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卷370 列傳一百五十七 琦善 伊里布 宗室耆英

Volume 370 Biographies 157: Qi Shan, Yi Libu, Zong Shiqiying

Chapter 370 of 清史稿 · Draft History of Qing
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1
滿 使 使使 使調 調 沿 '' 退 貿 貿西 貿 調 簿 西使使 西調 使祿 調 貿 沿 退退 調 西 調 退 退 祿 調 西 調 使鹿 西 調 西 貿 退 祿
Qi Shan. Qi Shan, whose style was Jing'an, belonged to the Borjigit clan and was a Manchu of the Plain Yellow Banner. His father Chengde served as military governor of Rehe. An earlier ancestor, Gedeli'er, had led his followers in submission to the dynasty, and the family thereafter held a hereditary first-class marquisate. Qi Shan entered official life by hereditary privilege as a vice director in the Ministry of Justice and rose in due course to vice commissioner of the Office of Transmission. In the nineteenth year of the Jiaqing reign (1814), he was appointed Henan provincial judicial commissioner and later served as provincial treasurer in Jiangning and Henan. In the twenty-fourth year of Jiaqing (1819), he was promoted to governor of Henan. When the Yellow River burst at Maying Dam, he joined Minister Wu Jin in supervising repairs. The breach had scarcely been closed when the south bank at Yifeng gave way again. He was dismissed from office but kept on the works with the nominal rank of department director. He was soon appointed Henan provincial judicial commissioner and then transferred to Shandong. In the first year of the Daoguang reign (1821), he was promoted to provincial governor on the spot. On his father's death he was excused from mourning leave to remain in office and succeeded to the family marquisate. He captured and punished the Linqing sect rebel Ma Jinzhong and raised eight hundred thousand taels for repairs at the Gaojiayan embankment. In the fifth year of Daoguang (1825), the capital evaluation brought an edict praising his clarity, drive, and willingness to bear hardship and blame, and he was granted the nominal rank of governor-general. He was soon promoted to governor-general of the Two Jiangs and concurrently served as acting grain transport commissioner. The Gaoyan embankment had repeatedly failed, silt had choked the canal, and grain transport was blocked. Qi Shan proposed relay transport along the route and a temporary switch to sea shipment; both plans were carried out. In the seventh year (1827), he proposed reopening the old relief sluice at Wangjiaying and dredging the main channel. When the sluice was closed again, Yellow River water backed up, the control dam had to be shut, and tribute barges had to be worked through the lock in reverse. The court rebuked him for missing his chance; though dismissal was proposed, he was spared and demoted to grand secretary of the Inner Court. He was soon reappointed governor of Shandong. In the ninth year of Daoguang (1829), he was promoted to governor-general of Sichuan. In the eleventh year (1831), he was transferred to Zhili. In the sixteenth year (1836), he was appointed associate grand secretary. In the eighteenth year (1838), he was made grand secretary of the Wenyuan Pavilion but kept his governorship. Qi Shan had long held important provincial posts and enjoyed the Daoguang Emperor's trust. In the twentieth year of Daoguang (1840), with the coastal crisis mounting, he was posted to Tianjin to organize defenses. In the eighth month, British warships reached the river mouth with a letter asking to resume trade and blaming Lin Zexu, Deng Tingzhen, and others for burning opium and starting the conflict. Qi Shan entertained the British consul Charles Elliot and his officers and promised to present their petition to the throne. He then had an audience with the emperor, was appointed imperial commissioner, and sent to Guangdong to investigate. Coastal officials were told to hold only the vital passes and not to fire on British ships; Elliot then took his fleet back to Guangdong. Lin Zexu and Deng Tingzhen were soon removed, and Qi Shan was made acting governor-general of the Two Guangs and superintendent of the Guangdong customs. In a secret memorial he laid out the Guangdong situation at length, writing in part: "When Lin Zexu ordered the surrender of opium and promised rewards, the foreigners entertained high hopes. Later they received only five catties of tea per chest of opium—less than one percent of the silver they had paid; and they were forced to sign a bond stating that anyone who sold opium again would forfeit ship and cargo and face execution—a pledge they never accepted. That is how the quarrel began. When Elliot petitioned to surrender the opium, it was only five days after the compradors had been withdrawn—not from genuine goodwill. At the time Elliot stood alone; with allies at hand he might never have submitted so readily. The king of England had never written to Lin Zexu; only the king of Luzon had once sent a letter, and the story may have grown from that mistake. Lin Zexu claimed that Dinghai was damp and