1
序漢氏初開西域,有三十六國,其後分立五十五王,置校尉、都護以撫納之。 王莽篡位,西域遂絕。 至於後漢,班超所通者五十餘國,西至西海,東西四萬里,皆來朝貢,復置都護、校尉以相統攝。 其後或絕或通,漢朝以為勞弊中國,其官時廢時置。 暨魏、晉之後,互相吞滅,不可詳焉。
In the preface: When the Han dynasty first extended control into the Western Regions, thirty-six states were recorded; later they split into fifty-five kingdoms, and the court appointed garrison commanders and protectors-general to win them over and keep them within the fold. After Wang Mang seized the throne, ties with the Western Regions were cut off entirely. Under the Later Han, Ban Chao brought more than fifty states into contact with the court, westward as far as the Western Sea and across a span of forty thousand li east to west; all sent tribute, and the dynasty again set up protectors-general and garrison commanders to hold them under central oversight. Afterward relations were intermittent; the Han government judged the enterprise too costly for the heartland, and the frontier offices were abolished and revived again and again. After the Wei and Jin periods, the states devoured one another in turn, and the record cannot be set out in full detail.
2
煬帝時,遣侍御史韋節、司隸從事杜行滿使於西蕃諸國。 至𦋺賓,得碼碯杯; 王舍城,得佛經; 史國,得十儛女、師子皮、火鼠毛而還。 帝復令聞喜公裴矩於武威、張掖間往來以引致之。 其有君長者四十四國。 矩因其使者入朝,啗以厚利,令其轉相諷諭。 大業年中,相率而來朝者三十餘國,帝因置西域校尉以應接之。 尋屬中國大亂,朝貢遂絕。 然事多亡失,今所存錄者,二十國焉。 吐谷渾吐谷渾,本遼西鮮卑徒河涉歸子也。 初,涉歸有二子,庶長曰吐谷渾,少曰若洛廆。 涉歸死,若洛廆代統部落,是為慕容氏。 吐谷渾與若洛廆不協,遂西度隴,止于甘松之南,洮水之西,南極白蘭山,數千里之地,其後遂以吐谷渾為國氏焉。 當魏、周之際,始稱可汗。 都伏俟城,在青海西十五里。 有城郭而不居,隨逐水草。 官有王公、僕射、尚書、郎中、將軍。 其主以皁為帽,妻戴金花。 其器械衣服略與中國同。 其王公貴人多戴羃䍦,婦人裙襦辮髮,綴以珠貝。 國無常稅。 殺人及盜馬者死,餘坐則徵物以贖罪。 風俗頗同突厥。 喪有服制,葬訖而除。 性皆貪忍。 有大麥、粟、豆。 青海周迴千餘里,中有小山,其俗至冬輒放牝馬於其上,言得龍種。 吐谷渾嘗得波斯草馬,放入海,因生驄駒,能日行千里,故時稱青海驄焉。 多氂牛,饒銅、鐵、朱砂。 地兼鄯善、且末。 西北有流沙數百里,夏有熱風,傷斃行旅。 風之將至,老駝預知之,則引項而鳴,聚立,以口鼻埋沙中。 人見則知之,以氊擁蔽口鼻而避其患。
During the reign of Emperor Yang, Attendant Censor Wei Jie and Metropolitan Inspector's aide Du Xingman were dispatched on missions to the western realms. In Kapiśa they acquired an agate cup; at Rājagṛha, Buddhist sutras; and in the state of Shi, ten dancing girls, lions' pelts, and fire-rat fur, after which they returned home. The emperor further charged Duke of Wenxi Pei Ju to move between Wuwei and Zhangye to entice the western states to come in. Forty-four of these polities had rulers of their own. When their envoys arrived at court, Pei Ju lavished gifts on them and set them to win over the other states in succession. During the Daye reign period, more than thirty states followed one another to the capital; the emperor accordingly appointed a Western Regions garrison commander to handle their receptions. Before long the empire was convulsed by civil war, and the tribute missions stopped altogether. Much of the material has since been lost, however, and only twenty states remain in the account that follows. Tuyuhun. The Tuyuhun people were descended from Shegui of the Tufa Xianbei in Liaoxi; the founder of their line was his son Tuyuhun. Shegui had two sons: the elder, born to a secondary consort, was Tuyuhun; the younger was Ruoluohe. After Shegui's death Ruoluohe took over the tribe, and his line became the Murong clan. Tuyuhun quarreled with Ruoluohe, crossed the Long Mountains westward, and settled south of Gansong and west of the Tao River, extending south to Mount Bailan over a domain thousands of li across; in time the people took Tuyuhun's name as their national designation. During the Northern Wei and Northern Zhou periods they first assumed the title of khaghan. Their capital stood at Fuhoucheng, fifteen li west of Qinghai Lake. They maintained walled settlements but did not live in them, moving with the seasons after grass and water. Their government included ranks such as prince, vice-director, secretary, gentleman-attendant, and general. The khaghan wore a black cap, and his consort wore ornaments of gold flowers. Their arms and dress were for the most part like those of the Central States. Princes and nobles commonly wore veiled headgear; women dressed in skirts and jackets, wore their hair in braids, and trimmed them with pearls and shell ornaments. There was no regular tax system. Killing and horse theft were capital crimes; lesser offenses were settled by payment in goods as blood-price. Their customs closely resembled those of the Turks. They observed mourning dress, laying it aside once the funeral was complete. They were by nature grasping and cruel. Barley, millet, and beans grew in their lands. Qinghai Lake is more than a thousand li around; a small hill rises in its midst. Each winter the people turn brood mares loose on the hill, believing that they thereby breed horses of dragon stock. The Tuyuhun once acquired Persian steppe horses and pastured them by the lake; the foals born there could cover a thousand li in a day, and came to be famed as the Qinghai piebalds. Yaks were plentiful, and copper, iron, and cinnabar were found in quantity. Their lands embraced the regions of Shanshan and Qiemo. Several hundred li to the northwest lay drifting sands; in summer scorching winds blew that could kill travelers on the road. Before a hot wind arrived, veteran camels sensed it, raised their necks and bellowed, clustered together, and buried their mouths and nostrils in the sand. Travelers who saw the camels' behavior took warning and wrapped felt over their faces to ward off the blast.
