Volume 137 Treatises 112: Military 8, Frontier Defense

志一百十二

Treatise 112.

兵八

Military 8.

邊防

Frontier Defense.

中國邊防，東則三省，北則蒙邊，西則新、甘、川、藏，南則粵、湘、滇、黔，而沿邊台卡，亦內外兼顧，蓋邊防與國防並重焉。茲分述之：曰東三省，曰甘肅，曰四川，曰雲南，曰廣東，曰廣西，曰蒙古，附直隸、山西，蒙邊防務，曰新疆，曰西藏，曰苗疆，曰沿邊墩台、卡倫、鄂博、碉堡。

China's frontier defenses lay to the east in the Three Eastern Provinces, to the north along the Mongolian borderlands, to the west in Xinjiang, Gansu, Sichuan, and Tibet, and to the south in Guangdong, Hunan, Yunnan, and Guizhou. Border watch-stations and passes were likewise arranged to guard both the interior and the marches, for frontier defense and national defense were held in equal regard. They are described in turn below: the Three Eastern Provinces; Gansu; Sichuan; Yunnan; Guangdong; Guangxi; Mongolia, with Zhili and Shanxi included under Mongol border affairs; Xinjiang; Tibet; the Miao frontier; and border beacon towers, karun posts, obos, and blockhouses.

東三省為陪都重地，曰奉天，曰吉林，曰黑龍江，東連日、韓，北連俄羅斯，邊防尤要。

The Three Eastern Provinces formed the vital region of the secondary capital, comprising Fengtian, Jilin, and Heilongjiang. They bordered Japan and Korea to the east and Russia to the north, and their frontier defenses were of the first importance.

奉天當康熙元年，廷臣建議，自興京至山海關，東西千餘里，自開原至金州，南北千餘里，有河東西之分：河東自開原至牛庄，河西自山海關歷松杏山、大凌河，為明季邊防之地，戶口寥落，請預籌實邊。嗣後休養生聚，城鎮日繁。凡大城十四，邊門二十餘。至同治間，邊界漸廣。將軍都興阿以鳳、靉二邊門外之地，自靉陽門外八里甸子東至兩江匯口，轉西南至海沿而下，直至貢道北老邊牆，南路經孤頂子等岡，由西南至舊邊小黑山，均展拓為邊界。此外若大東溝江海相連之處，一律查勘，以綏籓服。尋以地方遼闊，增調防軍。其防軍之外，尤以練軍為重。光緒二年，崇實以金州、大東溝等處，旗兵不足，增練步隊分防。十一年，王大臣等會議，奉天界接朝鮮，舊以遼陽迤東鳳凰城等四城為要地。今則水路趨重大連灣、旅順口，陸路自同治間開墾荒地以後，耕廛比櫛，直抵鴨綠江西岸。額設防兵二萬二千餘人，新設練軍及緝捕勇丁一萬三千餘人，而練習新式槍砲者不及半數，宜加練大支勁旅，扼要屯駐。宣統元年，以延吉廳一帶為交涉要地，令奉省疆吏調遣軍隊，分配憲兵，建築營房。新設之長白廳，開山通道，駐兵建署。鴨綠江上游之防務，亦次第籌備。蓋自日據朝鮮，與奉、吉接壤，東邊防務，日益亟矣。

In Fengtian, as early as the first year of the Kangxi reign, court ministers urged that from Xingjing to Shanhaiguan stretched more than a thousand li east to west, and from Kaiyuan to Jinzhou more than a thousand li north to south. The region was divided by the river: east of the river from Kaiyuan to Niuzhuang, and west of the river from Shanhaiguan through Songxing Mountain and the Daling River—lands that had served as Ming frontier defenses but were now thinly settled. They called for advance measures to strengthen the border in earnest. Thereafter, as the people recovered and multiplied, towns and markets grew steadily denser. In all there were fourteen major cities and more than twenty border gates. By the Tongzhi era the frontier had gradually expanded. General Duxing'a extended the boundary to include the territory beyond the Feng and Ai border gates—from Balidianzi east of Aiyang Gate to the confluence of the two rivers, then southwest along the coast to the old border wall north of the tribute route, and southward over hills such as Gudingzi to the old frontier at Xiaoheishan. Elsewhere, at points such as Dadonggou where river and sea met, surveys were carried out everywhere to secure the allegiance of frontier peoples. Soon afterward, because the region was so vast, additional frontier garrisons were posted. Apart from the regular frontier garrisons, drilled troops were regarded as especially important. In the second year of Guangxu, Chongshi found the Banner forces inadequate at Jinzhou, Dadonggou, and other points, and added drilled infantry companies for local defense. In the eleventh year of Guangxu, princes and ministers met in council. Fengtian bordered Korea, and the four cities from Liaoyang eastward, including Fenghuangcheng, had long been treated as vital points. By sea the focus had shifted to Dalian Bay and Port Arthur; by land, since wasteland was opened in the Tongzhi era, farms and hamlets stood shoulder to shoulder all the way to the west bank of the Yalu. Established frontier troops numbered more than twenty-two thousand, with newly formed drilled armies and pursuit levies adding another thirteen thousand, yet fewer than half were trained in modern firearms and artillery. A large, well-drilled force should be raised and posted at the decisive points. In the first year of Xuantong, because the Yanji subprefecture district was a critical zone for diplomatic dealings, Fengtian authorities were ordered to deploy troops, assign gendarmes, and erect barracks. At the newly established Changbai subprefecture, roads were cut through the mountains, troops were stationed, and government offices were built. Defenses along the upper Yalu were likewise prepared step by step. Once Japan had taken Korea and stood adjacent to Fengtian and Jilin, the defense of the eastern marches grew more pressing with every year.

吉林凡大城八，邊門四。其防務至重者，一為琿春，與俄羅斯偪壤，兼接朝鮮，曠無障阻。一為三姓，乃松花江之上游，伯都訥腹地之屏蔽。其三岔口，可由蒙古草地達奉天法庫邊門。光緒初年，就未練之兵及八旗台站西丹內，選精壯者，練馬步四營。七年，吳大澂始於吉林創設機器局，製造軍械，並於扼要處建築砲台。以陸路轉運維艱，協商直隸督臣李鴻章，派員及熟手工匠至吉林開廠。俟廠局告成，再於寧古塔、琿春等處增築砲台。十一年，增練馬隊步隊共六營，足四千五百人之數，隸左右翼統率訓練。吉林額設防兵及烏拉牲丁，凡一萬五千餘人，內靖萑苻，外支強敵，時虞不給雲。

Jilin had eight major cities and four border gates. Its most critical defenses were, first, Hunchun, pressed against Russian territory and adjoining Korea as well, with open country and no natural barrier. Second was Sanxing, on the upper Songhua, shielding the heartland of Boduna. Third was Sanchakou, from which one could reach Fengtian's Faku border gate across the Mongolian steppe. In the early Guangxu years, picked men from untrained troops and from Banner relay-station xidan were formed into four drilled horse and foot battalions. In the seventh year, Wu Dacheng established an arsenal in Jilin to manufacture arms and built batteries at strategic points. Because overland transport was difficult, he arranged with Zhili Governor-General Li Hongzhang to send officials and skilled artisans to open the factory in Jilin. Once the factory was finished, additional batteries were to be built at Ningguta, Hunchun, and other points. In the eleventh year, six more drilled horse and foot battalions were added, four thousand five hundred men in all, placed under left- and right-wing command for training. Jilin's established frontier troops and ura labor levies totaled more than fifteen thousand—barely enough, it was feared, to keep order within and hold off powerful enemies without.

黑龍江凡大城六，新舊卡倫七十一。中、俄接界，向以尼布楚與恰克圖為重地，故斥堠之設，多在北徼。舊制於歲之五、六月間，齊齊哈爾、墨爾根、黑龍江三處疆吏，各遣協領、佐領等官，率兵分三路，至格爾畢齊、額爾古訥、墨里勒克、楚爾海圖等處巡視，歲終具疏以聞。康熙二十三年，始設將軍以下各官以鎮守之。凡前鋒、領催、馬甲、匠役、養育兵，咸歸統率，額設之兵，一萬三千餘人。光緒元年，以正兵六千人，西丹四千人，合練步隊萬人。時俄騎東略，沿邊自北而東，列戍防秋，遂無寧歲。六年，加練西丹五千人，分佈愛琿、呼倫貝爾、布特哈、墨爾根、呼蘭、齊齊哈爾等處。原有馬隊二千人，加練千人，秋冬之際，招集打牲人等，加以訓練，以佐兵力。八年，籌備黑龍江邊防，在奉天調教習，在天津運砲械，共練馬隊五千人，分駐各城。裁舊設卡倫二十六處，以新練之隊伍巡防。十一年，命奉天、吉林、黑龍江三省疆吏各練勁兵，為東西策應之師，並墾闢荒地，開採礦山，為實邊之計。黑龍江復增練馬步各營。蓋自俄人侵食黑龍江以北，及烏蘇里江、興凱湖以東各地，處處與我連界，邊防日重。及俄築東清鐵道，日佔南滿，於是防不勝防雲。

Heilongjiang had six major cities and seventy-one karun posts, old and new. Along the Sino-Russian border, Nerchinsk and Kyakhta had long been the chief points, and most outposts were therefore placed on the northern frontier. Under the old regulations, in the fifth and sixth months the frontier officials of Qiqihar, Mergen, and Heilongjiang each dispatched assistant commandants and company commandants with troops along three routes to Ge'erbiqi, the Ergun, Merileke, Churhaitu, and other points on inspection, reporting by memorial at year's end. In the twenty-third year of Kangxi, a general and subordinate officials were first appointed to garrison the region. Vanguard, squad leaders, horse armor, artisans, and breeding soldiers were all placed under unified command, with more than thirteen thousand men on the rolls. In the first year of Guangxu, six thousand regular troops and four thousand xidan were combined into ten thousand drilled infantry. Russian cavalry were then pressing eastward, and garrisons lined the frontier from north to east against autumn raids, so that scarcely a year passed in peace. In the sixth year, five thousand more drilled xidan were posted at Aihui, Hulunbuir, Buteha, Mergen, Hulan, Qiqihar, and other stations. The existing two-thousand-man cavalry had another thousand drilled, and in autumn and winter hunters and others were mustered and trained to supplement the regular forces. In the eighth year, Heilongjiang's frontier defenses were reorganized: instructors were trained in Fengtian, artillery shipped from Tianjin, and five thousand cavalry drilled and posted to the various cities. Twenty-six old karun posts were abolished, and the newly drilled units took over patrol duty. In the eleventh year, the governors of Fengtian, Jilin, and Heilongjiang were each ordered to drill crack troops as eastern and western reserves, and to open wasteland and mines as measures to strengthen the frontier in substance. Heilongjiang added further drilled horse and foot battalions. As Russia encroached north of the Heilongjiang and on lands east of the Ussuri and Lake Khanka, bordering Chinese territory at every turn, the frontier burden grew heavier by the day. Once Russia built the Chinese Eastern Railway and Japan occupied southern Manchuria, the frontier could scarcely be defended at all.

甘肅北達蒙部，南雜番、回，西接新疆、寧夏，以河套為屏籓，西寧與撒喇相錯處，為西陲奧區。

Gansu reached the Mongol lands in the north, bordered tribal and Muslim peoples in the south, and adjoined Xinjiang and Ningxia in the west. The Hetao formed its shield, and the zone where Xining and the Salar intermingled was the strategic heart of the western frontier.

康熙三十三年，增戍兵五百於大馬營，控扼雪山要路，增馬步兵三千人於定羌廟，以守硤口，咸隸於肅州總兵官。

In the thirty-third year of Kangxi, five hundred more garrison troops were posted at Damaying to hold the vital Snow Mountain route, and three thousand horse and foot at Dingqiang Temple to guard the pass—all under the Jiuquan regional commander.

雍正二年，青海蕩平，於西寧之北，川邊之外，自巴爾託海至扁都口一帶，創築邊牆城堡，於青海、巴爾虎、鹽池等處，設副將以下各官，於大通河南北，設參將以下各官。以西陲重要，全省馬步戰守兵凡五萬七千餘人，關外換防兵凡九千餘人，兵額獨多於他省。三年，以布隆吉爾為安西鎮，設總兵等官，額兵五千人。因庄浪西之仙米寺地方，山深林密，設守備等官，移涼州高古城額兵駐守。五年，於大通鎮設馬步兵二千人，以白塔川、側爾吐二處逼近邊境，各設兵八百人。以插漢地方遼闊，設寶豐、新渠二縣，設文武各官，並增戍兵，控制賀蘭山一帶。八年，岳鍾琪於吐魯番通伊犁之要路，嚴設卡倫，巴爾庫庫等處，多駐防兵，闊舍圖地方，為南北二山鎖合處，屯駐重兵，分防南北山口。十一年，因西路之布隆吉爾，北連哈密，西接沙州，為關外重地，乃建築城垣，屯兵防守。

In the second year of Yongzheng, after Qinghai was pacified, border walls and forts were built from Ba'ertuohai to Biandukou north of Xining and beyond the Sichuan frontier. Deputy commanders and subordinates were posted at Qinghai, Barhu, Yanchi, and other stations, and brigade commanders and subordinates north and south of the Datong River. Because the western frontier was vital, the province mustered more than fifty-seven thousand horse and foot for battle and garrison duty, with another nine thousand rotation troops beyond the passes—more men on the rolls than any other province. In the third year, Bulongji'er was made the Anxi garrison, with a regional commander and subordinates appointed and a quota of five thousand troops. Because the Xianmi Temple district west of Zhuanglang lay in deep mountains and thick forest, a garrison commandant was appointed and troops from Liangzhou's Gaogucheng quota were transferred to hold it. In the fifth year, two thousand horse and foot were posted at Datong, and eight hundred men each at Baitachuan and Ce'ertu, both near the frontier. Because the Chahan region was vast, Baofeng and Xinqu counties were created with civil and military officials, and additional garrison troops were posted to control the Helan Mountains. In the eighth year, Yue Zhongqi tightened karun posts along the vital route from Turfan to Ili, posted more frontier troops at Barkul and elsewhere, and massed a strong force at Kuoshetu, where the northern and southern ranges meet, to guard the passes on both sides. In the eleventh year, because Bulongji'er on the western route linked Hami to the north and Shazhou to the west and was a critical post beyond the passes, walls were built and troops encamped for its defense.

