The Sixth Brigade was posted at Nanyuan with 747 officers and 11,846 soldiers. Zhili’s Second Brigade held Baoding, Yongping, and neighboring prefectures with 737 officers and 11,731 soldiers. The Fourth Brigade was stationed at Machang with 748 officers and 11,756 soldiers. Shandong’s Fifth Brigade was distributed across the provincial capital, Weixian, Changyi, and other posts with 748 officers and 11,764 soldiers. Jiangsu’s Twenty-third Mixed Brigade held Suzhou and nearby posts with 274 officers and 4,345 soldiers. Northern Jiangsu’s Thirteenth Mixed Brigade was posted at Qingjiangpu with 376 officers and 2,481 soldiers. Anhui kept two infantry regiments, one cavalry battalion, and one artillery squad at the provincial capital—253 officers and 4,155 soldiers in all. Jiangnan’s Ninth Brigade, with one infantry battalion and two cavalry squads at the provincial capital, fielded 789 officers and 8,255 soldiers. Jiangxi posted one infantry brigade and two cavalry squads at the provincial capital—231 officers and 4,287 soldiers. Henan’s Twenty-ninth Mixed Brigade at the provincial capital had 338 officers and 5,618 soldiers; an infantry brigade plus cavalry and artillery battalions were also detached to the capital with 162 officers and 3,085 men. Hunan kept one infantry brigade and one artillery battalion at the provincial capital—248 officers and 4,056 soldiers. Hubei’s Eighth Brigade at the provincial capital numbered 702 officers and 10,502 soldiers; the Twenty-first Mixed Brigade held Wuchang, Hanyang, and the Beijing-Hankou line with 288 officers and 4,612 men. Zhejiang posted one infantry brigade at the provincial capital with 159 officers and 2,384 soldiers. Fujian’s Tenth Brigade covered the provincial capital, Funing, Yanping, and other posts with 455 officers and 6,788 soldiers. Yunnan kept one infantry brigade and one artillery battalion at the provincial capital and Lin’an—238 officers and 4,248 soldiers. Guizhou fielded one infantry regiment and one artillery squad at the provincial capital—107 officers and 1,846 soldiers. Sichuan’s infantry detachment at the provincial capital mustered only twelve officers and sixty-one soldiers. Shanxi kept two infantry regiments plus cavalry and artillery battalions at the provincial capital—262 officers and 4,557 soldiers. Shaanxi posted one infantry brigade and one artillery squad at the provincial capital with 220 officers and 3,936 soldiers. Gansu distributed two infantry regiments and an artillery battalion across the provincial capital, Hezhou, Guyuan, and Xining—221 officers and 4,128 soldiers. Xinjiang kept one infantry brigade, one cavalry regiment, and one artillery battalion at the provincial capital—167 officers and 2,322 soldiers. The Northeast’s Third Brigade held Jilin city, Changchun, Ning’an, Yanji, Jinzhou, and other posts with 753 officers and 11,883 soldiers. The First Mixed Brigade at Fengtian’s capital had 303 officers and 3,059 men; the Second Mixed Brigade at Xinmin and elsewhere had 304 officers and 5,053 men; and Jilin hosted an infantry brigade and regiment plus an artillery battalion with 361 officers and 7,870 soldiers. By the third year of Xuantong, beyond the units already listed, Zhejiang became the Twenty-first Brigade, Yunnan the Nineteenth, Sichuan the Seventeenth, Fengtian the Twentieth, Jilin the Twenty-third, Guangdong the Twenty-sixth at the provincial capital, and Guangxi the Twenty-fifth at the capital and Guilin—twenty-six brigades in all, formed one after another. Soon afterward the Wuchang garrison rose first, the provinces followed, and the planned thirty-six brigades were never fully realized.

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