3
其主呂夸,在周數為邊寇,及開皇初,以兵侵弘州。 高祖以弘州地曠人梗,因而廢之。 遣上柱國元諧率步騎數萬擊之。 賊悉發國中兵,自曼頭至於樹敦,甲騎不絕。 其所署河西總管、定城王鍾利房及其太子可博汗,前後來拒戰。 諧頻擊破之,俘斬甚眾。 呂夸大懼,率其親兵遠遁。 其名王十三人,各率部落而降。 上以其高寧王移茲裒素得眾心,拜為大將軍,封河南王,以統降眾,自餘官賞各有差。 未幾,復來寇邊,旭州刺史皮子信出兵拒戰,為賊所敗,子信死之。 汶州總管梁遠以銳卒擊之,斬千餘級,奔退。 俄而入寇廓州,州兵擊走之。
Their ruler Fukak had raided the borders repeatedly under the Northern Zhou; early in the Kaihuang era he attacked Hong Province with an army. Emperor Gaozu abolished Hong Province, judging its territory too broad and its population too unruly to govern easily. He dispatched Pillar of State Yuan Xie with tens of thousands of foot and horse to strike them. The Tuyuhun called out their entire force, and armored cavalry stretched in an unbroken line from Mantou to Shudun. Their appointed Hexi commander, Prince of Dingcheng Zhong Lifang, and the heir Kebohan advanced one after another to meet the attack. Yuan Xie routed them again and again, taking many prisoners and heads. Fukak was terrified and fled into the distance with his personal guard. Thirteen subordinate kings each brought their clans in to submit. Because the Gaoning king Yizibei had long enjoyed the people's loyalty, the emperor made him Grand General and Prince of Henan to lead the surrendered tribes; the others received offices and rewards according to rank. Soon they were raiding the frontier again. Prefect Pizi Xin of Xu Province marched out to meet them, was defeated, and fell in battle. Commander Liang Yuan of Wen Prefecture hit them with picked troops, took more than a thousand heads, and drove them back in flight. Before long they crossed into Kuo Prefecture, where local troops beat them back.
4
呂夸在位百年,屢因喜怒廢其太子而殺之。 其後太子懼見廢辱,遂謀執呂夸而降,請兵於邊吏。 秦州總管、河間王弘請將兵應之,上不許。 太子謀洩,為其父所殺,復立其少子嵬王訶為太子。 疊州刺史杜粲請因其釁而討之,上又不許。 六年,嵬王訶復懼其父誅之,謀率部落萬五千人戶將歸國,遣使詣闕,請兵迎接。 上謂侍臣曰:「渾賊風俗,特異人倫,父既不慈,子復不孝。 朕以德訓人,何有成其惡逆也! 吾當教之以義方耳。」 乃謂使者曰:「朕受命於天,撫育四海,望使一切生人皆以仁義相向。 況父子天性,何得不相親愛也! 吐谷渾主既是嵬王之父,嵬王是吐谷渾主太子,父有不是,子須陳諫。 若諫而不從,當令近臣親戚內外諷諭。 必不可,泣涕而道之。 人皆有情,必當感悟。 不可潛謀非法,受不孝之名。 溥天之下,皆是朕臣妾,各為善事,即稱朕心。 嵬王既有好意,欲來投朕,朕唯教嵬王為臣子之法,不可遠遣兵馬,助為惡事。」 嵬王乃止。 八年,其名王拓拔木彌請以千餘家歸化。 上曰:「溥天之下,皆曰朕臣,雖復荒遐,未識風教,朕之撫育,俱以仁孝為本。 渾賊惛狂,妻子懷怖,並思歸化,自救危亡。 然叛夫背父,不可收納。 又其本意,正自避死,若今遣拒,又復不仁。 若更有意信,但宜慰撫,任其自拔,不須出兵馬應接之。 其妹夫及甥欲來,亦任其意,不勞勸誘也。」 是歲河南王移茲裒死,高祖令其弟樹歸襲統其眾。 平陳之後,呂夸大懼,遁逃保險,不敢為寇。
Fukak ruled for a century and more than once, in fits of anger or caprice, deposed a crown prince and had him killed. Later a crown prince, dreading deposition and humiliation, plotted to seize Fukak and defect, begging frontier officials to send troops to his aid. Prince Hong of Hejian, commander of Qin Prefecture, asked to march to his support; the emperor refused. The plot was betrayed; the father executed his son and named his younger boy, Prince Kui He, as heir instead. Prefect Du Can of Die Prefecture urged a punitive expedition while their house was divided; again the emperor declined. In the sixth year Prince Kui He again feared his father would kill him. He planned to bring fifteen thousand households of his people into Sui territory and sent envoys to the capital asking for an escort. The emperor told his courtiers, "The Tuyuhun barbarians live by customs utterly unlike our norms: the father shows no kindness, and the son is no less lacking in filial duty. I teach men through virtue—how could I help them finish a wicked revolt against their own father? I must teach them the proper way of righteousness instead. Then he addressed the envoys: "Heaven gave me the mandate to cherish the four seas, and I wish every living soul under heaven to treat others with benevolence and righteousness. How much more should father and son, bound