乾隆四十九年，福康安、阿桂籌備邊防，自蘭州迤東至涇州一千餘里，北達邊城，外則番族環居，內則回民錯處，墩戍寥落，乃擇要增設營戍，凡將弁二十三人，兵丁二千人。嗣又增兵三千人，北路靖遠，南路秦、階，大河東西各處，互為捍衛。

In the forty-ninth year of Qianlong, Fukang'an and Agui reorganized the frontier defenses. From Lanzhou east to Jingzhou for more than a thousand li, reaching the border towns in the north, tribes ringed the outer marches and Muslim communities lay scattered within, while beacon towers and garrisons were thin on the ground. They therefore added camps at key points—twenty-three officers and two thousand men in all. Three thousand more troops were later added, with Jingyuan on the northern route, Qin and Jie on the southern, and posts on both banks of the great river supporting one another.

道光二年，以察罕諾門汗投誠，其所轄二十族，分為左右二翼，視蒙古例，每翼統以專員，嚴稽關卡，以孤河北野番之勢。三年，因青海蒙古向未有受事盟長，乃就青海二十旗內，設正副盟長各一人，隨同官兵習武，以防番眾渡河。十一年，楊遇春於察罕託洛地方，增設蒙古兵，分作二班，布守各卡，以佐官兵。二十三年，富尼揚阿於將軍台、會亭子二處，各建城垣，防禦西番。二十六年，布彥泰以番賊擾邊，規復防河舊制，增兵千人，分佈沿河渡口。又哈喇庫圖爾營所屬之南山根，及南川營所屬之青石坡二處，為野番出入總路，各以汛兵駐守。永安營、紅崖營、永昌協所屬之扁都口、石灰關各要口三十八處，均撥兵巡守，自數十人至百餘人不等。沿邊小口，各備坑塹，以遏賊騎。時番賊恃其槍馬便利，頻年竄擾，亦斯門沁地方，為番騎來往要區，募獵戶千人編為一軍，供遠探近防之用。旋以亦斯門沁設兵，僅可防甘、涼二州之扁都口等隘二十七處，兵力尚嫌不足，復於沙金城設兵千人，以防涼州所屬之一顆樹等三十處隘口，於野牛溝設兵千人，以防甘州所屬之大磁窯等十八處隘口。提鎮大員，復督率沿邊將弁，先事預防。

In the second year of Daoguang, when the Qaghan Nomon Khan submitted, his twenty tribes were divided into left and right wings on the Mongol model, each under a dedicated official with strict control of passes, to isolate the wild tribes north of the river. In the third year, because the Qinghai Mongols had never had league chiefs bearing imperial commission, one chief and one deputy were appointed among the twenty banners to drill with government troops and guard against tribes crossing the river. In the eleventh year, Yang Yuchun added Mongol troops at Chahan Tuoluo in two shifts to man the karun posts and support the regular forces. In the twenty-third year, Funiyang'a built walls at Jiangjun Terrace and Huitingzi to defend against western tribes. In the twenty-sixth year, Buyantai, with tribal raiders harassing the frontier, planned to restore the old river-defense system and added one thousand men posted along the crossings. At the southern foothills under Halakutu'er camp and at Qingshipo under Nachuan camp—the main routes by which wild tribes entered and left—seasonal garrison troops were posted. At Yong'an, Hongya, and the thirty-eight vital passes such as Biandukou and Shihuiguan under the Yongchang brigade, patrol troops were assigned in numbers ranging from several dozen to more than a hundred. At each minor border pass, pits and trenches were prepared to check raiding horsemen. Tribal raiders then relied on firearms and swift horses and struck year after year. Yisimengqin was a key corridor for tribal horsemen, and a thousand hunters were recruited into a corps for long-range scouting and local defense. Troops at Yisimengqin could soon guard only twenty-seven passes such as Biandukou in Gan and Liang, and the force was still judged inadequate. Another thousand men were posted at Shajincheng for thirty Liangzhou passes such as Yikeshu, and a thousand at Yeniugou for eighteen Ganzhou passes such as Daciyao. Provincial commanders and garrison generals in turn supervised frontier officers to take preventive measures in advance.

自粵寇披猖，回匪乘之，玉關、雪嶺間，騷然不靖。咸豐元年，以番賊復出，令琦善等撥兵設卡，嚴密巡防。二年，令舒興阿等督率邊卡文武，修濠壘，增馬探，各營定期會哨，分途堵截。四年，因西寧一帶，番族窺伺，增募獵戶三千人，分防隘口。八年，以青海迤西戈壁，給番民暫居，令西寧總兵、道員，定立界址。九年，令甘肅省疆臣督辦團練事宜。

Once the Cantonese rebels swept the land and Muslim insurgents seized their chance, the region between Jade Gate and Snow Ridge was thrown into turmoil. In the first year of Xianfeng, with tribal raiders active again, Qishan and others were ordered to allocate troops, establish karun posts, and tighten patrols. In the second year, Shuxing'a and others were ordered to supervise border officials in repairing moats and ramparts, increasing mounted scouts, holding regular joint patrols, and blocking enemy routes in separate columns. In the fourth year, with tribes watching for openings around Xining, three thousand more hunters were recruited and posted at the passes. In the eighth year, tribes were allowed temporary residence in the Gobi west of Qinghai, and the Xining regional commander and circuit intendant were ordered to fix the boundaries. In the ninth year, Gansu's frontier officials were ordered to oversee local militia organization.

同治十年，豫師等於甘、涼各處邊隘，自平番至威遠各口，及巴燕戎格山後與西寧番地通連者，一律加意嚴防。張曜因甘肅之金塔一帶，邊牆損壞，平番之裴家營，古浪之大靖、土門，甘、涼之南山各口，時有土番竄擾，分遣員弁偵探防堵。十一年，左宗棠於河州迤西之西南北三面，毗連番界，及槐樹關、老鴉關、土門關三隘口，與抱罕羌人接境之處，以歸化之番眾僧俗四千人，馬四千餘匹，防守各關。是時，平定關、隴，皆客軍之力，數萬額兵，幾同虛設。左宗棠懲前毖後，乃減兵加餉，繕器械，簡軍實，以重邊防。惟新設之靈武、化平、硝海三營兵數無多，逼近蒙、番之永昌、庄浪、松山三營，仍循舊額雲。

In the tenth year of Tongzhi, Yushi and others tightened defenses at border passes throughout Gan and Liang—from Pingfan to Weiyuan and along routes connecting Bayan Rongge with Xining tribal territory. Zhang Yao found the border wall damaged around Jinta and local tribes raiding Peijiaying in Pingfan, Dajing and Tumen in Gulang, and the southern passes of Gan and Liang; he dispatched officers to scout and block them. In the eleventh year, Zuo Zongtang posted four thousand submitted tribal monks and laymen with more than four thousand horses to hold the passes on the southwest, south, and north west of Hezhou, including Huashuguan, Laoyaguan, and Tumenguan on the Baochan Qiang frontier. Pacification of Guan and Long then depended entirely on guest armies, while tens of thousands of men on the provincial rolls were nearly useless. Learning from past failures, Zuo Zongtang cut rolls, raised pay, repaired arms, and tightened discipline to strengthen the frontier. Only the newly formed camps at Lingwu, Huaping, and Xiaohai had small complements, while Yongchang, Zhuanglang, and Songshan on the Mongol and tribal frontiers still kept their old quotas.

四川西連衛、藏，北接青海，南盡蠻夷。自雍正、乾隆間，青海、大小金川次第綏定，沿邊之防，以打箭爐為尤重。

Sichuan bordered Wei and Tibet in the west, Qinghai in the north, and tribal lands to the south. From the Yongzheng and Qianlong reigns onward, Qinghai and the Greater and Lesser Jin River regions were pacified in turn, and frontier defense centered above all on Dajianlu.

康熙三十九年，移化林營於打箭爐，以防爐番。

In the thirty-ninth year of Kangxi, Hualin camp was moved to Dajianlu to guard against the local tribes.

雍正元年，年羹堯於川、陝各處邊隘，擇要增兵。一為中渡河口，乃通西藏要路，修築土城，以守備移駐。一為保縣，在大河之南，乃土番出沒之所，一為越巂，地多蠻裸，一為松潘外之阿樹，及黃勝岡、察木多，均撥兵駐守，設游擊、千總等官。二年，青海蕩平，於邊外單葛耳斯地方，設參將等官。暗門、拉科、恆鈴子三處，設守備等官。河州保安堡，設游擊等官。打箭爐外之木雅吉達、鴉龍江中渡、里塘、巴塘、鄂洛五處，設總兵、副將等官，率兵駐守。六年，岳鍾琪因河東西苗民改土歸流以後，建昌遂為沿邊重鎮，乃於柏香坪、冕山、寧番、寧越、鹽井、波沙、托木、熱水等處，增設將備營汛，合原有之弁兵，咸隸於建昌鎮標。十年，黃廷桂以建昌之竹核，及涼山西南之魚紅地方，當諸蠻出入門戶，谷堆、格落二處，大赤口、小河壩、勒必鐵、阿都四處，皆系邊要，乃於竹核設將備兵丁共三千人，阿都設兵千人。

In the first year of Yongzheng, Nian Gengyao reinforced troops at key border passes throughout Sichuan and Shaanxi. First was Zhongduhekou, the vital route to Tibet, where an earthen fort was built and a garrison commandant posted. Second was Baoxian south of the great river, where native tribes came and went; third was Yuexi, home to many tribal peoples; fourth were Ashu beyond Songpan, Huangshenggang, and Chamdo—troops were posted at each with mobile corps and company commanders appointed. In the second year, after Qinghai was pacified, brigade commanders and subordinates were posted beyond the border at Dangge'ersi. Garrison commandants were appointed at Anmen, Lake, and Henglingzi. A mobile corps and subordinates were posted at Hezhou Bao'an Fort. Beyond Dajianlu, regional and deputy commanders with troops were posted at Muyajida, Yalong River Zhongdu, Litang, Batang, and Eluo. In the sixth year, after the Miao on both banks of the river were brought under direct administration and Jianchang became a major frontier town, Yue Zhongqi added officers, camps, and garrisons at Boxiangping, Mianshan, Ningfan, Ningyue, Yanjing, Bosha, Tuomu, Reshui, and other points, placing all troops, old and new, under the Jianchang garrison. In the tenth year, Huang Tinggui held Zhuhe in Jianchang and Yuhong in southwestern Liangshan as gateways for tribal raiders, with Gudui, Geluo, Dachikou, Xiaoheba, Leibitie, and Adu all vital points. He posted three thousand men at Zhuhe and a thousand at Adu.

乾隆十七年，岳鍾琪因番眾投誠，以威茂副將移駐雜谷腦，設兵千二百人，西南境與梭卓接壤之處，均設汛駐兵。四十一年，金川平定，於雅州建城，命提督移駐，增兵六千五百人，分守沿邊。四十四年，設懋功、綏靖、崇化、撫邊、慶寧五營，制同內地，隸松潘鎮總兵，以控番徼。四十五年，特成額因川邊外之察木多，曾設游擊等弁兵，控制西藏。今藏事敉平，乃抽撥營兵，移防江卡，增築碉房，並於三暗巴一帶，設守備等官。

In the seventeenth year of Qianlong, with tribes submitting, Yue Zhongqi moved the Weimao deputy commander to Zagu'nao with twelve hundred men and posted seasonal garrisons along the southwestern border adjoining Suozhuo. In the forty-first year, after the Jin River region was pacified, a city was built at Yazhou, the provincial commander was moved there, and six thousand five hundred more troops were distributed along the frontier. In the forty-fourth year, five camps—Maogong, Suijing, Chonghua, Fubian, and Qingning—were established on the interior model under the Songpan regional commander to control the tribal marches. In the forty-fifth year, Techeng'e noted that Chamdo beyond the Sichuan frontier had once been held by a mobile corps and other troops to control Tibet. With Tibetan affairs now settled, camp troops were redeployed to Jiangka, blockhouses were strengthened, and garrison commandants were posted in the San'anba district.

道光十三年，以副將率兵二千人，駐大樹堡，濬濠建碉，兼防河道。以松潘屯千九百人，歸併峨邊。十九年，因川邊防兵僅四千餘人，不敷防守，於馬邊、雷波、越巂、峨邊、屏山各廳縣增兵二千人，增練兵千六百人，改營制，修碉堡，★飭鎮道各員，於秋冬分巡邊界。尋以馬邊等廳，夷匪不靖，命大臣齊慎親往籌防。

In the thirteenth year of Daoguang, a deputy commander with two thousand men was posted at Dashubao, where moats were dredged and blockhouses built to guard the river route as well. One thousand nine hundred troops from the Songpan garrison colony were reassigned to Ebian. In the nineteenth year, because fewer than four thousand men guarded the Sichuan marches—too few to hold the line—two thousand regulars and sixteen hundred drilled troops were added across the departments and counties of Mabian, Leibo, Yuexi, Ebian, and Pingshan. The camp organization was revised, blockhouses were repaired, and regional commanders and circuit intendants were ordered to make separate border inspections each autumn and winter. Soon afterward, unrest among Yi bandits in Mabian and neighboring departments led the court to dispatch Minister Qi Shen in person to organize frontier defense.

同治十二年，因峨邊廳蠻族投誠，擇充千、百戶等職，編製夷兵，建修碉堡。

In the twelfth year of Tongzhi, after tribes in Ebian Department submitted, chieftains were appointed as thousand- and hundred-household officers, tribal militia were organized, and blockhouses were built and repaired.

光緒二十三年，鹿傳霖以三瞻地接里塘，為入藏北界，擬設定瞻直隸廳，而移建昌道於打箭爐，仿金川五屯之制，設立屯官及將弁汛兵，並接展電線至前藏。其事議而未行。三十三年，部臣議裁★邊防軍，趙爾豐以川邊原有巡防五營，已屬不敷調遣，遂定議緩裁。

In the twenty-third year of Guangxu, Lu Chuanlin argued that Sanzhan, adjoining Litang, formed the northern gateway into Tibet. He proposed making it a directly administered department, relocating the Jianchang circuit to Dajianlu, and following the Jinchuan five-colony model by appointing colony officials and garrison officers with outpost troops, while extending telegraph lines into front Tibet. The proposal was debated but never implemented. In the thirty-third year, ministry officials proposed cutting frontier defense forces, but Zhao Erfeng noted that the five existing patrol camps on the Sichuan border were already overstretched, and the court agreed to postpone any reduction.

宣統初年，趙爾巽以打箭爐外所有改土歸流屬地，擬悉隸於邊務大臣，★增設官吏，寬籌經費，協濟兵食，以固邊圉。三年，趙爾豐收回三瞻，土司之梗化者，遂自請歸流雲。

Early in the Xuantong reign, Zhao Erxun proposed placing all territories beyond Dajianlu that had been brought under direct administration under the border affairs commissioner, establishing additional officials, allocating ample funds, and coordinating military supplies to strengthen the frontier. In the third year, Zhao Erfeng recovered Sanzhan, after which recalcitrant native chieftains themselves petitioned to submit to direct administration.