unhealthy and that many foreigners had died there. Inquiry showed that the foreigners still had ample grain and livestock; most deaths were among sailors and helmsmen, and only a few officers had died. Letters from abroad had formerly spoken only of trade. Once Lin Zexu sought to learn everything about the foreigners, he paid widely for information from profiteers who invented and spread tales, mixing truth with falsehood; the frantic inquiries of the moment fell straight into their trap. Lin Zexu reported that other nations resented Britain for blocking their trade and that the United States and France would send warships to remonstrate with the English. Inquiry showed that such talk had circulated among the other powers, but no warships had yet appeared at Guangdong. Two American ships had earlier entered port while the British were unprepared and still had not dared to leave. They were so timid that even if strong enough to stand up to Britain, they would hardly strike their own kind. When opium was burned at Humen, foreign witnesses wrote a long account of the event. The deed was real enough, but the tone was largely sarcastic—not submission from the heart. Lin Zexu claimed that after the bond was signed, inspection of other nations' ships found no opium whatsoever. If he meant the previous year, the matter was already past and there was no way to verify ship or cargo; if he meant this year, the incoming ships had not yet entered port—how could one know they carried opium, still less believe they carried none?" He also noted that General Ajing'a had asked to organize militia and naval levies and that Lin Zexu had sought rewards for officers and men—both to be reconsidered once affairs were settled. The memorial was received and noted; on its account Lin Zexu was punished. Guangdong had just withdrawn its naval forces to barracks when the enemy suddenly opened fire, seized grain boats and troops, and Governor Yiliang reported the attack. Qi Shan reported further: "The English have returned to Guangdong in an arrogant tone; Elliot claims illness and will go home, and their warships grow in number every day." The court ordered trade to remain suspended for the present while negotiating on one side and preparing defenses on the other. Elliot insisted on compensation for the destroyed opium and on opening trade at Xiamen and Fuzhou as well; stern edicts refused both demands. In the twelfth month Elliot saw defenses thinning and sent repeated challenges; Qi Shan ordered him to desist. Elliot replied: "We can talk after we fight—it will not be too late. He then attacked the Shajiao and Dajiao batteries outside Humen. Vice Commander Chen Liansheng fought to the death, and both forts fell. Regional Commander Guan Tianpei held Jingyuan Battery and Brigadier Li Tingyu held Weiyuan; both begged for help. Qi Shan dared not send troops openly and sent only two hundred men by night. When news reached the court in the first month of 1841, the emperor was furious. Qi Shan was placed under severe investigation. Prince Yishan was named pacification commissioner, with Minister Long Wen and Hunan commander Yang Fang as deputies, to lead troops to Guangdong. Elliot repeatedly demanded Hong Kong and meant to have it. Under pressure, Qi Shan pretended to agree but dared not tell the court. Elliot then offered to return the batteries he held and to restore Dinghai in exchange for all of Hong Kong, with trade terms to be settled separately. Qi Shan met him at Lianhuacheng to settle terms, messages passing through the envoy Bao Peng. The local general and governor knew nothing in advance. When the British occupied Hong Kong and issued a reassuring proclamation, Governor Yiliang reported it. Only then did Qi Shan write: "The ground offers no strong point, our arms cannot be trusted, the troops are unreliable, and the people are not steadfast. We have no real chance in a fight; it is better to temporize." The emperor's anger deepened. An edict condemned Qi Shan for ceding Hong Kong and allowing trade on his own authority. He was dismissed, arrested, and his property was confiscated. British forces then took Jingyuan Battery at Humen, and Regional Commander Guan Tianpei was killed. Yishan's forces fared no better in battle. Guangzhou was in peril until six million taels were promised as opium indemnity and the siege lifted, while Fujian and Zhejiang were raided again. Qi Shan was brought to the capital for trial and sentenced to death, but was soon released and ordered to serve with the Zhejiang army. Before he arrived, he was sent instead to a military penal station. In 1842 the Zhejiang army was beaten again, Wusong fell, and British forces entered the Yangtze. Jiangning was put under martial law. Qiying, Yi Libu, and others then concluded peace. Across the empire, the decision to stop fighting and sue for peace was blamed on Qi Shan as the man who had set it all in motion. That autumn he was made a fourth-class imperial bodyguard and assistant