by nature itself, cherish one another! The Tuyuhun khaghan is Prince Kui He's father, and Prince Kui He is his heir: when a father errs, a son must remonstrate with him. If remonstrance fails, let close ministers, kinsmen, and all around them persuade him from within and without. If even that will not move him, let the son plead with tears in his eyes. Every man has a heart; he is bound to be moved. He must not plot treason in secret and earn the name of an unfilial son. All beneath heaven are my subjects; if each of you does what is right, you will have my approval. Prince Kui He means well in wishing to come to me, but I will only teach him how a son and subject should behave. I cannot dispatch an army from afar to help him commit a crime." With that, Prince Kui He abandoned the plan. In the eighth year the subordinate king Tuoba Mumi asked to bring more than a thousand households into allegiance. The emperor said, "All under heaven are my subjects. Even in distant wilds where men have never known our rites, I nurture them on the foundation of benevolence and filial piety. The Tuyuhun ruler has grown mad and cruel; wives and children live in terror and all wish to submit in order to save themselves from ruin. Yet a wife who rebels against her husband and a son who turns on his father cannot simply be welcomed in. Their only aim is to escape death, however, and to turn them away now would itself be unkind. If they are sincere, comfort them and let them come out on their own; there is no need to march troops out to escort them. If brothers-in-law and nephews wish to come as well, let them follow their own inclination; do not trouble yourselves to coax them. That year Prince of Henan Yizibei died, and Emperor Gaozu had his younger brother Shugui succeed to command his people. After the conquest of Chen, Fukak was terrified, withdrew into mountain strongholds, and no longer dared raid the borders.
5
十一年,呂夸卒,子伏立。 使其兄子無素奉表稱藩,并獻方物,請以女備後庭。 上謂滕王曰:「此非至誠,但急計耳。」 乃謂無素曰:「朕知渾主欲令女事朕,若依來請,他國聞之,便當相學。 一許一塞,是謂不平。 若並許之,又非好法。 朕情存安養,欲令遂性,豈可聚斂子女以實後宮乎?」 竟不許。 十二年,遣刑部尚書宇文㢸撫慰之。 十六年,以光化公主妻伏,伏上表稱公主為天后,上不許。
In the eleventh year Fukak died, and his son Fu took the throne. He sent his nephew Wusu with a memorial acknowledging vassalage, together with tribute goods, and asked that a daughter be received into the imperial harem. The emperor told the Prince of Teng, "This is not sincere devotion, only a desperate expedient. Then he said to Wusu, "I know your master wishes to send his daughter to me. If I grant this request, other states will hear of it and do the same. To accept one and refuse another would be unjust. If I accepted them all, that would be no better a policy. My wish is to let every people live in peace according to their own ways. How could I stock the harem by gathering daughters from every quarter?" In the end he refused. In the twelfth year he sent Minister of Justice Yuwen Bi on a mission of reassurance. In the sixteenth year the Princess of Guanghua was married to Fu. Fu memorialized asking to style her Heavenly Empress; the emperor refused.
6
明年,其國大亂,國人殺伏,立其弟伏允為主。 使使陳廢立之事,并謝專命之罪,且請依俗尚主,上從之。 自是朝貢歲至,而常訪國家消息,上甚惡之。
The following year the realm erupted in turmoil; the people killed Fu and raised his younger brother Fuyun as ruler. Envoys reported the deposition and enthronement, apologized for acting without imperial sanction, and again asked that a princess be given according to their custom; the emperor agreed. Thereafter tribute arrived every year, but their envoys also kept probing court affairs, which the emperor deeply resented.