雲南沿邊，環接外夷，南境之蒙自，當越南國，西南境之騰越，當緬甸國，尤為南維鎖鑰。騰越界連野番，舊設八關九隘，以土練駐防。緬甸國入貢之道，向由虎踞關入，經孟卯、隴川等處，以達南甸，設南營都司以備之。自外海輪舶南來，直抵新街，商賈咸趨北道，由騰城西南行，經南甸、千崖、盞達三宣撫司，歷四程而至蠻允，過此即野人境。其間有三路。下為河邊路，中為石梯路，上為炎山路。下路較近，上路則柴草咸便，行四日至蠻暮，入緬甸界。舟行一日，可達新街。又印度東境之野山，系珞瑜番族，英吉利人由印度侵入，闢地種茶桑，其地可通孟養而達騰越，邊外強鄰野俗，錯處可虞。明代舊置銅壁、巨石、萬仞諸關，以固邊圉。水道則海珀江自千崖以下，水勢漸寬，與大金沙江合流，元代征緬甸，以舟師制勝，取建瓴之勢也。其永昌、順寧、大理三府，及蒙化一廳，楚雄府之姚州，皆迤西邊界，山深箐密，漢、夷雜處。清初原設永順鎮總兵，迨改鎮為協，僅於永昌城駐兵，沿邊一帶，有鞭長莫及之虞。

Yunnan's frontier encircles foreign peoples on every side. Mengzi on the south faces Vietnam, and Tengyue on the southwest faces Burma; together they formed the southern keys to the realm. Tengyue bordered wild tribal lands, where eight passes and nine barriers had long been manned by native militia. Burma's tribute mission had traditionally entered through Huju Pass, passed through Mengmao and Longchuan, and reached Nandian, where a South Camp company commander was posted as a precaution. Once steamers from overseas sailed south to Xinjie, merchants favored the northern route southwest from Tengcheng through Nandian and the Pacification Commissionerates of Qianya and Zhanda. Four stages brought them to Manyun, beyond which lay tribal country. Three routes ran between them. The lower route followed the riverbank, the middle route the stone ladder path, and the upper route the Yanshan trail. The lower road was shorter, while the upper road offered ample fuel and forage. Four days' travel reached Manmu and the Burmese frontier. A day's sail downstream also reached Xinjie. In the wild hills of eastern India lived the Luoyu tribes. The British advanced from India, cleared land, and planted tea and mulberry. The region linked Mengyang with Tengyue, and the mingling of powerful neighbors and tribal customs beyond the border gave cause for alarm. Under the Ming, passes such as Tongbi, Jushi, and Wanyin had been built to secure the frontier. By water, the Haipo River below Qianya broadened and joined the great Jinsha. The Yuan conquest of Burma had relied on a fleet to gain the upper hand from downstream—literally, the vantage of water tipped from the eaves. Yongchang, Shunning, and Dali prefectures, the department of Menghua, and Yaozhou in Chuxiong all lay on the far-western frontier, where deep mountains and narrow ravines sheltered mixed Han and tribal populations. Early in the Qing a regional commander had been posted at Yongshun, but when the garrison was reduced to a brigade only Yongchang city held troops, leaving the long frontier line beyond effective control.

雍正二年，青海平定，於鴉龍江各處，設副將等官，宗鄱地方，當雲南孔道，設參將等官，以靖邊服。三年，因威遠大山為苗、裸盤踞之所，乃於普茶山各處，設參將等官，兵丁千二百人，並於九龍江口設立防汛。四年，以四川阿墩子地方當中甸門戶，移其防汛歸雲南省管轄，與里塘、打箭爐相為犄角。五年，以中甸延袤千里，為滇省西南籓籬，維西乃通西藏要隘，增設參將營於中甸，守備營於維西。六年，因烏蒙、鎮雄二處地方遼闊，於烏蒙設總兵等官，鎮雄設參將等官，分隘駐防。所有舊設之貴州威寧營，雲南鎮雄營、東川營咸隸烏蒙鎮總兵調遣，建築城垣。旋增兵千五百人，設尋甸州參將等官。七年，設普洱府及普洱鎮將，標兵三千二百人，分防各路。

In the second year of Yongzheng, after Qinghai was pacified, deputy commanders were posted along the Yalong River and brigade commanders at Zongpo on Yunnan's main route to settle the frontier. In the third year, because Miao and Luo bands held the great mountains of Weiyuan, brigade commanders with twelve hundred men were stationed around Puchashan and an outpost was placed at the mouth of the Jiulong River. In the fourth year, Adunzi in Sichuan, guarding the gateway to Zhongdian, was placed under Yunnan's jurisdiction so that its garrison could support Litang and Dajianlu in a pincer. In the fifth year, Zhongdian's thousand-li expanse was recognized as Yunnan's southwestern bulwark and Weixi as the critical pass to Tibet; a brigade-commander camp was added at Zhongdian and a garrison-commandant camp at Weixi. In the sixth year, the vast districts of Wumeng and Zhenxiong received a regional commander at Wumeng and a brigade commander at Zhenxiong, with troops distributed among the mountain passes. The existing camps of Weining in Guizhou and Zhenxiong and Dongchuan in Yunnan were all placed under the Wumeng regional commander, and city walls were constructed. Fifteen hundred more troops were soon added and a brigade commander was posted at Xundian Prefecture. In the seventh year, Pu'er Prefecture and its garrison commander were established, and thirty-two hundred standard troops were distributed along the main routes.

乾隆三十二年，以木邦為通緬甸要路，並九龍江、隴川、黑山門各隘，咸以兵駐守。四十三年，李侍堯因永昌、普洱等府，向以鎮、協標千五百人，在三台山、龍江一帶駐營防緬，冬去春回，頗形煩累。雲南省控制全邊，重在騰越。其南甸之東南為杉木籠，距虎踞關百餘里，當騰越左臂。南甸之西南為千崖，距銅壁、萬仞、神護、巨石諸關，均一二百里，實為各路咽喉。乃於杉木籠、千崖二處各增將弁營汛。龍陵地方，道通木邦，原駐兵千五百人，其南三台山尤為扼要，亦增設弁兵。以順寧一路舊有之額兵，分駐緬寧，與永順右營協同防守。總督、提、鎮大員，每年酌赴騰越邊外巡閱一周，以期嚴密。

In the thirty-second year of Qianlong, Mubang as the main route into Burma and the passes at the Jiulong River, Longchuan, and Heishanmen were all manned with troops. In the forty-third year, Li Shiyao noted that Yongchang, Pu'er, and other prefectures had long rotated fifteen hundred garrison and brigade troops between Santai Mountain and the Long River to guard against Burma, withdrawing each winter and returning each spring—a burdensome arrangement. Yunnan's control of the entire frontier hinged on Tengyue. Southeast of Nandian lay Shanmulong, a hundred-odd li from Huju Pass, forming Tengyue's left flank. Southwest of Nandian stood Qianya, one to two hundred li from the passes of Tongbi, Wanyin, Shenhu, and Jushi—the throat of every route. Officers, camps, and outposts were therefore added at both Shanmulong and Qianya. Longling, on the road to Mubang, already held fifteen hundred men; Santai Mountain to the south was especially critical, and more officers and troops were posted there. Existing troops on the Shunning route were redeployed to Mianning to defend jointly with the Yongshun Right Brigade. Each year the governor-general, provincial commander, and regional commanders made a discretionary tour beyond Tengyue to tighten frontier discipline.

嘉慶十七年，以雲南邊外野夷裸匪肆擾，而緬寧、騰越各隘，皆瘴癘之地，難駐官兵，復設土練兵一千六百人，以八百人駐守緬寧之丙野山樑等處，八百人駐守騰越之蠻章山等處，省官兵徵調之勞。

In the seventeenth year of Jiaqing, wild tribes and Luo bandits harassed the Yunnan frontier, while the passes around Mianning and Tengyue were too malarial for regular garrisons. Sixteen hundred native militia were therefore restored—eight hundred at Bingye Shanliang near Mianning and eight hundred at Manzhang Mountain near Tengyue—relieving regular troops of constant dispatch.

道光間，林則徐於迤西移改協、營，增設弁兵。其扼要之處，為永平縣、永昌府龍街汛、永定汛、漾濞汛、姚關汛等，凡二十一汛，咸增兵駐防，而瀾滄江橋尤為扼險。順寧府毗連夷地，以龍陵協與順寧參將對調。緬寧廳、錫臘、右甸、阿魯、史塘等處防軍，或分汛多而存城少，或分汛少而存城多，地之夷險與兵之多少不均，咸酌量增調。大理府原駐提督，而上下二關，及太和縣城、彌渡、紅岩、趙州等處，尚屬空虛，均增兵填防。姚州、蒙化二處，亦改汛增兵。

During the Daoguang era, Lin Zexu reorganized brigades and camps in far western Yunnan and increased officer strength. Critical posts included Yongping County and the outposts at Longjie, Yongding, Yangbi, and Yaoguan in Yongchang—twenty-one in all—each reinforced, with the Lancang River bridge the most formidable choke point. Because Shunning Prefecture bordered tribal territory, the Longling Brigade and the Shunning brigade commander exchanged posts. Defensive dispositions at Mianning Department, Xila, Youdian, Alu, Shitang, and elsewhere were uneven—some posts were thinly held in the city, others over-garrisoned in the field relative to tribal risk—and troops were adjusted accordingly. Although the provincial commander was based at Dali Prefecture, the upper and lower passes and Taihe, Midu, Hongyan, Zhaozhou, and other points remained undermanned and received reinforcing garrisons. Outposts at Yaozhou and Menghua were likewise reorganized and reinforced.

同治間，雲南平定，岑毓英因迤西麗江府城地處極邊，界連西藏，麗江、劍川交界之喇雞鳴地方，系江邊要隘，江外即野人境，向未設兵。乃以麗鶴鎮都司移駐麗江府，劍川營都司移駐喇雞鳴。此外楚雄府屬之八哨地方三、四百里間，裸夷雜居，亦系要地，令楚雄協副將設汛駐兵。十三年，以昭通標兵之半，赴金沙江外駐守。

After Yunnan was pacified in the Tongzhi era, Cen Yuying noted that Lijiang on the far western frontier bordered Tibet. Lajiming on the Lijiang–Jianchuan border was a critical riverside pass facing tribal country beyond the river, yet had never been garrisoned. The Lihu garrison company commander was therefore relocated to Lijiang Prefecture and the Jianchuan Camp company commander to Lajiming. In Baxiao under Chuxiong Prefecture, stretching three or four hundred li where Luo tribes lived intermixed, the Chuxiong Brigade deputy commander was likewise ordered to establish outposts. In the thirteenth year, half of Zhaotong's standard troops were posted beyond the Jinsha River.

光緒七年，劉長佑因劍川城地當孔道，為迤西要區，以喇井營移駐劍川。喇井亦瀾滄江要地，以吉尾汛移駐，互相會哨。十一年，岑毓英因滇省入越南之路，以白馬關為要，法蘭西人通商之路，以蒙自縣為沖，沿邊千里，處處錯壤，留防之兵一萬六千人，編為三十營，以白馬關隸開化鎮總兵，蒙自隸臨元鎮總兵，每年瘴消之際，親赴邊陲，簡閱營伍。箇舊錫廠，規制宏大，廠丁數萬人，漢、夷雜處，且通三猛、蠻耗各路，乃增設同知一員，移臨元之都司營兵駐防箇舊，調原駐開化游擊移守白馬關，以右營都司分防古林，移右營守備駐長岡嶺，以臨元游擊駐蒙自縣，右營都司分防水田，右營守備分防嵩田，為因地制宜之計。自雲南入緬甸，共有六途，以蠻允一途為捷徑，沿邊由西而南而東，皆野人山寨，布列於九隘之外，兵團守望，時虞不足。乃調關外勁旅二千餘人，與原有防軍及鄉團、土司，協力警備。十四年，岑毓英以邊境裸黑夷匪，頻年滋事，分別剿撫。裸黑所屯踞之地，分上下改心，在瀾滄江畔，界接土司，其東西大路，與緬甸逼處，為順寧、普洱兩府屏蔽，其下改心地方，尤為扼要。乃增設鎮邊撫夷廳，擇地建築城垣，並設參將等官，駐防兵丁一千一百五十八人。二十二年，鹿傳霖以維西協所屬阿墩子汛地，界接川邊之巴塘，左臨瀾滄江，右挹金沙江，地勢至要，英緬鐵路所經，相距漸近，僅四、五日程。乃協商四川疆臣，酌設重鎮，並於川、滇交界處，兩省各設文武員弁，協力防邊。雲南自英據緬甸，法奪越南，防守兩難。光緒之季，西南騰越、臨安兩路，創設團練，稍資捍衛。而餉絀兵單，邊防漸弛矣。

In the seventh year of Guangxu, Liu Changyou moved the Lajing Camp to Jianchuan, a key junction on the main route through the far west. Lajing was another critical point on the Lancang, so the Jiwei outpost was moved there to coordinate patrols with Jianchuan. In the eleventh year, Cen Yuying held that Baima Pass guarded the route into Vietnam while Mengzi formed the hub of French trade. Along a thousand li of interlocking frontier, sixteen thousand troops in thirty camps were retained—Baima under the Kaihua regional commander and Mengzi under the Linyuan regional commander—and each year, when the miasma season ended, he personally inspected the border forces. Gejiu's vast tin works employed tens of thousands of Han and tribal workers and opened routes to Sanmeng and Manhao. A subprefect was added, Linyuan troops were posted to Gejiu, the Kaikai mobile corps to Baima Pass, the Right Brigade company commander to Gulin, its garrison commandant to Changgangling, the Linyuan mobile corps to Mengzi, and other Right Brigade detachments to Shuitian and Songtian—a disposition tailored to local needs. Six routes led from Yunnan into Burma, Manyun being the shortest. Tribal stockades lined the frontier from west to south to east beyond the nine barriers, and the troops and militia on watch were often feared inadequate. More than two thousand seasoned troops from beyond the passes were therefore deployed alongside existing garrisons, village militia, and native chieftains for joint patrol. In the fourteenth year, Cen Yuying suppressed and pacified Luohei Yi bandits who had troubled the border for years. Luohei strongholds lay in Upper and Lower Gaixin on the Lancang, adjoining native chieftaincies. Their east–west routes hugged the Burmese frontier and shielded Shunning and Pu'er, with Lower Gaixin the most critical. A Border-Pacifying Tribal Affairs department was therefore established, walls were built on a chosen site, a brigade commander was appointed, and 1,158 troops were stationed. In the twenty-second year, Lu Chuanlin stressed that Adunzi under the Weixi Brigade adjoined Batang on the Sichuan border, flanked by the Lancang and Jinsha rivers—a position of the highest importance now that the Anglo-Burmese railway lay only four or five days away. He then consulted Sichuan's frontier governor on establishing a major garrison and posting civil and military officers on both sides of the provincial border for joint defense. Once Britain held Burma and France seized Vietnam, Yunnan faced defense on two fronts. Late in the Guangxu reign, militia were organized on the Tengyue and Lin'an routes in the southwest, offering modest local defense. Yet pay fell short, troops were thin, and the frontier defenses gradually weakened.