commissioner at Yarkand. In 1843 he was appointed military governor of Rehe with the third-rank cap button. Censor Chen Qingyong listed the crimes of the officials who had mishandled the crisis. Bowing to public opinion, the emperor stripped Qi Shan of office again, though he still meant to use him. Soon he was made a third-class bodyguard and resident commissioner in Tibet. In 1846 he was appointed governor-general of Sichuan. In 1848 an edict praised his earnest reform of civil administration and the army in Sichuan, and his first-rank cap button was restored. He was soon made associate grand secretary while keeping the governorship. For pacifying the wild tribes at Zhandui he was recommended for honors. In 1849 he was transferred to governor-general of Shaanxi-Gansu and acting Qinghai commissioner, where he campaigned against the Yongsha tribes and the Salar rebels of Heicheng. Censors soon accused him of reckless killing. Banner General Saying'a was sent to investigate. Qi Shan was dismissed and arrested. In 1852 he was sentenced to serve in Jilin to expiate his crime and was soon released. The Taiping rebels had already entered Hunan from Guangdong, their strength growing daily, and repeated changes of commander failed to check them. Qi Shan was recalled to act as governor of Henan and posted on the Hunan-Henan frontier. For contributing funds he received the nominal rank of banner general and was named imperial commissioner in charge of defense. When the Hubei provincial capital fell, he held back and could not relieve it. In the spring of 1853 the rebels seized the capitals of Anhui and Jiangning and raided Zhenjiang and Yangzhou. Qi Shan was ordered, with Zhili commander Chen Jinshou, to defend the north bank of the Yangtze. In the third month he beat the rebels repeatedly at Pukou and Leitang, advanced on Yangzhou, and encamped at Baota Hill and Situgong; he won five engagements in a row. In autumn he routed rebel reinforcements at Pukou and joined in the siege of Yangzhou. In the twelfth month the rebels broke out toward Guazhou. He reported the recovery of Yangzhou, but an edict rebuked his troops for cowardice and letting the enemy escape and ordered him to pursue at Guazhou and Yizheng. Yizheng was retaken. In the summer of 1854 he fought at Jinchuan, Guazhou, and San Cha River and repeatedly reported enemy killed and captured. From the time Qi Shan and Xiang Rong divided command north and south of the Yangtze, they fought for more than a year without retaking Zhenjiang or Guazhou. Without a capable navy they could not block the rebels, and Qi Shan's proposal to expand the fleet also came to nothing. That autumn he died in camp. He was posthumously made Guardian of the Heir Apparent and associate grand secretary, granted mourning honors as a governor-general, and given the posthumous name Wenqin. Gongtang. His son Gongtang served as general of Heilongjiang. His grandson Ruixun was commissioner at Uliastai; Ruichen was governor-general of the Two Huguang. Ruichen has his own biography. Yi Libu. Yi Libu, whose style was Xinnong, was a girdled clansman of the Bordered Yellow Banner. He passed the metropolitan examination in the sixth year of Jiaqing (1801) and was appointed director of studies in the Imperial Academy, later transferred to archivist. He served as subprefect of Nanguan in Yunnan, acted as prefect of Chengjiang, and was promoted to magistrate of Tengyue. In 1819 Governor-General Bolin recommended him as skilled in frontier affairs, able to manage native chiefs, and successful against Burmese raiders, and urged his promotion. In 1821, serving under Governor-General Qingbao, he helped suppress the Yi rebels of Yongbei and Dayao, received the peacock feather, and acted as prefect of Yongchang. He was promoted to prefect of Taiping in Anhui. He served as Jining circuit intendant in Shanxi, Zhejiang provincial judicial commissioner, and provincial treasurer in Hubei and Zhejiang. In 1825 he was promoted to governor of Shaanxi and transferred to Shandong. On his father's death he acted as governor of Yunnan. When mourning ended, he received the post in full. While Ruan Yuan was governor-general, Yi Libu was known for mildness and integrity and earned a reputation for sound governance. When fighting broke out on the Muslim frontier he volunteered for the campaign. An edict rebuked him for misunderstanding frontier conditions and memorializing rashly. He was stripped of rank but kept his post and was soon restored. In the thirteenth year of Daoguang he was promoted to governor-general of Yunnan-Guizhou. At the capital evaluation he was recommended for honors for long frontier service and effective pacification. In 1838 he was made associate grand secretary while keeping the governorship. At Qijiang in Sichuan the outlaw Mu Jixian murdered Zhao Yingcai, a military licentiate of Renhuai in Guizhou, then raised a gang and seized Fangjiagou. Yi Libu led Regional Commander Yu Buyun and Provincial