7
煬帝即位,伏允遣其子順來朝。 時鐵勒犯塞,帝遣將軍馮孝慈出敦煌以禦之,孝慈戰不利。 鐵勒遣使謝罪,請降,帝遣黃門侍郎裴矩慰撫之,諷令擊吐谷渾以自効。 鐵勒許諾,即勒兵襲吐谷渾,大敗之。 伏允東走,保西平境。 帝復令觀王雄出澆河、許公宇文述出西平以掩之,大破其眾。 伏允遁逃,部落來降者十萬餘口,六畜三十餘萬。 述追之急,伏允懼,南遁於山谷間。 其故地皆空,自西平臨羌城以西,且末以東,祁連以南,雪山以北,東西四千里,南北二千里,皆為隋有。 置郡縣鎮戍,發天下輕罪徙居之。 於是留順不之遣。 伏允無以自資,率其徒數千騎客於党項。 帝立順為主,送出玉門,令統餘眾,以其大寶王尼洛周為輔。 至西平,其部下殺洛周,順不果入而還。 大業末,天下亂,伏允復其故地,屢寇河右,郡縣不能禦焉。 党項党項羌者,三苗之後也。 其種有宕昌、白狼,皆自稱獼猴種。 東接臨洮、西平,西拒葉護,南北數千里,處山谷間。 每姓別為部落,大者五千餘騎,小者千餘騎。 織氂牛尾及𦍩䍽毛以為屋。 服裘褐,披氊以為上飾。 俗尚武力,無法令,各為生業,有戰陣則相屯聚。 無徭賦,不相往來。 牧養氂牛、羊、猪以供食,不知稼穡。 其俗淫穢蒸報,於諸夷中最為甚。 無文字,但候草木以記歲時。 三年一聚會,殺牛羊以祭天。 人年八十以上死者,以為令終,親戚不哭。 少而死者,則云大枉,共悲哭之。 有琵琶、橫吹,擊缶為節。
When Emperor Yang came to the throne, Fuyun sent his son Shun to the capital. At that time the Tiele were raiding the frontier. The emperor sent General Feng Xiaoci out from Dunhuang to meet them, and Feng was defeated. The Tiele sent envoys to apologize and submit. The emperor dispatched Attendant of the Yellow Gate Pei Ju to reassure them and hinted that they should attack Tuyuhun to prove their loyalty. The Tiele agreed, marched at once against Tuyuhun, and routed them utterly. Fuyun fled eastward and held out in the Xiping region. The emperor then sent Prince Xiong of Guan from the Jiao River and Duke Yuwen Shu of Xu from Xiping to take them in a pincer, and their army was shattered. Fuyun escaped. More than a hundred thousand of his people submitted, together with more than three hundred thousand head of livestock. Yuwen Shu pressed the pursuit hard. Terrified, Fuyun fled south into the mountain valleys. Their homeland lay empty. From Linqiang in Xiping west to Qiemo east, from the Qilian Mountains south to the Snow Mountains north—a span of four thousand li east to west and two thousand li north to south—all fell into Sui hands. The dynasty established commanderies, counties, and frontier garrisons, and resettled people from across the empire who had been convicted of minor crimes. Shun was then detained and not allowed to leave. With no resources to sustain himself, Fuyun led several thousand horsemen among his followers to take refuge with the Tangut. The emperor installed Shun as khan and sent him through the Jade Gate to govern the remnant tribes, appointing Niluozhou, Prince of Great Treasure, as his deputy. When he reached Xiping, his followers killed Luozhou. Shun never entered the territory and turned back. In the final years of the Daye reign, as the empire fell into chaos, Fuyun reclaimed his old lands and repeatedly raided the Hexi region until the local commanderies and counties could no longer hold him back. The Tangut, also called the Tangut Qiang, are said to be descendants of the Three Miao. Among their peoples are the Dangchang and Bailang, each claiming descent from the monkey totem. They border Lintao and Xiping to the east and Yehu to the west, stretching several thousand li north and south through mountain valleys. Each clan forms its own tribe—large ones field more than five thousand horsemen, small ones more than a thousand. They weave yak tails and fine wool into coverings for their homes. They dress in fur and coarse woolens, draping felt as their outer garment. They value martial prowess above all, keep no written laws, and live by separate trades—but when war comes, they assemble as one. They pay no taxes or corvée, and seldom trade visits between tribes. They raise yaks, sheep, and pigs for food and know nothing of farming. Their customs are notably licentious, including levirate unions—the most extreme among the frontier peoples. They have no written language and mark the seasons only by watching when plants flower and wither. Every three years they hold a great assembly, slaughtering cattle and sheep as offerings to Heaven. When someone dies aged eighty or more, they take it as a life fulfilled, and kin do not mourn. When the young die, they call it a grievous wrong and weep together in grief. They play pipa and transverse flutes, beating pottery jars to keep time.
8
魏、周之際,數來擾邊。 高祖為丞相時,中原多故,因此大為寇掠。 蔣公梁睿既平王謙,請因還師以討之,高祖不許。 開皇四年,有千餘家歸化。 五年,拓拔寧叢等各率眾詣旭州內附,授大將軍,其部下各有差。 十六年,復寇會州,詔發隴西兵以討之,大破其眾。 又相率請降,願為臣妾,遣子弟入朝謝罪。 高祖謂之曰:「還語爾父兄,人生須有定居,養老長幼。 而乃乍還乍走,不羞鄉里邪!」 自是朝貢不絕。 高昌高昌國者,則漢車師前王庭也,去敦煌十三日行。 其境東西三百里,南北五百里,四面多大山。 昔漢武帝遣兵西討,師旅頓敝,其中尤困者因住焉。 其地有漢時高昌壘,故以為國號。 初,蠕蠕立闞伯周為高昌王。 伯周死,子義成立,為從兄首歸所殺。 首歸自立為高昌王,又為高車阿伏至羅所殺。 以敦煌人張孟明為主。 孟明為國人所殺,更以馬儒為王,以鞏顧、麴嘉二人為左右長史。 儒又通使後魏,請內屬。 內屬人皆戀土,不願東遷,相與殺儒,立嘉為王。 嘉字靈鳳,金城榆中人,既立,又臣于茹茹。 及茹茹主為高車所殺,嘉又臣于高車。 屬焉耆為挹怛所破,眾不能自統,請主於嘉。 嘉遣其第二子為焉耆王,由是始大,益為國人所服。 嘉死,子堅立。