廣東邊防，海重於陸。同治十三年，越南不靖，督臣瑞麟慮其越界，以防勇二千人扼守欽州。光緒八年，曾國荃因欽州之東興街，地接越南，撥勁兵二營駐守，續撥老勇三營助之。十年，法蘭西侵奪越南，彭玉麟督辦粵防，以欽州與廉州並重，增調營勇赴欽、廉，恐地廣兵單，以團練協守。至省內防務，則有三江口之排瑤，瓊、崖之黎匪，時或出巢滋事。排瑤山境四百餘里，康熙四十一年，於瑤境適中之三江口，設立寨城，置副將等官，兵丁千餘人。道光十二年，增三江口戍兵二千人，建築碉台，以控制悍瑤。光緒十三年，張之洞剿平瓊州黎匪，山路開通，收撫黎眾十萬人，定撫黎章程十二條。粵省負山帶海，西來歐舶，首及粵洋，陸路僅欽、廉一路當敵，防戍較易於海疆也。

Guangdong's frontier defense weighed the sea more heavily than the land. In the thirteenth year of Tongzhi, unrest in Vietnam led Governor Rui Lin to fear incursions and post two thousand defense braves at Qinzhou. In the eighth year of Guangxu, Zeng Guoquan posted two elite battalions at Dongxing Street in Qinzhou on the Vietnamese border and later added three veteran battalions. In the tenth year, after France seized Vietnam, Peng Yulin oversaw Guangdong's defenses, treating Qinzhou and Lianzhou as equally vital. More battalions were sent to both prefectures, and militia were enlisted to help cover the wide ground with few regulars. Within the province, Pai Yao at Sanjiangkou and Li bandits in Qiong and Ya occasionally left their strongholds to make trouble. Pai Yao territory stretched four hundred li. In the forty-first year of Kangxi a walled stockade was built at Sanjiangkou in the heart of the region, garrisoned by a deputy commander and over a thousand troops. In the twelfth year of Daoguang, two thousand more troops were added at Sanjiangkou and blockhouse platforms built to restrain the warlike Yao. In the thirteenth year of Guangxu, Zhang Zhidong suppressed Li rebels in Qiongzhou, opened mountain roads, brought a hundred thousand Li under administration, and issued twelve regulations for their governance. Guangdong lay between mountains and sea; European vessels reached its coast first. On land only the Qinzhou–Lianzhou corridor faced the enemy, making land defense somewhat easier than coastal defense.

廣西南邊，綿亙千餘里，原設隘所百有九處，分卡六十六處，與越南之諒山、高平、宣光等處接壤。叢山密箐中，小徑咸通。鎮南關至龍州一路，地較寬平，為中越商旅通衢，東出太平、南寧，西出歸順、鎮安之總匯。自龍州以東，下水直達梧、潯，有建瓴之勢。歷朝南籓向化，自清初至道光、咸豐間，惟於龍憑營所轄水陸各隘口，以戍兵及沿邊土司協力防守。

Guangxi's southern frontier ran more than a thousand li, with 109 barrier posts and 66 checkpoints along the border with Vietnam's provinces of Lang Son, Cao Bang, and Xuan Quang. Dense mountains and ravines were crisscrossed by footpaths. The route from Zhennan Pass to Longzhou was relatively open and served as the main artery for Sino-Vietnamese trade, linking Taiping and Nanning to the east with Guishun and Zhen'an to the west. East of Longzhou, downstream waters ran straight to Wuzhou and Xunzhou, giving the strategic advantage of holding the upper reaches. Southern vassals had long submitted to the throne. From the early Qing through Daoguang and Xianfeng, only the water and land passes under the Longping Camp were held by garrison troops with native chieftains along the border.

同治十一年，令馮子材等就戍所之鎮揀選各營，分佈各隘，是為防軍守邊之始。迨法、越戰事起，邊氛日亟，徵調頻煩，兵無久駐之地。

In the eleventh year of Tongzhi, Feng Zicai and others were ordered to select battalions from the garrison and distribute them among the passes—the beginning of regular frontier defense forces. When war broke out between France and Vietnam, border tensions mounted, levies were constant, and troops had no permanent stations.

光緒十二年，中、法款議既成，兩廣總督張之洞以鎮南一關，鈐轄中外，固屬極沖之地，即鎮南關之中後左右各路，亦須分兵設防。關以內之關南隘及憑祥土州為中路。自關以東，明江廳轄之由隘，寧明州轄之羅隘，思陵土州轄之愛店隘，上思州轄之百侖隘、剝機隘為東路。自關以西，龍州廳轄之平西關、水口關，下凍土州轄之布局隘、梗花隘，歸順州轄之頻峒隘、龍邦隘，鎮安廳轄之猛峒隘、剝淰隘、百懷大隘等為西路。以上各隘，咸增兵屯守。以十二營防鎮南關中路，以四營防東路，六營防西路。其道路寬者，築台置砲；路窄者，設卡浚濠；甚僻者，則掘斷徑路，禁阻往來。豫造地營。無事則操練，有警則徵調赴援。廣西提督由柳州移駐龍州，以控制邊夷。而邊境過長，貴能扼要。關前隘為諒山來路，羅隘為間道所通，歸順之龍邦隘，鎮安之那坡隘，分扼牧馬、保樂夷寇來路，由隘當文淵之沖，即龍州後路，下凍土州通鎮邊聲息，令駐邊各將領，宜加嚴防。旋督臣張之洞以沿邊之新太協、上思營、鎮安協各營兵，或改勇補兵，或裁兵留勇，各就所宜，即分防之舉，為並省之謀。十三年，復移駐鎮、道各員，以資分任。

In the twelfth year of Guangxu, after the Sino-French settlement, Liangguang Governor-General Zhang Zhidong held that Zhennan Pass, commanding traffic between China and Vietnam, was the foremost choke point and that its center, rear, left, and right routes all required separate garrisons. Inside the pass, Guannan Barrier and Pingxiang Native Department formed the central route. East of the pass lay the eastern route: You Barrier under Mingjiang Department, Luo Barrier under Ningming Prefecture, Aidian Barrier under Siling Native Department, and Bailun and Boji barriers under Shangsi Prefecture. West of the pass lay the western route: Pingxi and Shuikou passes under Longzhou Department; Buju and Genghua barriers under Xiadong Native Department; Pindong and Longbang barriers under Guishun Prefecture; and Mengdong, Boqin, and Baihuai barriers under Zhen'an Department. Troops were increased at all of these barriers. Twelve battalions guarded the central route at Zhennan Pass, four the eastern route, and six the western route. On wider roads, platforms were built and cannon emplaced; on narrow paths, checkpoints and ditches were dug; and on the most remote trails, paths were cut and traffic forbidden. Field entrenchments were prepared in advance. In peacetime the troops drilled; in an emergency they could be summoned to reinforce. The Guangxi provincial commander was relocated from Liuzhou to Longzhou to oversee the border tribes. But the frontier was too long to guard everywhere; holding the key points mattered most. Guannan Barrier before the pass guarded the road from Lang Son; Luo Barrier covered a secret route; Longbang in Guishun and Napo in Zhen'an blocked tribal raids from Muma and Baole; You Barrier faced Wenyuan and protected Longzhou's rear; Xiadong linked intelligence from Zhenbian—border commanders were ordered to tighten their watch. Governor Zhang Zhidong then reorganized the Xintai Brigade, Shangsi Camp, and Zhen'an Brigade along the border—replacing some braves with regulars or cutting regulars while retaining braves as suited each post—combining redistribution of garrisons with plans to economize. In the thirteenth year, regional commanders and circuit intendants were again posted forward to share responsibility.

二十三年，譚鍾麟因邊境迤長凡千七百里，僅恃營汛，終嫌單薄，乃扼要建築砲台。原有防軍二十營，以分防見少，每營止能抽撥二棚駐守砲台。二十六年，蘇元春因南、太、泗、鎮及上思、歸順四府二廳州，皆為邊地，勇丁數僅萬人，凡三關百隘，沿邊砲台，皆須防守。乃以新募調赴江南之五營，並抽調邊軍五營，合成十營，為剿辦沿邊游勇土匪之用。三十年，柯逢時令各州縣增募勇丁八千餘人，給以毛瑟後膛槍，以佐防軍，並令各屬勸民間多築碉堡，藉御外侮。

In the twenty-third year, Tan Zhonglin found the 1,700-li frontier too thinly held by camps and outposts alone and built fortifications at critical points. Of the existing twenty defense battalions, so many were spread along the line that each could spare only two squads to man the new forts. In the twenty-sixth year, Su Yuanchun noted that Nanning, Taiping, Sishan, Zhen'an, Shangsi, and Guishun—all border prefectures and departments—had barely ten thousand braves to hold three major passes, a hundred barriers, and the coastal forts. He therefore combined five newly recruited battalions recalled from Jiangnan with five drawn from the border into ten battalions to suppress roaming braves and bandits along the frontier. In the thirtieth year, Ke Fengshi had every prefecture and county raise over eight thousand braves, armed them with Mauser breech-loaders to support the frontier garrison, and urged local officials to promote civilian blockhouses as a buffer against foreign encroachment.

三十一年，李經羲以廣西沿邊，全恃防軍，近年邊防大軍，專駐龍州訓練，而南、太、鎮等郡，以迄滇邊，無復邊營蹤跡，客軍又撤回過半，乃酌增防營，募土著親兵，就地防禦。蓋廣西制兵，舊額六萬二千餘人，自同治四年以後，屢加裁汰，由制兵而趨重防軍。法、越事起，於邊地防軍，尤為注重。至光緒季年，改練新軍，非復防營規制矣。

In the thirty-first year, Li Jingxi observed that Guangxi’s frontier depended wholly on defense forces: the main border army now trained only at Longzhou, while Nanning, Taiping, Zhen’an, and the route to Yunnan no longer had border camps, and more than half the outside troops had been pulled back. He therefore added defense battalions and recruited local militia for on-the-spot defense. Guangxi’s standing army had once numbered over sixty-two thousand; after repeated reductions since Tongzhi 4, the province had shifted from regular Green Standard troops to frontier defense forces. The Sino-French and Vietnamese crises made frontier defense units a top priority. In the closing years of Guangxu, training shifted to the new army, and the old defense-battalion framework was abandoned.

蒙古以瀚海為界畫，其部落之大類有四：曰漠南內蒙古，曰漠北外蒙古，曰漠西厄魯特蒙古，曰青海蒙古。清初，漠南蒙古臣服最先。至康熙初年，而漠北喀爾喀三部內款。及親征準噶爾，而青海諸部來庭。惟漠西厄魯特部，至乾隆間始征定焉。漠北外四盟蒙古，康熙間初定，增為五十五旗。雍正間，增三音諾顏部，共前三部為四部。乾隆中，增至八十二旗。其會盟分四路：土謝圖汗為中路，車臣汗為東路，札薩克圖汗為西路，三音諾顏為北路。乾隆間，築城於烏里雅蘇台及科布多二處以鎮撫之。其統率蒙兵之制，內札薩克之兵，統於盟長。外札薩克之兵，統於定邊左副將軍。杜爾伯特及新土耳扈特、和碩特之兵，統於科布多辦事大臣。土耳扈特之兵統於伊犁將軍。青海各部落之兵，統於西寧辦事大臣。雍正間，西陲未靖，阿爾泰及河套以北，迤西直達巴里坤，平原沙磧，數千里間，無險可扼。乃於四台至三十五台，每台選精兵駐守，互為聲援。於烏里雅蘇台城外山顛扼要處，復各建砲台，屯重兵於特斯台錫里。旋增設卡路八處於鹽口、戈壁二口，遣兵更番巡探，以期嚴密。其時防在西徼，而北鄙無驚。自乾隆間蕩平准部，而衛拉特來歸，內外各盟長，從征回、准，屢奏邊勛，新舊土耳扈特，同膺茅土，北境俄羅斯亦方輯睦，陰山、瀚海間，百有餘年無事矣。

The Mongol lands were demarcated by the Gobi into four major divisions: Inner Mongolia in the south, Outer Mongolia in the north, Oirat Mongolia in the west, and the Mongols of Qinghai. Inner Mongolia was the first region to submit to the Qing at the dynasty’s founding. Early in the Kangxi era the three Khalkha khanships of Outer Mongolia came in allegiance. After the emperor’s personal campaigns against the Dzungars, the Qinghai tribes presented themselves at court. The Oirat west of the Gobi were not finally subdued until the Qianlong period. Outer Mongolia’s original four leagues were organized under Kangxi into fifty-five banners. Yongzheng added the Sain Noyan league, bringing the former three divisions to four. Under Qianlong the banners grew to eighty-two. League councils met along four circuits: Tüsheet Khan in the center, Sechen Khan in the east, Zasagtu Khan in the west, and Sain Noyan in the north. Qianlong built garrison towns at Uliastai and Kobdo to keep the region under control. Mongol forces were organized so that inner zasak banners answered to their league chiefs. Outer zasak troops fell under the Left Deputy General for Frontier Pacification. Dorbet, new Torghut, and Khoshut soldiers were placed under the Kobdo commissioner. Torghut forces reported to the Ili general. Qinghai tribal forces were directed by the Xining commissioner. During Yongzheng the west was still unsettled: from the Altai and Ordos northward west to Barkol stretched thousands of li of open steppe and desert with no natural choke points. From the fourth to the thirty-fifth courier station, each post was manned with picked troops who could reinforce one another. Key heights outside Uliastai received new batteries, and a strong detachment was posted at Testsentseer. Eight new karun checkpoints were added at the Salt Pass and Gobi Pass, with rotating patrols to tighten control. Attention then focused on the western border, while the northern frontier remained quiet. After Qianlong crushed the Dzungars, the Oirat submitted and league chiefs from both Inner and Outer Mongolia earned honors campaigning in Xinjiang; old and new Torghut alike received fiefs; Russia too was conciliatory along the north. For over a century between the Yinshan and the Gobi the frontier knew peace.