Treasurer Qinglu against their stronghold, killing or capturing more than a thousand men and executing the leaders Mu Jixian and Xie Fazhen. The rest were pacified, and he received the double-eyed peacock feather. In 1839 he was transferred to governor-general of the Two Jiangs. In the autumn of 1840, after British forces took Dinghai, he was named imperial commissioner and sent to investigate in Zhejiang. Some already blamed the conflict on cutting off trade and burning opium. He was secretly told to investigate the facts and not shield anyone. Qi Shan soon replaced Lin Zexu, and coastal officials were ordered not to fire on the enemy. On reaching Zhejiang Yi Libu was posted at Zhenhai to organize defenses. He reported sinking enemy ships and taking prisoners, and was told to assure the British the clash was a misunderstanding, urge withdrawal and the return of territory, and release prisoners once they left. Yi Libu sent his servant Zhang Xi with officers to Dinghai with gifts for the troops. The British sent gifts in return. When this was reported, the court ordered that such exchanges be refused. He asked for reinforcements from Anhui and the Two Huguang, and the request was granted. Yu Qian, then acting governor-general of the Two Jiangs, wrote: "Every province may talk of defense, but Zhejiang must fight at once." He also urged that Cengang on Dinghai's western border was the key point and should be seized first by elite troops. Yi Libu was ordered to investigate and act accordingly. When Qi Shan's talks in Guangdong broke down and fighting resumed, an edict in the first month of 1841 ordered Yi Libu to advance and retake Dinghai. In the second month Elliot, having taken Hong Kong, moved his fleet to Guangdong and offered to return Dinghai. An edict condemned him for echoing Qi Shan and delaying the attack until the enemy escaped. He lost his associate grand secretary rank and peacock feather but kept the Two Jiangs governorship for the time being. Yu Qian replaced him as imperial commissioner over the Zhejiang forces. Yu Qian impeached Yi Libu for sending his servant to the enemy ships. He was removed from office, Zhang Xi was brought to the capital for trial at the Ministry of Justice, and Yi Libu was stripped of rank and sent to a military penal station. Soon Dinghai, Zhenhai, and Ningbo fell in turn, and Yu Qian died defending the province. In the spring of 1842 Expeditionary General Yijing came to relieve Zhejiang and was beaten again. Governor Liu Yunke reported that Zhejiang was in peril and praised Yi Libu as free of ambition for quick glory—a rare quality—and asked that he be sent to the army to redeem himself. He was given the seventh-rank cap button and sent to Zhejiang with Hangzhou General Qiying, with secret orders to act as circumstances required. When British forces attacked Zhapu, Qiying sent him to arrange their withdrawal. In the fifth month he acted as vice commander at Zhapu and again sent Zhang Xi with messages. The British left Zhapu, attacked Wusong, entered the Yangtze from the sea, and Zhenjiang fell. Yi Libu was ordered to join Qiying at Jiangning to negotiate peace; the details appear in Qiying's biography. After peace was made and the British withdrew, tariff talks were set for Guangdong. He was ordered to consult carefully with Qiying, appointed general of Guangzhou and imperial commissioner, and put in charge of postwar arrangements. In 1843 he reached Guangdong, found the people unreconciled and the foreigners crafty and domineering, and was worn down with anxiety. A little over a month later he died of illness. He was posthumously made Guardian of the Heir Apparent and given the posthumous name Wenmin. Zongshi Qiying. Qiying, whose style was Jiechun, belonged to the Plain Blue Banner of the imperial clan. His father Lukang served as grand secretary of the Eastern Pavilion under Jiaqing. Qiying entered office by hereditary privilege in the Court of the Imperial Clan and rose to supervising clerk. He rose to grand secretary of the Inner Court and concurrently served as vice commander and commandant of the guards. In 1822 he was moved to vice president of the Court of Colonial Affairs and then to the Ministry of War. In 1824 he escorted idle clansmen to their resettlement at Shuangcheng Fort. In 1825 he was appointed minister of the Imperial Household and later served in the Ministries of Works and Revenue. In 1827 he was appointed commandant of the Metropolitan Gendarmerie. In 1829 he was promoted to minister of Rites, placed over the sacrificial and ceremonial courts and the Imperial Medical Institute, and made a banner commander as well. In 1832, during drought in the capital region, he urged closer scrutiny of officials and lighter punishments. The court approved and made him an inner court minister. In 1834 he was recommended for honors for diligent service as commandant of the Metropolitan Gendarmerie. He served in succession as minister of Works and minister of Revenue. In 