During the transition from Northern Wei to Northern Zhou, they raided the frontier again and again. While Emperor Gaozu was still Chancellor and the Central Plains were in turmoil, the Tangut stepped up their raids accordingly. After Duke Liang Rui crushed Wang Qian's rebellion, he asked to turn his returning army against the Tangut, but Gaozu refused. In Kaihuang 4, more than a thousand households submitted to Sui rule. In Kaihuang 5, Tuoba Ningcong and others led their peoples to Xu Prefecture to submit. They were made Grand Generals, and their followers received ranks according to merit. In Kaihuang 16 they raided Huizhou again. The emperor sent Longxi troops against them and inflicted a crushing defeat. They then submitted as a group, pledging fealty and sending sons and younger brothers to court to confess their crimes. Emperor Gaozu told them: "Go back and tell your fathers and elder brothers: a man needs a settled home in which to care for the old and raise the young. Yet you flee one day and submit the next—have you no shame before your own people? From then on, they sent tribute without interruption. Gaochang—the kingdom of Gaochang—was the seat of the Han-era Front Kingdom of Cheshi, thirteen days' travel from Dunhuang. Its territory measured three hundred li east to west and five hundred li north to south, ringed on every side by tall mountains. When Emperor Wu of Han marched west, his army fell exhausted on campaign, and the most battered of his soldiers simply stayed behind. An old Han garrison fortress named Gaochang stood on the site, which gave the kingdom its name. At first the Rouran enthroned Kan Bozhou as king of Gaochang. When Bozhou died, his son Yicheng succeeded—but Shougui, a cousin's son, killed him and seized power. Shougui proclaimed himself king of Gaochang, only to be killed in turn by Avoluo of the Gök Türk confederation. They put Zhang Mengming of Dunhuang on the throne. The people killed Mengming and made Ma Ru king instead, appointing Gong Gu and Qu Jia as his chief ministers. Ma Ru then sent envoys to Northern Wei seeking incorporation into the empire. The people, unwilling to leave their homeland for an eastern resettlement, rose up and killed Ma Ru, enthroning Qu Jia in his place. Qu Jia, styled Lingfeng, came from Yuzhong in Jincheng. Once enthroned, he again submitted to the Rouran. When the Rouran khan was killed by the Gök Türks, Qu Jia transferred his allegiance to them. When the Yeda destroyed Karasahr and left its people without a ruler, they asked Qu Jia to provide one. Qu Jia sent his second son to rule Karasahr. From that point his power grew, and his own people rallied to him more firmly than ever. When Qu Jia died, his son Jian succeeded him.
9
其都城周迴一千八百四十步,於坐室畫魯哀公問政於孔子之像。 國內有城十八。 官有令尹一人,次公二人,次左右衞,次八長史,次五將軍,次八司馬,次侍郎、校郎、主簿、從事、省事。 大事決之於王,小事長子及公評斷,不立文記。 男子胡服,婦人裙襦,頭上作髻。 其風俗政令與華夏略同。 地多石磧,氣候溫暖,穀麥再熟,宜蠶,多五果。 有草名為羊刺,其上生蜜,而味甚佳。 出赤鹽如朱,白鹽如玉。 多蒲陶酒。 俗事天神,兼信佛法。 國中羊馬牧於隱僻之處,以避外寇,非貴人不知其所。 北有赤石山,山北七十里有貪汗山,夏有積雪。 此山之北,鐵勒界也。 從武威西北,有捷路,度沙磧千餘里,四面茫然,無有蹊徑。 欲往者,尋有人畜骸骨而去。 路中或聞歌哭之聲,行人尋之,多致亡失,蓋魑魅魍魎也。 故商客往來,多取伊吾路。
The capital's walls measured 1,840 paces around, and in the throne hall hung a painting of Duke Ai of Lu consulting Confucius on governance. The kingdom contained eighteen walled towns. The government included a chief minister, two senior dukes, left and right guards, eight chief secretaries, five generals, eight aides-de-camp, and a full staff of attendant gentlemen, collators, chief clerks, staff officers, and administrative aides. The king decided major matters; the crown prince and senior dukes handled minor ones. They kept no written records of proceedings. Men wore Central Asian dress; women wore skirts and jackets with their hair bound in topknots. Their customs and laws closely resembled those of China proper. Much of the land was stony desert, yet the climate was mild enough for two grain harvests a year, silkworms thrived, and fruit trees abounded. A plant called sheep-thorn bore a honey-like secretion of exceptional flavor. Its mines yielded red salt bright as vermilion and white salt clear as jade. Grape wine was plentiful. The people worshipped heavenly gods and also practiced Buddhism. Sheep and horses were pastured in hidden valleys to evade raiders—only the nobility knew where. Red Stone Mountain lay to the north; seventy li beyond it stood Mount Tanhan, still snow-capped in summer. North of that range lay Tiele territory. A shortcut ran northwest from Wuwei across more than a thousand li of desert—open emptiness in every direction, without trail or landmark. Travelers had to find their way by following the bones of men and beasts left along the route. Travelers sometimes heard phantom songs and cries along the way; those who went to investigate often vanished—work, it was said, of demons and evil spirits. For this reason merchants usually took the safer road through Yiwu.
10
開皇十年,突厥破其四城,有二千人來歸中國。 堅死,子伯雅立。 其大母本突厥可汗女,其父死,突厥令依其俗,伯雅不從者久之。 突厥逼之,不得已而從。
In Kaihuang 10 the Turks captured four of its cities, and two thousand people fled to Sui territory. When Jian died, his son Boya succeeded him. His stepmother was a daughter of a Türk qaghan. After his father's death the Turks demanded he observe their levirate custom, but Boya refused for a long time. Under Türk pressure, he eventually gave in.