迨咸豐、同治間，中原多故，蒙邊亦多不靖。同治四年，增熱河馬隊三百人。五年，以包頭鎮為綏遠要區，原有防兵，積年疲乏，調吉林馬隊協同駐守。六年，李雲麟以三音諾顏蒙兵專防烏城，而招募奇古民勇駐八里岡，與科布多、塔爾巴哈台二城蒙兵為犄角。八年，以布倫託海各領隊大臣所有旗兵，改隸科布多大臣，分防熱河等處。令烏梁海總管，自卜果蘇克霸至沙賓達巴哈與俄羅斯接界處，新立鄂博界牌八處，嚴密巡察。徙厄魯特僧眾於阿爾泰山，徙俗眾於青格里河。九年，調大同、宣化練軍二千人駐防庫倫，修復推河以北至烏城十五台站，並牧馬三千匹，熱河增練洋槍隊三百人，以固庫倫西路之防。十年，以濟斯洪果爾台站為察哈爾及歸化、綏遠運糧要區，撥兵駐守。令蒙古各台，自張家口至八台，以察哈爾都統管理。自九台至科布多，及庫倫、歸化二路，以各盟長管理。每台增設駝馬百五十匹，凡軍械糧食，接護轉運，以利軍行。十一年，改建烏里雅蘇台石城，並整頓沿邊台務。庫倫西接俄疆，向未設兵，乃於圖、車兩盟蒙兵內，輪派四百人，分駐庫倫四境。十二年，調察哈爾馬隊協防烏里雅蘇台。旋以軍台四十四站，地勢綿長，分防散漫。乃分為四路，於中二路擇要駐營，調綏遠城馬隊移防哈爾尼敦，以原有之兵守塞爾烏蘇。

During Xianfeng and Tongzhi turmoil at the center spread to the Mongol frontiers as well. Tongzhi 4 added three hundred Rehe mounted troops. In Tongzhi 5, Baotou—critical to Suiyuan—had its exhausted garrison reinforced with Jilin cavalry. In Tongzhi 6, Li Yunlin stationed Sain Noyan Mongols at Urga, recruited Qigu militia at Baligang, and coordinated them with Mongol garrisons at Kobdo and Tarbagatai. In Tongzhi 8, Buluntu Hai brigade banner forces were reassigned to the Kobdo commissioner for duty in Rehe and elsewhere. Uriankhai officials were told to erect eight new oboo markers from Bogusukba to Shabindabaha on the Russian line and patrol them closely. Oirat monks were relocated to the Altai; lay communities to the Qinggeli River. In Tongzhi 9, two thousand drilled troops from Datong and Xuanhua garrisoned Urga; fifteen stations north of the Tui River to Urga were repaired; three thousand remounts were kept; and Rehe added three hundred riflemen to secure the western approach to Urga. In Tongzhi 10, Jis Hongguo’er station—a key grain corridor for Chahar, Guihua, and Suiyuan—received a garrison detachment. Courier posts from Zhangjiakou to the eighth station were placed under the Chahar commander. Stations from the ninth post to Kobdo, and the Urga and Guihua lines, were managed by league chiefs. Each station gained 150 pack animals so arms and provisions could be relayed without delay. In Tongzhi 11, Uliastai’s stone fort was rebuilt and frontier courier posts were reorganized. Urga bordered Russia to the west but had long lacked a garrison; four hundred Mongol troops from the Tüsheet and Sechen leagues were then rotated in to hold the four approaches. In Tongzhi 12, Chahar horse detachments reinforced Uliastai. The forty-four military stations along the route proved too long and thinly manned. The line was split into four sectors; the two middle routes received concentrated camps; Suiyuan cavalry moved to Kharniidun while existing troops held Sir Öös.

至光緒間，新疆大定，西顧無虞，而北境俄患漸偪。光緒六年，調宣化練軍、直隸步隊赴庫倫防俄。七年，因烏城三面鄰俄，邊防重要，而原有防軍，技藝生疏，烏城共駐蒙古練軍及黑龍江、察哈爾馬隊二千五百人，由京營派教習前往教練，俾成勁旅。十八年，李鴻章以熱河東境山谷叢雜，毗連奉天，撥直隸練軍馬步隊各一營擇要駐防。二十四年，以熱河、察哈爾為蒙邊要地，令各都統等選練兵丁，整備軍實。三十二年，以熱河馬步隊三營改編為常備軍，其兵額均次第補足。時內外蒙古兵日益孱弱，俄人遂駸駸闌入，烏梁海以南受其牢籠，喀魯倫河以東恣其墾牧，鄂博、卡倫遂同虛設矣。

Under Guangxu, once Xinjiang was pacified the west was secure, yet Russian pressure on the northern frontier steadily increased. Guangxu 6 sent Xuanhua drilled troops and Zhili infantry to Urga against Russian encroachment. Guangxu 7: Urga faced Russia on three sides, yet its garrison was poorly trained. Two thousand five hundred Mongol drilled troops plus Heilongjiang and Chahar cavalry were posted there, with instructors from Beijing to turn them into an effective force. In Guangxu 18, Li Hongzhang posted one battalion each of Zhili drilled horse and foot at strategic points in eastern Rehe, where rugged terrain met Fengtian. Guangxu 24 ordered commanders in Rehe and Chahar to drill troops and stock supplies across the Mongol frontier. Guangxu 32 converted three Rehe mixed battalions into the standing army and brought their rolls up to strength. By then Mongol forces had grown feeble; Russia advanced steadily—controlling Uriankhai lands to the south, farming and grazing east of the Kerulen, while boundary oboos and karun posts became mere formalities.

直隸沿蒙邊防務，雍正九年，令直隸疆臣修治邊牆，其古北、宣化、大同三處，咸募兵增防。自獨石口以西，至殺虎口一帶要隘，亦酌增弁兵。十年，於獨石口改設副將以下各官，增額兵八百人，邊牆衝要處，增設鹿柵木柵，以備堵御。自清初至乾隆、嘉慶朝，蒙邊綏輯。咸、同之間，西陲用兵，蒙匪亦漸滋事。同治四年，以直隸北境沿邊關口五十餘處，兵數甚單，調撥京師火器營、威遠隊、提標馬步隊，分駐喜峰口、鐵門關、灤陽、灑河橋、遵化、羅文峪迤北迤西等處。光緒七年，李鴻章以北邊多倫廳地兼蒙旗，僅有新舊防軍七百餘人，不敷分佈，增調宣化練軍馬隊一營分段梭巡。十八年，以直隸防軍五營駐古北口。十九年，李鴻章因古北口防營調回內地，而熱河地廣兵單，乃別練馬隊三哨，與原有之朝陽馬隊一營、圍場馬隊百人，互為援應。直隸邊務，重在海疆，東之山海關，為遼、瀋門戶，南之天津、大沽，為京師屏蔽。其北境惟緝捕蒙匪，無事重兵屯戍也。

Zhili’s Mongol frontier: in Yongzheng 9 the province was told to repair the border wall and recruit reinforcements at Gubeikou, Xuanhua, and Datong. Key passes from Dushikou west to Shahekou likewise received additional officers and men. Yongzheng 10 reinstated command posts at Dushikou, added 800 quota troops, and erected deer-fence and timber palisades at critical points on the wall. From the founding Qing through Qianlong and Jiaqing, the Mongol frontier remained tranquil. During Xianfeng and Tongzhi, western campaigns coincided with rising Mongol unrest. Tongzhi 4: over fifty Zhili northern passes were badly undermanned, so Beijing’s Firearms Camp, Weiyuan Detachment, and provincial troops were posted to Xifengkou, Tiemenguan, Luanyang, Sahaoqiao, Zunhua, Luowenyu, and points north and west. Guangxu 7: Li Hongzhang noted Duolun’s mixed Mongol banners had barely 700 defense troops—too few to cover the ground—and added an Xuanhua cavalry battalion for rotating patrols. Guangxu 18 placed five Zhili defense battalions at Gubeikou. Guangxu 19: with Gubeikou troops recalled inland and Rehe vast but weakly garrisoned, Li Hongzhang raised three new cavalry platoons to support the existing Chaoyang battalion and hundred-man hunting-ground detachment. Zhili’s strategic weight lay on the coast: Shanhaiguan guarded the Liaodong approach, while Tianjin and Dagu shielded Beijing. The northern marches needed only patrols against Mongol raiders, not large permanent garrisons.

山西邊界之歸化、綏遠、包頭鎮，控扼草地，毗連大青山，南抵殺虎口，西逾纏金，東接得勝口，與蒙古、回部錯壤。咸豐軍興以後，官兵四齣征討，邊備空虛，寇盜乘機竊發。同治六年，左宗棠督師秦、晉，以山西省弁兵團勇均不可恃，乃分撥營勇，駐守黃河西南兩岸，別募三千人，赴禹門、保德間防守，並造砲船四十艘，酌配水師，駐垣曲、三門一帶。軍事定後，防軍旋撤。光緒間，曾國荃調撥湘軍，擇要屯守，而兵數僅一千二百人。九年，張之洞以雁門關為晉邊要口，止有練軍千人，令各營以次抽練，以固邊防。十年，增練大同、太原二鎮馬步營。衛榮光增練馬隊五旗，以三旗駐口外，二旗駐口內，以佐湘軍之不逮。由山西省迤西，為陝西之北境，惟榆林、神木一隅，地接蒙疆，而障以長城，環以河套，民情馴朴，防務更簡於燕、晉也。

Shanxi’s frontier zone—Guihua, Suiyuan, and Baotou—commanded the grasslands below the Daqing Mountains, from Shahekou south to Chanjin west and Deshengkou east, where Mongol and Muslim lands met. Once the Xianfeng wars began, Shanxi troops were scattered on campaigns, the border was stripped bare, and bandits took advantage. Tongzhi 6: finding Shanxi’s regulars and militia untrustworthy, Zuo Zongtang posted troops along the Yellow River’s southwest banks, raised 3,000 men for the Yumen–Baode sector, and built forty gunboats with sailors at Yuncheng and Sanmen. When fighting ended, the frontier garrison was quickly withdrawn. Under Guangxu, Zeng Guoquan sent Hunan Army detachments to key posts—but only 1,200 men. Guangxu 9: Zhang Zhidong ordered rotational drilling at every camp because Yanmen Pass, Shanxi’s main gateway, had only 1,000 trained troops. Guangxu 10 expanded drilled cavalry and infantry at the Datong and Taiyuan commands. Wei Rongguang added five cavalry banners—three beyond the pass, two within—to supplement the Hunan Army’s gaps. West of Shanxi lies northern Shaanxi: only Yulin and Shenmu touched the Mongol border, but the Great Wall and Ordos loop sheltered them; the population was tractable and defenses lighter than in Hebei or Shanxi.

新疆為西域三十六國故壤，歷代籌邊列戍，近在玉門，遠亦僅龍堆而外。自乾隆年准部平，道光朝回疆定，至光緒間，再定天山，開省治於迪化城，設五府三十六縣。而俄羅斯邊境由北而西，綿延錯亙。自奪取霍罕三部後，伊犁及南路喀什噶爾皆與俄屬相接。全境中界天山，分南北二路。北路為準噶爾部落，西北以伊犁為重鎮，烏魯木齊當往來孔道，塔爾巴哈台為北境屏籓。南路悉回族所居，烏什當適中之地。葉爾羌、喀什噶爾雄冠諸城。英吉薩爾西達外籓。

Xinjiang occupied the old lands of the Western Regions’ thirty-six states; for centuries China had posted garrisons from the Jade Gate to little beyond the Dragon Mounds. After Qianlong crushed the Dzungars and Daoguang secured the Muslim south, Guangxu reconquered the Tianshan, made Dihua the provincial capital, and organized five prefectures and thirty-six counties. Russia’s frontier meanwhile stretched along Xinjiang from north to west in an unbroken chain. Once Russia absorbed the three Kokand khanates, Ili and southern Kashgaria shared a border with Russian holdings. The Tianshan divided the province into a northern and a southern circuit. The north belonged to the Dzungars: Ili was the northwestern stronghold, Ürümqi the main corridor, and Tarbagatai the northern shield. The south was Hui territory, with Wushi at its center. Yarkand and Kashgar were the foremost cities. Yingjisha’er extended westward toward the outer dependencies.

乾隆十八年，以準噶爾逼處邊境，哈密及西藏北路雖已設防，而選將備，具駝馬，簡軍實，勘水草，儲糧餉，修城垣，諸端待理。命疆吏先事籌備，次第施行。哈密已駐重兵，而防所全恃卡倫。天山冰雪嚴寒，加意撫循士卒。南路各城，以滿洲營、綠旗營協同防守。和闐、庫車、辟展諸城，則但設綠旗營兵。其卡倫台站，自哈密西至辟展，北至巴里坤，自辟展西至庫車，北至烏魯木齊，自庫車西至烏什，又西至葉爾羌，又西至喀什噶爾，其南至和闐，視卡倫之大小，定戍兵之多寡。各台站設駝馬車輛毋缺，前行阻水，則造舟以濟之。二十四年，戡定準部，北路重地，咸分兵設防，山川隘口，悉置卡倫台站。各卡倫設索倫、錫伯、厄魯特兵丁自十名至三十餘名有差。各台站設滿洲、綠旗、察哈爾兵丁各十五名。南路各城設辦事大臣。其理事回官阿奇木伯克以下，各有所司，分統回兵，隸駐防大臣調遣。二十六年，設伊犁馬步兵二千五百人。二十七年，設伊犁將軍及參贊領隊大臣。三十一年，設烏魯木齊辦事大臣。

Qianlong 18: with Dzungars on the border, Hami and Tibet’s northern route already had garrisons, yet choosing commanders, stockpiling camels, horses, arms, fodder, grain, and repairing fortifications all remained to be done. Border officials were told to prepare everything in advance and proceed step by step. Though Hami held a large garrison, its defense depended wholly on karun outposts. In the Tianshan’s bitter cold, troops received extra care. Southern cities were held by both Manchu and Green Standard camps. Khotan, Kucha, Pizhan, and similar towns relied on Green Standard troops alone. Karun and courier posts ran from Hami west to Pizhan and north to Barkol; from Pizhan west to Kucha and north to Ürümqi; from Kucha through Wushi and Yarkand to Kashgar, and south to Khotan—garrison strength scaled with each post’s importance. Every station kept full camel, horse, and cart transport; where rivers blocked the route, boats were built to ferry troops. In Qianlong 24, after the Dzungars were crushed, key northern positions were garrisoned and every pass received karun posts. Each karun held ten to thirty-plus Solon, Xibe, or Oirat soldiers depending on need. Each courier station had fifteen Manchu, fifteen Green Standard, and fifteen Chahar troops. Every major southern city received an administrative commissioner. Hui officials from the aqim beg down each managed affairs, commanded local Hui troops, and answered to the garrison commissioner. Qianlong 26 established 2,500 Ili cavalry and infantry. Qianlong 27 created the Ili generalship and brigade commanders. Qianlong 31 added the Ürümqi commissioner.

嘉慶二年，於惠遠城之北關，增調戍兵。

Jiaqing 2 reinforced the north gate garrison outside Huiyuan.