1835, for surveying the imperial tomb site at Longquanyu, he was made Junior Guardian of the Heir Apparent. He was sent to investigate affairs in Guangdong and Jiangxi. In 1837 the eunuch Zhang Daozhong was caught gambling. Qiying favored him and ordered his release. When this came out, Qiying was demoted to vice president of the Ministry of War. He was soon sent out as military governor of Rehe. In 1838 he was appointed general of Mukden. An edict strictly forbade opium and ordered that clansmen and girdled clansmen alike be punished by law. He asked that Banner households be grouped in mutual-guarantee units of ten families for easier inspection. In 1840, when the coast was put on alert, he urged that Lüshunkou, a vital sea route, be fortified at the decisive points. British ships entered Fengtian waters and cruised off Shanhaiguan, Qinhuangdao, and other points. Defenses were raised at Jinzhou and Shanhaiguan. In the first month of 1842, with Guangdong in crisis and Qi Shan dismissed, Qiying was made general of Guangzhou, imperial commissioner, and supervisor of foreign affairs in Zhejiang. When Censor Su Tingkui reported that Britain had been defeated by its neighbors, the court ordered Qiying to Guangzhou to exploit the chance to attack. The story proved false, and he stayed in Zhejiang. In the fifth month, after Wusong fell, he was ordered to Jiangsu with Yi Libu to act as circumstances required. British forces had entered the Yangtze, crossed Guishan Pass, taken Zhenjiang, and seized Guazhou. Qiying and Expeditionary General Yijing both asked to temporize and negotiate. In the seventh month, as British forces closed on Xiaguan below Jiangning, Yi Libu arrived first. The British demanded twenty-one million taels for opium indemnity, commercial debts, and war costs; trade at Guangzhou, Fuzhou, Xiamen, Ningbo, and Shanghai; equal ceremonial status for British and Chinese officials; customs offsets; release of Chinese collaborators; and other terms. Three days later Qiying arrived and raised mild objections. The British suddenly raised a red flag and mounted guns on Zhong Hill overlooking the city. The move was hastily stopped. Imperial Bodyguard Xianling, Jiangning Treasurer Entong, Circuit Intendant Lu Zeliang, and Yi Libu's servant Zhang Xi were sent to the British ships with authority to report back to the throne. The Daoguang Emperor was furious, but Grand Secretary Muzhanga argued that the costly campaign had failed and that fighting and negotiating would cost about the same. The court then agreed. Qiying and his party met the British commanders Henry Pottinger and Robert Morrison at Jinghai Temple outside Yifeng Gate, signed the treaty, paid six million taels at once with the rest over three years, and peace was concluded. In the ninth month, after all British forces had left Wusong, he was made governor-general of the Two Jiangs and ordered to organize trade and local policies for Zhejiang and Fujian. In 1843 he was named imperial commissioner and sent to Guangdong to negotiate trade rules, adjust Guangdong customs tariffs, open every port under the new regulations, and lay out tax reforms for court approval. He also asked that the United States, France, and other powers trade on the same terms, and the court agreed. The United States asked for an audience in the capital, but the request was refused. In 1844 he was transferred to governor-general of the Two Guangs with charge of trade affairs. In 1845 he was made associate grand secretary while keeping the governorship. Belgium, Denmark, and other states asked to trade, and he was told to investigate and keep them within bounds. At the 1846 capital evaluation he was recommended for honors for devoting himself to the coastal frontier. He memorialized on military training and submitted a copy of the Tang official Lu Zhi's memorial on defense, asking that every general and governor keep it at hand. Britain asked to demarcate borders and trade in Tibet. Qiying was told to hold to existing treaties and not be swayed. By long-standing practice, foreign merchants in Guangdong lived in Macao, traded within fixed limits, dealt through the factories, and might not enter the provincial capital without permission. The Jiangning treaty allowed warehouses in the provincial capital and consuls to enter the city, but Guangdong people clung to the old rules, appealed to the authorities in vain, and raised militia. Public feeling ran high and would not obey officials. In 1843, when Pottinger was about to enter the city, the Guangdong people refused and he withdrew after hesitation. In 1845 British ships returned. Qiying sent Guangzhou Prefect Yu Baochun to negotiate, but the crowd clamored and the affair ended only after pacification. The British complained in letters to the high officials that their men were humiliated whenever they came ashore. Public anger was fierce and beyond persuasion. In 1847 British ships suddenly entered the provincial river with firmer