11
煬帝嗣位,引致諸蕃。 大業四年,遣使貢獻,帝待其使甚厚。 明年,伯雅來朝。 因從擊高麗,還尚宗女華容公主。 八年冬歸蕃,下令國中曰:「夫經國字人,以保存為貴,寧邦緝政,以全濟為大。 先者以國處邊荒,境連猛狄,同人無咎,被髮左衽。 今大隋統御,宇宙平一,普天率土,莫不齊向。 孤既沐浴和風,庶均大化,其庶人以上皆宜解辮削袵。」 帝聞而甚善之,下詔曰:「彰德嘉善,聖哲所隆,顯誠遂良,典謨貽則。 光祿大夫、弁國公、高昌王伯雅識量經遠,器懷溫裕,丹款夙著,亮節遐宣。 本自諸華,歷祚西壤,昔因多難,淪迫獯戎,數窮毀冕,翦為胡服。 自我皇隋平一宇宙,化偃九圍,德加四表。 伯雅踰沙忘阻,奉賮來庭,觀禮容於舊章,慕威儀之盛典。 於是襲纓解辮,削衽曳裾,變夷從夏,義光前載。 可賜衣冠之具,仍班製造之式。 并遣使人部領將送。 被以采章,復見車服之美,棄彼氊毳,還為冠帶之國。」 然伯雅先臣鐵勒,而鐵勒恒遣重臣在高昌國,有商胡往來者,則稅之送於鐵勒。 雖有此令取悅中華,然竟畏鐵勒而不敢改也。 自是歲令使人貢其方物。 康國康國者,康居之後也。 遷徙無常,不恒故地,然自漢以來相承不絕。 其王本姓溫,月氏人也。 舊居祁連山北昭武城,因被匈奴所破,西踰葱嶺,遂有其國。 支庶各分王,故康國左右諸國並以昭武為姓,示不忘本也。 王字代失畢,為人寬厚,甚得眾心。 其妻突厥達度可汗女也。 都於薩寶水上阿祿迪城。 城多眾居。 大臣三人共掌國事。 其王索髮,冠七寶金花,衣綾羅錦繡白疊。 其妻有髻,幪以皂巾。 丈夫翦髮錦袍。 名為強國,而西域諸國多歸之。 米國、史國、曹國、何國、安國、小安國、那色波國、烏那曷國、穆國皆歸附之。 有胡律,置於祅祠,決罰則取而斷之。 重罪者族,次重者死,賊盜截其足。
When Emperor Yang took the throne, he courted the submission of the frontier kingdoms. In Daye 4, Gaochang sent tribute envoys, whom the emperor received with great honor. The following year Boya came to court in person. He accompanied the campaign against Goguryeo and, on his return, was given Princess Huarong, a daughter of the imperial clan, in marriage. In the winter of Daye 8 he returned home and proclaimed: "To govern a nation and nurture its people, preservation is the highest virtue; to pacify the realm and maintain good order, the welfare of all is the greatest aim. In the past our land stood at the edge of civilization, bordered by fierce nomads, and our people wore their hair loose and their robes open to the left—as customs of the frontier required. Now Great Sui holds sway over a unified world, and every land under heaven turns toward its civilization. Having myself received the dynasty's civilizing influence, I wish to share that transformation with my people. All commoners and above must undo their braids and adopt the closed-lapel dress of the Central States. The emperor was greatly pleased and issued an edict: "To honor virtue and reward the worthy is what the sages hold highest; to reward sincere loyalty and nurture excellence is a principle handed down in the classics. Boya, King of Gaochang, Grand Master for Splendid Happiness and Duke of Bianguo, has long shown far-reaching judgment, a generous heart, steadfast loyalty, and shining integrity known throughout the frontier. Though his people sprang from Chinese stock and had long ruled the western marches, repeated calamities had reduced them to barbarian dress and stripped them of civilized ceremony. Since our Sui dynasty united the world, civilization has reached the nine regions and virtue extends to the farthest borders. Boya crossed deserts and mountains to offer tribute at court, studied the rites of the ancestral canon, and came to cherish the solemn grandeur of imperial ceremony. He has put on the regalia of civilization, cut his braids, closed his robes, and turned from barbarian ways toward Chinese culture—a deed that honors his ancestors. Let him be given the full regalia of cap and gown, together with patterns by which such garments are to be made. Send envoys to deliver them and instruct his people in their use. Clad once more in brocade, he will know again the splendor of court dress and lead his kingdom back from felt and fleece to the rank of a civilized, cap-and-girdle state." Yet Boya remained a vassal of the Tiele, who kept senior officials stationed in Gaochang and levied taxes on every Sogdian merchant passing through, sending the proceeds north. For all the edict's fine words meant to please China, Boya still feared the Tiele too much to enforce the change. From then on Gaochang sent annual tribute missions bearing local goods. Kang—the state of Kang—traces its lineage to ancient Kangju. The people moved often and seldom stayed in one place for long, yet their line of kings had continued unbroken since Han times. The ruling house originally bore the surname Wen and was of Yuezhi descent. They once lived at Zhaowu, north of the Qilian Mountains, until the Xiongnu broke their power and drove them west across the Pamirs to their present domain. As cadet branches split off to rule neighboring lands, the states around Kang all took Zhaowu as their surname—a reminder that they had not forgotten their origins. The present king, styled Daishibi, was a generous man who enjoyed wide popular support. His wife was a daughter of the Türk qaghan Datu. The capital stood at Aludi on the Sabao River. The city was densely populated. Three senior ministers shared governance of the kingdom. The king wore his hair in braids, topped with a coronet of golden flowers set with the seven jewels, and dressed in gauze, silk, brocade, embroidered fabrics, and white layered cloth. His consort wore a topknot veiled with a black headcloth. The men cropped their hair short and wore brocade robes. Known as a powerful kingdom, it drew submission from many states of the Western Regions. Mi, Shi, Cao, He, An, Lesser An, Nasibo, Wunahe, and Mu all became its tributaries. They kept a body of foreign law in their fire temple and consulted it to decide punishments. The gravest offenses brought punishment on the whole clan; lesser capital crimes meant death; theft and robbery were punished by amputation of the feet.