道光六年，以新疆防軍已增至萬餘人，令疆吏調兵四千人赴回疆，二千人赴阿克蘇，協力防堵。又因喀什噶爾防兵較少，於城北要隘增兵三營，城南增兵二營。八年，分遣喀什噶爾防兵四千三百人防守各路，選精壯二千人分十班教練。那彥成因阿克蘇為南路要地，增兵千人，合原有防兵凡二千餘人，以控制南北二路。其冰嶺一路，北通伊犁西南卡倫，外通烏什之捷徑，一律封禁。喀什噶爾、葉爾羌、英吉薩爾各卡倫，向僅駐兵十餘名，乃於各卡倫適中處，凡通霍罕、巴達克山、克什米爾外夷之路，增築土堡，以都司等官率兵駐守，兵數自數十人至二百人不等。九年，於喀什噶爾邊界增卡倫八處。十一年，回疆大定，命參贊大臣駐葉爾羌，總理八城回務，節制巴里坤、伊犁兩路滿、漢兵一萬四千餘人，分防各路。喀什噶爾之八卡倫，道通霍罕，築土堡三座，增建兵房。葉爾羌所屬卡倫，通克什米爾外夷要隘，英吉薩爾通布魯特要隘，各修土堡駐兵。於烏克蘇、烏什二處，各駐八旗兵一千三百人。於喀什噶爾駐綠營兵三千人，為前鋒，兼守邊卡。英吉薩爾駐馬隊五百人，綠營兵千人，為前後二城中權接應之師。巴爾楚克綠營兵三千人，築堡屯守。和闐增足防兵五百人。所餘滿、漢兵六千餘人，悉數駐葉爾羌，隸參贊大臣統轄，遇警援剿。其喀什噶爾、葉爾羌舊額回兵，仍挑補訓練，以替防兵。十四年，以索倫、錫伯、察哈爾、額魯特四處營兵，守衛伊犁沿邊大小卡倫七十餘座，按期會哨，統兵將領，不得輕出邀功。

Daoguang 6: with Xinjiang’s garrison above 10,000, officials sent 4,000 men to the Muslim frontier and 2,000 to Aksu. Kashgar’s thin garrison gained three battalions at the northern passes and two south of the city. Daoguang 8 deployed 4,300 Kashgar troops along all routes and drilled 2,000 picked men in ten rotating squads. Nayancheng reinforced Aksu—a strategic southern hub—with 1,000 men, bringing its garrison above 2,000 to hold both the northern and southern circuits. The Bingling pass route, which linked Ili's southwestern karun posts in the north with the shortcut to Ush beyond, was entirely sealed off. Kashgar, Yarkand, and Yengisar had long kept only a dozen men at each karun post; earthen forts were now built at central points on every route toward Kokand, Badakhshan, and Kashmir, garrisoned by captains and their men in forces of several dozen up to two hundred. In the ninth year, eight new karun posts were established along the Kashgar frontier. In the eleventh year, with the Muslim frontier largely pacified, a Grand Minister Resident was posted at Yarkand to oversee the eight cities' Muslim affairs and command over 14,000 Manchu and Han troops from the Barkul and Ili circuits, deployed along all routes. Along Kashgar's eight karun posts on the Kokand road, three earthen forts were built and new barracks added. At Yarkand's karun posts facing Kashmir and Yengisar's facing the Burut passes, earthen forts were repaired and troops posted at each. At Uqturpan and Ush, 1,300 Eight Banner troops were stationed at each post. Three thousand Green Standard troops were posted at Kashgar as the vanguard, also manning the border karun posts. Yengisar held 500 cavalry and 1,000 Green Standard troops as a mobile reserve between the forward and rear cities. Three thousand Green Standard troops at Maralbeshi built forts and settled in garrison. Khotan's garrison was reinforced by 500 men. The remaining 6,000-odd Manchu and Han troops were concentrated at Yarkand under the Resident's command as a relief force for emergencies. Existing Muslim levies from Kashgar and Yarkand were re-selected, trained, and used to relieve the regular garrison. In the fourteenth year, Solon, Xibe, Chahar, and Oirat detachments manned over seventy karun posts along the Ili frontier on rotating patrols, while field commanders were forbidden to sally forth lightly in search of glory.

咸豐二年，廷臣會議，以新疆南北路駐兵益多，數逾三萬，頻年由內地換防，殊苦煩費，乃於伊犁等處綠營兵內調撥換班，其不足者，就地募之。

In Xianfeng 2, the court concluded that Xinjiang's north and south garrisons had swollen past 30,000 men and that rotating replacements from inland provinces was ruinously costly. Green Standard units at Ili and elsewhere were henceforth rotated internally, with local recruitment to fill any shortfall.

咸、同間，中原用兵，關外南北各城，邊氛四起。同治二年，調察哈爾蒙兵，悉數由科布多赴烏魯木齊屯守。五年，調烏里雅蘇台蒙兵六千人赴伊犁。九年，調黑龍江兵二千人，察哈爾兵千人，馬隊二百餘人，馳赴烏城，並令喀爾喀各盟長，隨時整頓蒙兵。十年，在烏梁海一帶，安設台站，迤西亦一律設台，直抵塔爾巴哈台。十一年，因庫爾喀喇烏蘇等處，為晶河要地，招募勇丁，協同馬隊防守。調宣化、古北口營兵，分赴烏城。十二年，調大同、宣化兵千人，赴防塔爾巴哈台。十三年，以塔城為西路防務扼要之區，調伊犁迤北之察哈爾兵二千人，及蒙古兵益之。尋命左宗棠由關、隴西征，天山內外，次第戡平，而俄羅斯亦歸我伊犁。

During the Xianfeng and Tongzhi reigns, war in the heartland left cities across the northwest frontier beset by unrest on every side. In Tongzhi 2, Chahar Mongol detachments were moved from Khobdo to garrison Urumqi. In the fifth year, 6,000 Mongol troops from Uliastai were sent to Ili. In the ninth year, 2,000 Heilongjiang troops, 1,000 Chahar soldiers, and 200-odd cavalry were rushed to Urumqi, while Khalkha league chiefs were told to keep their Mongol forces in readiness. In the tenth year, courier stations were established through Uriankhai country and continued westward all the way to Tacheng. In the eleventh year, militia were recruited to reinforce the cavalry at Korgas and other key points along the Jing River. Units from the Xuanhua and Gubeikou garrisons were detached and sent to Urumqi. In the twelfth year, 1,000 troops from Datong and Xuanhua were posted to Tacheng. In the thirteenth year, Tacheng being the linchpin of the western defenses, 2,000 Chahar troops from north of Ili were shifted there and supplemented with Mongol forces. Zuo Zongtang was soon ordered west from Shaanxi and Gansu; the lands within and beyond the Tianshan were pacified in turn, and Russia restored Ili to Qing control.

光緒三年，左宗棠於伊犁增築砲台，多駐勁旅。劉錦棠就關外營勇之精壯者，編為制兵，改行餉為坐糧，參用屯田之法，以足軍實。張曜更定新疆營制三事：一、增騎兵，佐步兵之不逮；一、重火器，減養兵之費，為購器之資；一、設游擊之師，駐南北路之間，預防俄患。六年，恭鏜因烏魯木齊之鞏寧城，接壤精河，旁達烏城間道，而舊城已圮，乃於迪化城外高原，別建新城，以駐防兵，而資控扼。十二年，劉錦棠以巴里坤滿營歸併古城，伊犁共駐馬步防軍二十八營，酌裁新募之勇，編留精壯，為馬隊九旗，步隊十三旗，自伊犁至大河沿及精河以東，分路駐防。十四年，額爾慶額因塔爾巴哈台駐防漢隊，久役思歸，就甘肅額兵，及察哈爾部內，選二千六百人調防。十五年，復於塔城增募防兵，凡步隊三營，馬隊四旗，弁勇二千人。十六年，以伊犁滿洲營，經兵亂後，額數久虛，酌量挑補，定為二千人，再挑留錫伯、新滿洲千人，以備不足。伊犁漢隊改立標營，凡步隊一營，馬隊二營，格林砲隊一哨。惠遠城北關設砲隊一哨，定遠城設馬隊三旗。十七年，楊昌濬因塔城境內，漢、蒙、回、哈雜居，東接烏梁海，西接伊犁，地既險要，路復分歧，共增將弁三十一員，步隊三旗，馬隊四旗，以備巡防彈壓。十九年，以總兵官駐防綏定，統漢隊三千人，策應四境，若廣仁城、果子溝、三台、瞻德城、三道河、霍爾果斯、拱宸城、寧遠城，以馬步砲隊分防。三十一年，潘效蘇因新疆兵費過重，改練土著，遣散客軍。回纏民性各殊，以二三成攙入漢軍訓練，漢軍則各營旗皆減為哨，節餉防邊，始能兼顧。

In Guangxu 3, Zuo Zongtang built new batteries at Ili and posted elite troops in strength. Liu Jintang enrolled the sturdiest frontier braves as regulars, converted campaign rations to standing grain allowances, and introduced garrison farming to sustain the army. Zhang Yao reorganized Xinjiang forces around three reforms: first, expand the cavalry to offset infantry weaknesses; second, stress firearms, cut idle-pay expenses, and divert the savings to arms procurement; third, field a mobile column between the northern and southern circuits as a hedge against Russian encroachment. In the sixth year, with Urumqi's Gongning city commanding Jinghe and the track to Urumqi while its old walls lay in ruins, Gong Jin built a new city on the heights outside Dihua to house the garrison and hold the crossroads. In the twelfth year, Liu Jintang merged the Barkul Manchu garrison into Gucheng and concentrated twenty-eight cavalry and infantry camps at Ili; fresh levies were trimmed, the best men formed into nine cavalry and thirteen infantry banners, and posts were distributed from Ili through Daheyuan and east of Jinghe. In the fourteenth year, with Tacheng's long-serving Han garrison eager to rotate home, Erqing'e drew 2,600 replacements from Gansu's allotted troops and the Chahar banners. In the fifteenth year, Tacheng recruited another 2,000 defenders in three infantry battalions and four cavalry banners. In the sixteenth year, the Ili Manchu garrison, depleted by war, was brought back to 2,000 men with selective recruitment, plus 1,000 Xibe and new Manchu reserves held in readiness. Ili's Han force was reorganized as a brigade of one infantry battalion, two cavalry battalions, and a Gatling gun section. A gun section was posted at Huiyuan's north gate, and three cavalry banners at Dingyuan. In the seventeenth year, Yang Changjun, noting Tacheng's mixed Han, Mongol, Muslim, and Kazakh population, its rugged terrain between Uriankhai and Ili, and its maze of tracks, added thirty-one officers plus three infantry and four cavalry banners for patrol and pacification. In the nineteenth year, a brigade general at Suiding commanded 3,000 Han troops covering the four marches, with cavalry, infantry, and artillery detachments posted at Guangren, Guozigou, Santai, Zhande, Sandao River, Khorgos, Gongchen, and Ningyuan. In the thirty-first year, Pan Xiaosu, facing crushing military costs in Xinjiang, turned to training local recruits and disbanded outside contingents. Because frontier Muslim communities differed in character, two or three men in ten were folded into Han units for training, while Han banners were pared to squad strength so pay could be saved and the border still held.

宣統二年，札拉豐阿因塔爾巴哈台屏蔽西北，以原有馬步砲隊，及左右旗蒙、滿隊，悉改新式操法。時中朝方議減餉裁兵，未遑遠略。俄羅斯正經營東陲，遂暫安無事雲。

In Xuantong 2, Zhala Feng'a retrained Tacheng's cavalry, infantry, artillery, and Mongol-Manchu banner units—all shielding the northwest—in modern drill. The court was then absorbed in pay cuts and troop reductions and had little attention for frontier strategy. Russia was busy consolidating its eastern holdings, and the frontier enjoyed a brief calm—thus the account closes.

西藏初設駐藏大臣，而番眾仍統屬於喇嘛。當崇德七年，達賴、班禪與厄魯特同時入貢。順治、康熙間，朝請不絕。康熙之季，準噶爾侵藏，由西寧進兵平之。

Though a Resident Minister was first appointed to Tibet, the frontier population remained under lama rule. In Chongde 7, the Dalai Lama, Panchen Lama, and Oirat leaders all presented tribute together. Throughout the Shunzhi and Kangxi reigns, embassies to court never ceased. Late in the Kangxi reign the Dzungars invaded Tibet; Qing forces marched from Xining and restored order.

雍正五年，弭噶隆之爭，以頗羅鼐有定亂功，進封郡王。十年，留雲南兵於察木多，以防番眾。

In Yongzheng 5, after quelling the Gyalrong conflict, Polhané was raised to princely rank for his service in restoring order. In the tenth year, a Yunnan detachment was left at Chamdo to watch the frontier tribes.

乾隆十五年，除頗羅鼐王爵，始設駐藏大臣，與達賴、班禪參互制之。其西南之廓爾喀，時窺藏境，中朝以兵力佐之，收復巴勒布所侵佔藏地，增設塘汛守兵十三處，以寨落之多寡為衡，前藏增唐古特兵八百人，後藏增四百人。五十四年，始於前後藏各設番兵千人。其通內地之定日、江孜二處要隘，各設番兵五百人，就近選補。設戴琫三人，以二人駐後藏，一人駐定日。增江孜戴琫一人。前藏番兵隸駐防游擊，後藏番兵隸駐防都司。令四川督臣以頭等將備為駐藏之選，統以大臣。其駐藏之兵，令駐藏大臣親為校閱。嗣因定日、江孜為各部落來藏必經之路，各增防汛，設守備等官。打箭爐之外，擇地設游擊等官。五十八年，和琳等會勘後藏邊界及鄂博情形，江孜番、漢兵已敷防守，惟定日地方遼闊，為聶拉木、宗喀、絨轄三處總匯之區，其捷徑如轄爾多、古利噶等處，均為要隘，增設番兵，統以戴琫，修寨落以備棲止，立鄂博以守界畫。

In Qianlong 15, Polhané was stripped of his title and a Resident Minister was installed to balance the Dalai and Panchen Lamas. Nepal to the southwest often eyed Tibetan territory; imperial troops helped recover Gurkha-occupied lands, added thirteen river-post garrisons scaled to local settlements, and raised Tibetan levies by 800 in front Tibet and 400 in the rear. In the fifty-fourth year, 1,000-man Tibetan militia units were first formed in both front and rear Tibet. At Dingri and Gyantse, the key gateways to inland China, 500 Tibetan troops apiece were stationed and filled from nearby districts. Three daibing officers were appointed—two in rear Tibet and one at Dingri. Gyantse received an additional daibing post. Front-Tibetan militia answered to the garrison brigade officer; rear-Tibetan militia to the garrison captain. The Sichuan governor was directed to nominate senior generals for Tibetan service, all under the Resident's command. Troops in Tibet were to be inspected in person by the Resident Minister. Later, as Dingri and Gyantse lay on every tribe's route into Tibet, river-post defenses were strengthened and defender-grade officers appointed at both. Beyond Dartsendo, mobile-strike officers and similar posts were placed at chosen sites. In the fifty-eighth year, Helin and colleagues surveyed rear Tibet's borders and boundary markers. Gyantse was adequately manned, but vast Dingri—hub of Nyalam, Zhongga, and Rongxia and gateway by routes such as Xia'erduo and Guliga—received added militia under a daibing, repaired villages for shelter, and new obos to mark the frontier.