demands. Qiying vaguely promised fulfillment in two years, and they withdrew only after he asked to be punished. He was ordered to strengthen defenses and leave nothing to chance. Qiying knew trouble would come in the end. In 1848 he asked for an audience, remained at court, received the double-eyed peacock feather, and was put in charge of the Ministries of Rites and War while serving as a banner commander. He was soon made grand secretary of the Wenyuan Pavilion and sent to investigate salt administration in Shandong and inspect Zhejiang army camps. In 1850, when the Xianfeng Emperor ascended the throne, he responded to the call for advice, writing in part: "Good government begins with the great tasks of choosing men, managing finances, and administering affairs. Men should be chosen by testing their achievements. Men differ in temperament, and talent has its strengths and limits. Use a man against his talent, and even an upright man may fail; use him fittingly, and even a base man can get the work done. Offices exist to serve the state, not to give everyone a hiding place. Whoever serves faithfully, though base, should be kept; whoever will not bear hard tasks, though upright, should be set aside. Administration depends on the right men. Pedantry does not help the times, antiquarianism does not fit the moment, and finances cannot be managed without capable men. The tax quota now exceeds forty million taels and should leave a surplus, yet collections fall short and deficits follow. The causes of deficit cannot be cleared up without tracing them to the root. Rather than raising extra levies outside the regular tax, it is better to plan realistically within the regular tax itself. When the memorial arrived, a special edict declared: "As chief minister, your every word and act is a model for the whole court. Qiying has spoken rashly, his views are too one-sided, he plainly violates ancient teaching, and the harm that may follow is beyond telling. An imperial rebuke was transmitted. Qiying grew uneasy and repeatedly pleaded illness. In the tenth month of that year the emperor issued a hand edict listing the crimes of Muzhanga and Qiying, condemning Qiying for "in Guangdong suppressing the people while favoring foreigners, rashly promising them entry into the city, and nearly causing disaster. He repeatedly told the throne that the foreigners were fearsome, temporized in every crisis, and cared only to keep his rank and salary. Muzhanga works in the dark and is hard to expose; Qiying's faults are plain to see. Yet in harming the state their crime is the same." Mindful that he had been pressed by the times, the court leniently demoted him to a subordinate post. He was soon reappointed vice director in the Ministry of Works. In 1853, as the Taiping rebels advanced north, Qiying's son Qingxi, brigadier at Malan Town, asked that father, sons, and brothers serve at the front together. Qiying was ordered to serve with the patrolling defense commissioners and received the fourth-rank cap button for contributing funds. In 1855 Qingxi was impeached for borrowing from subordinates. Qiying was punished for making a private report, dismissed, and placed under house arrest. In 1858 Britain joined France, the United States, and Russia in sending warships against Tianjin to demand treaty revisions. Grand Secretary Guiliang and Minister Huashana were sent to investigate. The patrolling defense commissioners recommended Qiying as knowing the situation. Summoned to audience, he said he was willing as before to bear the burden, was given vice presidential rank, and sent to negotiate at Tianjin. While Qiying was in Guangdong, trade at the five treaty ports largely rested in his hands, and he yielded on every point. In the winter of 1857 Guangzhou fell and the British seized the archives. Qiying's memorials, once translated, proved largely false and evasive, and the foreigners came to hate him bitterly. At Tianjin the British refused to see him. In fear he begged to leave and returned to Tongzhou without waiting for orders, exposing his deceit all the more clearly. The commissioners impeached him, a stern edict ordered his arrest, and he was granted suicide. The historian comments: The move to stop fighting and sue for peace began with Qi Shan. Abandoning preparedness and courting the enemy was what led to defeat. Yi Libu was willing to endure humiliation and bear heavy burdens, but lacked a strategy to save the state in crisis. Court policy was unsettled and debate divided. When the treaty was signed below the walls of Jiangning, he and Qiying concluded peace at the cost of prestige and sovereignty, with consequences that could not be undone. Qiying alone handled the aftermath and left the question of entry into Guangzhou unresolved. Fighting broke out again and eventually led to the disaster of 1860. All three earned a foul reputation, yet only Qiying failed to keep his life—and rightly so.
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