12
人皆深目高鼻,多鬚髯。 善於商賈,諸夷交易多湊其國。 有大小鼓、琵琶、五絃、箜篌、笛。 婚姻喪制與突厥同。 國立祖廟,以六月祭之,諸國皆來助祭。 俗奉佛,為胡書。 氣候溫,宜五穀,勤修園蔬,樹木滋茂。 出馬、駝、騾、驢、封牛、黃金、鐃沙、𧵊香、阿薩那香、瑟瑟、麖皮、氍㲣、錦疊。 多蒲陶酒,富家或致千石,連年不敗。
The people were deep-eyed and high-nosed, heavily bearded. They were skilled merchants, and traders from many foreign peoples flocked to their markets. Their musical instruments included large and small drums, pipa, five-string lutes, konghou harps, and flutes. Their marriage customs and funeral rites matched those of the Turks. The kingdom maintained an ancestral temple, offering sacrifices in the sixth month to which rulers from neighboring states came to participate. They observed Buddhism and wrote in Sogdian script. The climate was mild and suited to grain farming; kitchen gardens were carefully tended, and trees flourished. Local products included horses, camels, mules, donkeys, humped cattle, gold, naosha, zhe incense, asana incense, turquoise sese stones, antelope hides, qulu wool carpets, and layered brocades. Grape wine was abundant; wealthy households sometimes stored as much as a thousand shi, which kept for years without spoiling.
13
大業中,始遣使貢方物,後遂絕焉。 安國安國,漢時安息國也。 王姓昭武氏,與康國王同族,字設力登。 妻,康國王女也。 都在那密水南,城有五重,環以流水。 宮殿皆為平頭。 王坐金駝座,高七八尺。 每聽政,與妻相對,大臣三人評理國事。 風俗同於康國,唯妻其姊妹,及母子遞相禽獸,此為異也。 煬帝即位之後,遣司隸從事杜行滿使於西域,至其國,得五色鹽而返。
During the Daye era they first sent tribute missions; thereafter contact lapsed. An—the state of An—was the Parthian kingdom known to the Han as Anxi. The king belonged to the Zhaowu clan, kin to the ruler of Kang, and was styled Shelideng. His consort was a daughter of the king of Kang. The capital stood south of the Namih River, in a city of five concentric walls ringed by canals. The palace buildings all had flat roofs. The king sat on a golden camel throne seven or eight chi tall. When holding court he sat facing his consort while three senior ministers deliberated on affairs of state. Their customs largely matched those of Kang, save that men married their sisters and mothers and sons successively engaged in illicit sexual relations with one another—these were the notable differences. After Emperor Yang's accession he sent Supervisory Censor aide Du Xingman to the Western Regions; reaching An, Du acquired five-colored salt and returned home.
14
國之西百餘里有畢國,可千餘家。 其國無君長,安國統之。 大業五年,遣使貢獻,後遂絕焉。 石國石國,居於藥殺水,都城方十餘里。 其王姓石,名涅。 國城之東南立屋,置座於中,正月六日、七月十五日以王父母燒餘之骨,金甕盛之,置于牀上,巡遶而行,散以花香雜果,王率臣下設祭焉。 禮終,王與夫人出就別帳,臣下以次列坐,享宴而罷。 有粟麥,多良馬。 其俗善戰,曾貳於突厥,射匱可汗興兵滅之,令特勤甸職攝其國事。 南去鏺汗六百里,東南去瓜州六千里。
Some hundred li west lay Bi, a settlement of roughly a thousand households. It had no ruler of its own and was administered by An. In the fifth year of Daye it sent a tribute mission; thereafter no further embassies came. Shi—the state of Shi—stood on the Yash River, its capital measuring roughly ten li square. The king bore the surname Shi and the personal name Nie. Southeast of the capital they built a hall with a ceremonial seat at its center. On the sixth day of the first month and the fifteenth of the seventh, the cremated remains of royal ancestors were placed in golden urns, set on a platform, and carried in procession while flowers, incense, and fruit were scattered; the king and his court then performed sacrifice. When the rites ended, the king and queen withdrew to a separate pavilion while officials took their seats in rank order for a feast before dispersing. They raised millet and wheat and bred many fine horses. They were a warlike people who had once rebelled against the Turks; Qaghan Shekui marched against them, overthrew the kingdom, and installed Tegin Dianzhi to govern in its place. It lay six hundred li south of Kapul and six thousand li southeast of Guazhou.