道光二年，懲治聶拉木、絨轄各營官私釋喇嘛之罪，別遣番兵補營兵之額。二十一年，令番兵習弓矢者，改習鳥槍。二十二年，令後藏大臣督率將弁教練堆葛爾本挖金番民武技。

In Daoguang 2, officers at Nyalam and Rongxia were punished for unlawfully releasing lamas, and Tibetan militia replaced the disbanded camp rolls. In the twenty-first year, Tibetan troops trained in archery were ordered to take up muskets instead. In the twenty-second year, the rear-Tibet minister was told to drill officers and train the fighting skills of Derge and other gold-mining frontier communities.

咸豐五年，以廓爾喀不靖，駐防兵單，令喇嘛等聯絡防範，調前藏僧俗土兵二千人赴策墊地方防範。

In Xianfeng 5, with Nepal restless and the garrison thin, lamas were enlisted in the defense network and 2,000 front-Tibetan monk, lay, and militia forces were sent to the Cejian sector.

同治四年，駐藏大臣滿慶等，調派土兵及統兵番員防備披楞。八年，因披楞侵佔哲孟雄，與唐古特相持，令恩麟等整頓後藏番、漢營伍。十一年，命德泰赴藏，校閱江孜、定日後藏三汛防營，以固哲孟雄及聶拉木門戶。

In Tongzhi 4, Resident Manqing deployed local militia and Tibetan officers to guard the Bhutanese frontier. In the eighth year, after Bhutan seized Sikkim and clashed with Tibetan forces, Enlin was ordered to reorganize rear Tibet's Tibetan and Han garrisons. In the eleventh year, Detai was sent to Tibet to review the Gyantse, Dingri, and rear-Tibet river garrisons and shore up Sikkim and the Nyalam passes.

光緒二十四年，駐藏大臣文海因後藏定日地方營伍及靖西設防，駐藏大臣久未巡視，乃率兵親往各處校閱。光緒季年，駐藏大臣聯豫仿內地制，設武備學堂，擇營弁衛隊及達木三十九族中之優秀者，習速成科，俟畢業後，先練一營，以開風氣。

In Guangxu 24, Resident Wenhai, finding that rear-Tibetan camps at Dingri and the western defense line had not been inspected for years, led troops in person to review every post. Late in Guangxu, Resident Lian Yu founded a military academy on the inland model, enrolling promising officers' guardsmen and youths from the thirty-nine Dam tribes in a crash course; one battalion would be trained first upon graduation to set the example.

宣統二年，聯豫因工布平定，以馬步砲隊工程隊分地駐守。旋疏請裁去幫辦大臣，設左右參贊，分駐前後藏。三年，波密野番滋事，即以工布之兵剿辦，並以步隊擇地駐防，為各營後援。

In Xuantong 2, with Kongpo subdued, Lian Yu distributed cavalry, infantry, artillery, and engineer detachments across the region. He soon memorialized to abolish the assistant minister, create left and right counselors, and station them in front and rear Tibet respectively. In the third year, unrest among wild tribes in Bomi was suppressed with Kongpo troops, while infantry detachments were posted as a reserve behind the main camps.

至川軍入藏之舉，始於雍正初年，準噶爾窺邊，詔以川、陝兵二千人駐防，設正副大臣，分駐前後藏。其時雲南省軍隊亦分途入藏。事定，仍撤歸原省。歷朝鎮撫藏地，多用漢軍、番卒。至光緒三十一年，四川督臣錫良奏調川軍出打箭爐，並招募土勇為嚮導，以剿竄回。是年八月，巴塘喇嘛戕害大臣，全藏震動。四川提督馬維祺、建昌道趙爾豐合兵進克巴塘、里塘，勘平邊亂。三十二年，里塘逆番桑披復率眾倡亂，錫良命趙爾豐等以川軍討平之。其時番僧與北部回民日就衰弱，全藏邊境，為英吉利、俄羅斯遠勢所包，藏事遂不可問雲。

Sichuan troops first entered Tibet in early Yongzheng, when Dzungar pressure on the border prompted an edict posting 2,000 Sichuan and Shaanxi men under chief and deputy ministers in front and rear Tibet. Yunnan forces entered Tibet at the same time by separate routes. Once order was restored, all were withdrawn to their home provinces. Dynasty after dynasty had relied chiefly on Han troops and Tibetan levies to hold Tibet. By Guangxu 31, Governor Xiliang of Sichuan had moved Sichuan troops through Dartsendo and enlisted local guides to hunt down roving Muslim rebels. In the eighth month of that year, lamas at Batang murdered the imperial commissioner, convulsing the whole plateau. Sichuan brigade general Ma Weiji and circuit intendant Zhao Erfeng of Jiancheng advanced together, recovered Batang and Litang, and pacified the border uprising. In the thirty-second year, the rebel lama Samdup at Litang rose again; Xiliang sent Zhao Erfeng and Sichuan troops to crush the revolt. Tibetan clergy and northern Muslim communities were weakening daily, while British and Russian pressure closed in on every frontier pass—Tibet's fate was no longer in Qing hands—thus the account closes.

苗疆當貴州、湖南之境，叛服靡常，歷朝皆剿撫兼施。康熙三十八年，以鎮筸居苗疆衝要，改沅州鎮為鎮筸鎮，設總兵以下各官，增額兵千人，合原有之兵凡二千一百人，以防紅苗。雍正九年，復增兵二千人。是年，鄂爾泰因都江與清水江形勢劃分，增設清江鎮標，以新設之丹江、台拱等營，及原有之銅仁、鎮遠等營，咸隸清江鎮。而以都勻、黎平，並上江、下江各協、營，隸於古州鎮總兵。乾隆元年，楊名時銳意治苗，以貴州省苗眾分生熟二苗，生苗在南，熟苗在北，乃屯駐重兵於內地，而擇鄰苗之要道，增修壁壘，使民有所歸，兵有可守，遇苗眾出巢滋事，則互相援剿，戰勝勿事窮追，兼撫熟苗，俾漸知向化。五年，那蘇圖因永順所屬，緊接苗疆，且與湖北省之容美土司、四川省之酉陽土司連界，乃以永順協標兵改隸鎮筸鎮總兵，聯絡楚南聲勢，合力防苗。

The Miao frontier straddled Guizhou and Hunan, where tribes alternated between revolt and submission; every dynasty had paired force with conciliation. In Kangxi 38, Zhenqian's strategic position on the Miao marches prompted renaming the Yuanzhou garrison as Zhenqian, with a brigade general and staff, 1,000 added to the rolls, and 2,100 men in all to hold the Red Miao in check. In Yongzheng 9, the garrison was reinforced by another 2,000 men. That year Ortai, noting how the Duliu and Qingshui rivers divided the terrain, created the Qingjiang brigade, placing new posts at Danjiang and Taigong alongside older camps at Tongren and Zhenyuan under its command. Duyun, Liping, and the upper- and lower-river brigades and camps were placed under the brigade general at Guzhou. In Qianlong 1, Yang Mingshi pressed a systematic Miao policy: Guizhou's tribes were classed as "raw" in the south and "cooked" in the north. He massed troops inland, fortified key approaches, gave settlers protected villages, and garrisoned defensible posts. When raw Miao raided, neighboring units supported one another but were told not to pursue to annihilation, while cooked Miao were conciliated toward allegiance. In the fifth year, Nasutu, noting that Yongshun abutted the Miao frontier and bordered the Rongmei chieftain in Hubei and the Youyang chieftain in Sichuan, transferred Yongshun's brigade troops to Zhenqian's command to link Hunan's southern defenses against the Miao.

嘉慶初年，戡定苗疆以後，於鳳凰、乾州、永綏、古丈坪、保靖各廳縣，沿邊次第建修屯堡碉台，築邊牆以嚴界畫，築土堡以資守御，築哨台以憑瞭望，碉卡則戰守咸資，砲台則堵截尤利。設練勇千餘人，屯丁七千人，墾闢屯防田十三萬一千餘畝，悉以屯兵耕種。其地皆附近碉堡，以便駐守，且節餉糈。歷嘉、道兩朝，沿邊寧謐。

Early in Jiaqing, after the Miao frontier was pacified, Fenghuang, Qianzhou, Yongshou, Guzhangping, and Baojing built garrison forts and watchtowers along the line, border walls to mark the frontier, earthen strongpoints for defense, and lookout posts—blockhouses for fighting and holding, batteries especially for blocking passes. Over 1,000 drilled militia and 7,000 settler-soldiers were posted, and more than 131,000 mu of garrison farmland opened, all tilled by the troops themselves. Plots lay close to the forts for easy defense and to cut the cost of rations. Through the Jiaqing and Daoguang eras the frontier remained quiet.

咸豐軍興以後，苗眾乘機肆擾。至同治年，席寶田等大舉平苗，雖間有剽掠之事，以防勇隨時剿撫。光緒十二年，譚鈞培因苗民馴擾無常，乃仿傅鼐防苗之法，增修石碉土堡，由附郭而漸及山林險阻之處，互為守望，以備苗民出入，於舊日之苗疆營制，無所變更也。

After the wars of the Xianfeng era, Miao bands took advantage of the turmoil to raid at will. In the Tongzhi period Xi Baotian and others conducted a major Miao campaign; sporadic looting was handled by local defense forces through prompt suppression or conciliation. In Guangxu 12, Tan Junpei, finding Miao communities alternately submissive and predatory, followed Fu Nao's frontier model and added stone and earthen forts from the county seats into the hills, with mutual watch posts to control movement—without altering the older Miao garrison structure.

沿邊墩台、卡倫、鄂博、碉堡，清初於各省邊境扼要處，設立墩台營房，有警則守兵舉煙為號。寇至百人者，掛一席，鳴一砲；至三百人者，掛二席，鳴二砲；至五百人者，掛三席，鳴三砲；至千人者，掛五席，鳴五砲；至萬人者，掛七席，連砲傳遞。康熙七年，諭各省將領，凡水陸孔道之旁，均設墩台營房，駐宿兵丁，傳報緊急軍機，稽察匪類，護衛行人。乾隆三年，兵部議定汛兵缺少處，按地方★僻情形，酌量撥補器械，務令整備，隨時察驗。有離汛誤防者革責，官吏嚴懲之。

Border beacon towers, karun posts, obos, and blockhouses: in early Qing, critical points on provincial frontiers were furnished with beacon towers and barracks whose garrisons lit signal fires at the first alarm. A force of one hundred raiders was signaled by one banner mat and one gunshot; three hundred by two mats and two shots; five hundred raiders called for three banner mats and three gunshots; one thousand by five mats and five shots; ten thousand triggered seven mats and guns relayed in chain along the beacon line; In Kangxi 7 an edict went to provincial commanders to post beacon towers and barracks along every major route by land or water, with troops housed there to relay urgent dispatches, hunt bandits, and protect travelers. In Qianlong 3 the Ministry of War ordered that shortages in frontier garrisons be made up with arms suited to local remoteness, with kit kept complete and inspected regularly. Troops who abandoned post faced demotion and discipline; their officers faced stern punishment.

其軍台之制，始於順治四年，自張家口迤西，黃河迤東，設台三百四十四座，台軍七百三十二名。自張家口迄山海關迤西，設台四百十七座，台車一千二百五十一名。

Military relay stations dated from Shunzhi 4: from Zhangjiakou west and east of the Yellow River, 344 stations manned by 732 relay troops. From Zhangjiakou to Shanhaiguan and beyond, 417 stations with 1,251 relay-cart crews.

蒙古各旗台、卡、鄂博之制，以大漠一望無垠，凡內外札薩克之游牧，各限以界，或以鄂博，或以卡倫。盛京、吉林則以柳條邊為界，依內興安嶺而設。其內蒙古通驛要口凡五道，曰喜峰口、古北口、獨石口、張家口、殺虎口，以達於各旗。內蒙路近，商旅通行，水草無艱。其外蒙古之驛，則由阿爾泰軍台以達於邊境各卡倫。康熙朝征準噶爾時，設定邊左副將軍，而外蒙古軍台之設，由內而外，其制始密。自察哈爾而北，而西北，而又西，迄烏里雅蘇台，共置四十八台。康熙三十一年，自古北口至烏珠木秦，置台九。自獨石口至浩齊忒，置台六。自張家口至四子部落，置台五。自張家口至歸化城，置台六。自殺虎口至吳喇忒，置台九。自歸化城至鄂爾多斯，置台八。自喜峰口至扎賴特，置台十六。乾隆三十四年，自喜峰口路扎賴特盡處起，置台十四。自古北口路烏珠木秦盡處起，置台六。自殺虎口路吳喇忒大路外起，置台七。自張家口路四子部落盡處起，置台十六。喀爾喀則自備郵站。其東路首站曰尼爾得尼拖羅海，西路首站曰哈拉尼敦，後路首站曰肯特山。迤邐而北，直抵三音諾顏境，其首站曰博羅布爾哈蘇。凡汗、王、貝勒過境，警晨夜，飼牲畜。商旅出其途，亦資捍衛焉。

In the Mongol leagues, relay stations, karun posts, and obos marked a steppe without landmarks: every inner and outer jasak was allotted grazing bounds, defined by obos or karun as the case required. In Shengjing and Jilin the Willow Palisade formed the line, with posts aligned along the Inner Khingan. Inner Mongolia was served by five great courier passes—Xifengkou, Gubeikou, Dushikou, Zhangjiakou, and Shankou—linking the banners. Routes in Inner Mongolia were short, travel easy, and fodder plentiful. Outer Mongol relays extended from the Altai military line to frontier karun posts. During the Zunghar campaigns Kangxi appointed a frontier deputy commander and built Outer Mongol relay stations from the interior outward, tightening the network. From Chahar north and northwest to Uliastai, forty-eight stations were established. Kangxi 31 added nine stations from Gubeikou to Uzhumuchin. Six stations linked Dushikou and Khoqit. Five stations ran from Zhangjiakou to the Sizi tribe. Six stations connected Zhangjiakou and Guihua Cheng. Nine stations spanned Shankou and Urad. Eight stations ran from Guihua Cheng into Ordos. Sixteen stations linked Xifengkou and Zhalaid. Qianlong 34 extended the Xifengkou–Zhalaid line with fourteen new stations beyond its former terminus. Six stations were added beyond the Gubeikou–Uzhumuchin endpoint. Seven stations were placed past the Shankou–Urad highway. Sixteen stations continued the Zhangjiakou–Sizi line beyond its old limit. Khalkha maintained its own relay posts. The eastern line began at Nierdeni Tuoluo Hai, the western at Halanidun, and the rear at Kent Shan. A northern branch wound to Setsen Khan country, opening at Boluobuer Hasu. When khans, wang, or beile traveled the line, posts kept day-and-night watch and tended their herds. Merchants on the same roads gained protection as well.

圍場卡倫之制，規取高地為之，或於岡，或於阪，或于山川之隙，隨宜設置。其柳條邊境之設立卡倫者，東為崖口，西為濟爾哈朗圖，北為色堪達巴漢色欽等處，又西為庫爾圖羅海等處，又南為木壘喀喇沁等處，又南而西為珠爾噶岱等處，又南為海拉蘇台等處，又南而東為巴倫克得依等處。老柳邊在外，卡倫在內。其故地在周阹之中者，為翁牛特，為哈喇沁，為敖漢，為奈曼，為喀爾喀，左翼等故地咸在焉。

Hunting-preserve karun were sited on high ground—ridge, slope, or river gap—as terrain dictated. Along the Willow Palisade, karun stood at Yankou in the east, Jierhalangtu in the west, Sekandabahan Seqin and like points in the north, then Kurtuluohai, Mulei Kalaqin, Zhuergadai, Hailasutai, and Balunkedeyi farther south and west. The old palisade lay outward; the karun ring lay within it. Within the enclosure lay the old domains of Ongniud, Kharachin, Aohan, Naiman, Khalkha Left Wing, and others.

其恰克圖及沿邊鄂博、卡倫之制，因山河以表鄂博，無山河則表以卡倫。鄂博者，華言石堆也。其制有二：以壘為鄂博，以山河為鄂博。蒙古二十五部落，察哈爾牧廠八旗各如其境，以鄂博為防。其與俄羅斯接界，中間隙地，蒙古語曰薩布。凡薩布皆立鄂博以申畫之。恰克圖之中、俄邊界，凡俄國卡倫、房屋，在鄂爾懷圖山頂，中國鄂博、卡倫，適中而平分之。如有山河，即橫斷山河為界。由沙畢納依嶺至額爾古訥河岸，向陽為中國，背陰為俄國。蓋沿邊之地，自黑龍江、庫倫、烏里雅蘇台、科布多四屬迤邐而西，凡八十二卡倫。科布多所屬極西之卡倫，曰和尼邁拉呼。由此渡額爾齊斯河至輝邁拉呼一帶卡倫，均與俄羅斯接壤。

At Kyakhta and along the frontier, obos followed rivers and ridges where nature allowed; otherwise karun marked the line. Obo, in Chinese, means a cairn of stones. Two kinds existed: piled-stone obos and obos defined by natural features. All twenty-five tribes and the eight Chahar pasture banners marked their pastures with obos as boundary defense. The neutral strip between Qing and Russian territory was called sabu in Mongol. Every sabu zone was delineated with obos. At Kyakhta, Russian karun and dwellings stood on Erhuaitu peak while Chinese obos and karun were placed at the midpoint to divide the border evenly. Where mountains or rivers existed, the boundary cut straight across them. From Shabinay ridge to the Ergun, the sunny bank was Chinese and the shady bank Russian. Along the frontier from Heilongjiang, Urga, Uliastai, and Kobdo westward there were eighty-two karun in all. Kobdo's farthest western karun was Henimailahu. From there across the Irtysh to the Huimailahu line, every karun faced Russian territory.

其在黑龍江境內之卡倫，以將軍轄之。在蒙古喀爾喀等部落之卡倫，按其游牧遠近，每卡倫設章京一員，率兵攜眷戍守。遇森林叢雜，難立鄂博、卡倫之處，則削大樹而刊識之。

Karun in Heilongjiang fell under the frontier general. On the Khalkha and other Mongol steppes each karun had a janggin commanding troops and families according to grazing distances. In thick forest where obos or karun could not stand, great trees were blazed and carved as markers.

自同治七年裁撤科布多境內卡倫以後，各項哈薩克人赴界強據。光緒初年，乃於烏克克等處，由沁達蓋圖烏爾魯向西南至馬尼嘎圖勒幹止，與塔爾巴哈台卡倫相接，一千數百里之要隘，與俄羅斯接壤者，均設卡倫。所有協理台吉等員，咸復舊制。

After Tongzhi 7 abolished Kobdo's karun, Kazakh groups seized the frontier by force. Early in Guangxu, karun were restored from Wukeke through Qindagaitu Wuluru southwest to Manigatu Legan, linking Tarbagatai and guarding more than a thousand li of Russian frontier. Assistant taiji and related posts were all reinstated under the former regulations.

其新疆全境之卡倫，分南北二路。北路之塔爾巴哈台，與科布多毗連，以額爾齊斯河為界，河東卡倫隸科布多，河西卡倫隸塔爾巴哈台。自輝邁拉呼至塔城，夏季設大小卡倫十三處，冬季設卡倫八處。此外皆哈薩克游牧之地。塔城西南一帶卡倫八處，界連伊犁。卡倫以外，為哈薩克游牧。伊犁東北七百餘里，與塔城接界之處，由哈布塔海達闌一帶而南，設大小卡倫二十三處。此外亦哈薩克游牧。又西而南，至伊犁河北岸，設大小卡倫八處，乃索倫領隊大臣專轄。自伊犁河南而西，設大小卡倫十六處，乃錫伯領隊大臣專轄。卡倫之外，與哈薩克接壤。其錫伯屯牧西南，因有回子屯所，每年夏秋設卡倫於達耳達木圖，以資巡察。由錫伯卡倫迤西轉南而東，設大小卡倫十七處，乃厄魯特領隊大臣專轄。西南為布魯特游牧，西北為哈薩克游牧。又厄魯特游牧東南，界連喀喇沙爾之土爾扈特、和碩特游牧，設大小卡倫八處，亦厄魯特領隊大臣專轄。其伊犁城北塔耳奇一帶，及伊犁河渡口，設卡倫七處，專為哈薩克貿易交通，並稽察逃人而設，乃惠寧領隊大臣專轄。此伊犁及塔爾巴哈台大小卡倫之方向也。

Xinjiang's karun were organized in northern and southern sectors. Northern Tarbagatai adjoined Kobdo along the Irtysh: karun east of the river answered to Kobdo, those west to Tarbagatai. From Huimailahu to Tacheng the garrison ran thirteen large and small karun in summer and eight in winter. Beyond those posts lay Kazakh pasture. Eight karun southwest of Tacheng bordered Ili. Past the karun line Kazakh herds ranged freely. Some seven hundred li northeast of Ili, along the Tacheng frontier from Habutai Dalan southward, stood twenty-three large and small karun. Beyond them again was Kazakh pasture. Farther west and south to the north bank of the Ili River, eight karun fell under the Solon commandant. Sixteen karun west of the southern Ili were commanded by the Xibe commandant. Beyond the karun lay Kazakh territory. Southwest of the Xibe settlements, near Hui farming colonies, seasonal karun at Da'erdamutu patrolled each summer and autumn. Seventeen karun west, south, and east of the Xibe line were held by the Olot commandant. Kyrgyz grazed to the southwest, Kazakhs to the northwest. Eight more karun on the Olot southeast flank, facing Torghut and Khoshut pastures of Karashahr, likewise answered to the Olot commandant. Seven karun north of Ili city at Ta'erqi and the river crossings, under the Huining commandant, guarded Kazakh trade routes and hunted fugitives. Such was the disposition of karun in Ili and Tarbagatai.

其南路自伊犁南經木蘇耳達巴罕至回疆烏什城西北一帶，設卡倫六處，外通布魯特，乃烏什辦事大臣專轄。自烏什而西，經草地及布魯特游牧地樹窩子等處七百餘里，直達喀什噶爾城，由城東北而西轉南，設卡倫十七處，外通布魯特，西達霍罕安集延，乃喀什噶爾領隊大臣專轄。自喀什噶爾東南行二百餘里，至英吉沙爾城，由城西北而南，設卡倫十二處，外通布魯特，西南行千數百里，至巴達克山，乃英吉沙爾領隊大臣專轄。自英吉沙爾東行三百餘里，至葉爾羌城，由城西南轉而東北，設卡倫七處，西南一帶，外通布魯特，東北一帶，專為稽查逃人，乃葉爾羌辦事大臣專轄。又東南行七百餘里，至和闐城，城外之東西河，共設卡倫十二處，為稽查采玉回民，又札馬耳路通阿克蘇，專設卡倫一處，均和闐領隊大臣專轄。自葉爾羌東北行一千四百里，至阿克蘇城，其東北路通著勒士斯，專設卡倫一處，稽查喀喇沙爾所屬之土耳扈特游牧，乃阿克蘇辦事大臣專轄。又東北行七百餘里，至庫車城，由城西北而南，設卡倫五處，又東北行八百餘里，至喀喇沙爾城，城之東北設卡倫二處，又東北行九百餘里，至吐魯番城，由城西南而東，設卡倫六處，又東北行一千七百餘里，至哈密城，城東北設卡倫四處，均由駐紮各城大臣專轄。此回疆各城所屬大小卡倫之方向也。

The southern line ran from Ili over Musuer Dabahan to northwest Ush, where six karun under the Ush minister opened toward Kyrgyz country. West from Ush, seven hundred li through steppe and Kyrgyz pasture to Kashgar, seventeen karun under the Kashgar commandant faced Kyrgyz lands and the routes to Kokand and Andijan. Two hundred li southeast of Kashgar, Yengisar's twelve karun, under its commandant, watched Kyrgyz approaches and the thousand-li road to Badakhshan. Three hundred li east to Yarkand, seven karun under the Yarkand minister faced Kyrgyz country to the southwest and fugitive routes to the northeast. Seven hundred li farther to Khotan, twelve karun on the eastern and western rivers policed jade diggers, with one more on the Zhamar road to Aksu—all under the Khotan commandant. Fourteen hundred li northeast to Aksu, where one karun on the road to Chale Shisi watched Torghut herds of Karashahr, under the Aksu minister. Northeastward in turn: seven hundred li to Kuche with five karun; eight hundred to Karashahr with two; nine hundred to Turfan with six; seventeen hundred to Hami with four—each city under its resident minister. Such was the layout of karun across the Muslim frontier cities.

自咸、同朝回逆鴟張，俄羅斯復乘機蠶食，邊堠盡廢。迨新疆定後，至光緒五年，收回伊犁，與俄羅斯畫定邊界，規復舊日卡倫之制。卡倫之例有三：其在內者曰常設卡倫，在外者曰移設卡倫，最在外者曰添設卡倫。三者惟常設卡倫為永遠駐守之地。餘皆值氣候和暖則外展，寒則內遷，進退盈縮，或千里，或數百里不等，沙漠浩蕩，漫無定準，皆在常設卡倫之外。自西域亂作，凡移設、添設之卡倫，悉為俄人所攘奪。左宗棠平定新疆，乃與俄羅斯重定界約，凡常設卡倫以外，均作為甌脫之地，中、俄邊境之民，彼此不居，以免逼處。其常設卡倫，嚴申舊制，邊烽少息矣。

From the Xianfeng and Tongzhi eras, as Muslim rebels rose and Russia encroached, the frontier beacons fell into ruin. After Xinjiang was pacified, the recovery of Ili in Guangxu 5 and a new boundary with Russia revived the old karun network. Karun fell into three classes: permanent posts on the inner line, seasonal posts pushed outward in summer, and forward posts pushed farthest out. Only the permanent karun were manned year-round. The others advanced in warm seasons and withdrew in cold, sometimes a thousand li, sometimes hundreds, across trackless desert beyond the permanent line. Once the western regions erupted in rebellion, Russia seized every seasonal and forward karun. After Zuo Zongtang pacified Xinjiang, a new treaty with Russia turned all ground beyond the permanent karun into a neutral buffer where neither side would settle, lest the populations press against each other. Permanent karun were manned under the old rules, and frontier alarms grew rare.

其黔、楚苗疆碉堡之制，始於嘉慶朝征苗之役，傅鼐精練鄉兵，遍設碉堡，師苗技以制苗，遂平邊患。自湖南乾州界之木林坪起，至中營之四路口，築圍牆百數十里，以杜竄擾。其險隘處增設屯堡，聯以碉卡。鳳凰廳境內，設堡卡碉台八百八十七座。永綏廳境內，設堡卡碉台一百三十二座。乾州廳境內，設汛碉一百二十一處。古丈坪及保縣境內，設汛碉六十九處。環苗疆數百里，烽燧相望，聲息相聞。關牆則沿山澗建之。砲台則擇衝要處築之，哨台則於關牆之隙修之。卡碉屯堡，則因地制宜，或品字式，或一字式，或梅花式。其修建之制，關牆則土石兼施，砲台則以石砌，而築土以實中心，哨台亦石砌，環鑿槍孔，高峻堅實。碉樓之制亦然。關牆以嚴邊界，砲台以備堵截戰守，哨台為巡邏瞭望之用，屯堡為邊民聚衛之所，卡碉則戰守兼資。其防守兵丁，有警則荷戈，無事則秉耒，進攻退守，為持久計，以待敵之可勝，遂以底定蠻荒雲。

Blockhouses in the Guizhou and Hunan Miao marches began with the Jiaqing campaigns: Fu Nao trained local militia, built blockhouses on every height, and turned Miao tactics against them until the frontier was quiet. From Mulinping on the Qianzhou border to Silukou at Zhongying, a palisade wall of more than a hundred li blocked infiltration. At choke points they added garrison hamlets linked by blockhouses and karun posts. Fenghuang district held 887 forts, karun posts, blockhouses, and watch towers. Yongshui district had 132 such strongpoints. Qianzhou maintained 121 garrison blockhouses on rotation. Guzhangping and Baoxian together had 69 rotation blockhouses. For hundreds of li around the Miao country, beacon towers stood within sight and earshot of one another. Barrier walls followed ridges and ravines. Gun batteries rose at critical points; watch towers filled gaps in the barrier wall. Karun, blockhouses, and garrison hamlets were laid out as terrain required—in pin-shaped, linear, or plum-blossom formations. Barrier walls mixed earth and stone; gun platforms were stone-faced with packed earth cores; watch towers were stone-built with loopholes ringing the walls—lofty, steep, and solid. Blockhouse towers followed the same rule. Barrier walls sealed the line; gun batteries blocked and fought; watch towers patrolled and watched; garrison hamlets sheltered border communities; karun blockhouses served both attack and defense. The garrison troops took up arms when alarm sounded and returned to the plow in peacetime, advancing to strike and falling back to hold as a long-term strategy until the enemy could be overcome—thus the tribal frontier was brought to lasting order.

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