15
甸職以大業五年遣使朝貢,其後不復至。 女國女國,在葱嶺之南,其國代以女為王。 王姓蘇毗,字末羯,在位二十年。 女王之夫,號曰金聚,不知政事。 國內丈夫唯以征伐為務。 山上為城,方五六里,人有萬家。 王居九層之樓,侍女數百人,五日一聽朝。 復有小女王,共知國政。
Dianzhi sent a tribute mission in the fifth year of Daye; no further embassies followed. The Women's Kingdom—the state of Women—lay south of the Pamirs, where rulership passed from queen to queen in every generation. The reigning queen belonged to the Subi clan, was styled Mojie, and had held the throne for twenty years. The queen's consort, titled Gold Gathering, took no part in government. The men of the kingdom concerned themselves only with warfare. Their capital stood on a mountainside, five or six li square, with a population of ten thousand households. The queen lived in a nine-story tower attended by several hundred serving women and held court every five days. A secondary queen shared in the governance of the realm.
16
其俗貴婦人,輕丈夫,而性不妬忌。 男女皆以彩色塗面,一日之中,或數度變改之。 人皆被髮,以皮為鞋,課稅無常。 氣候多寒,以射獵為業。 出鍮石、朱砂、麝香、氂牛、駿馬、蜀馬。 尤多鹽,恒將鹽向天竺興販,其利數倍。 亦數與天竺及党項戰爭。 其女王死,國中則厚斂金錢,求死者族中之賢女二人,一為女王,次為小王。 貴人死,剝取皮,以金屑和骨肉置於瓶內而埋之。 經一年,又以其皮內於鐵器埋之。 俗事阿修羅神,又有樹神,歲初以人祭,或用獼猴。 祭畢,入山祝之,有一鳥如雌雉,來集掌上,破其腹而視之,有粟則年豐,沙石則有災,謂之鳥卜。
Women held honor while men were held lightly, yet jealousy was unknown among them. Both men and women painted their faces in bright colors, changing the design several times within a single day. They wore their hair loose, shod themselves in leather, and paid taxes on no fixed schedule. The climate was harsh and cold, and hunting was their chief livelihood. Local products included brass ore, cinnabar, musk, yaks, swift horses, and horses from Shu. Salt was especially abundant; merchants regularly carried it to India for trade at several times the usual profit. They also fought repeatedly with India and the Tangut peoples. When a queen died, the realm levied heavy contributions in gold and silver to select two worthy women from the deceased queen's clan—one as queen, the other as secondary queen. When a noble died, the skin was removed, the flesh and bones mixed with gold dust, placed in a jar, and buried. A year later the skin was placed in an iron container and buried separately. They worshipped the Asura deity and a tree spirit, offering human sacrifices—or occasionally macaques—at the year's opening. After the sacrifice they withdrew into the mountains to pray until a hen-pheasant-like bird alighted on someone's palm; they then opened its belly—millet within foretold a bountiful year, sand and gravel foretold disaster. This was called bird divination.
17
開皇六年,遣使朝貢,其後遂絕。 焉耆焉耆國,都白山之南七十里,漢時舊國也。 其王姓龍,字突騎。 都城方二里。 國內有九城,勝兵千餘人。 國無綱維。 其俗奉佛書,類婆羅門。 婚姻之禮有同華夏。 死者焚之,持服七日。 男子剪髮。 有魚鹽蒲葦之利。 東去高昌九百里,西去龜茲九百里,皆沙磧。 東南去瓜州二千二百里。 大業中,遣使貢方物。 龜茲龜茲國,都白山之南百七十里,漢時舊國也。 其王姓白,字蘇尼咥。 都城方六里。 勝兵者數千。 俗殺人者死,劫賊斷其一臂,并刖一足。 俗與焉耆同。 王頭繫綵帶,垂之於後,坐金師子座。 土多稻、粟、菽、麥,饒銅、鐵、鉛、麖皮、氍㲣、鐃沙、鹽綠、雌黃、胡粉、安息香、良馬、封牛。 東去焉耆九百里,南去于闐千四百里,西去疏勒千五百里,西北去突厥牙六百餘里,東南去瓜州三千一百里。 大業中,遣使貢方物。 疏勒疏勒國,都白山南百餘里,漢時舊國也。 其王字阿彌厥,手足皆六指。 產子非六指者,即不育。 都城方五里。 國內有大城十二,小城數十,勝兵者二千人。 王戴金師子冠。 土多稻、粟、麻、麥、銅、鐵、錦、雌黃,每歲常供送於突厥。 南有黃河,西帶葱嶺,東去龜茲千五百里,西去鏺汗國千里,南去朱俱波八九百里,東北去突厥牙千餘里,東南去瓜州四千六百里。 大業中,遣使貢方物。 于闐于闐國,都葱嶺之北二百餘里。 其王姓王,字卑示閉練。 都城方八九里。 國中大城有五,小城數十,勝兵者數千人。 俗奉佛,尤多僧尼,王每持齋戒。 城南五十里有贊摩寺者,云是羅漢比丘比盧旃所造,石上有辟支佛徒跣之跡。 于闐西五百里有比摩寺,云是老子化胡成佛之所。 俗無禮義,多賊盜淫縱。 王錦帽,金鼠冠,妻戴金花。 其王髮不令人見。 俗云,若見王髮,年必儉。 土多麻、麥、粟、稻、五果,多園林,山多美玉。 東去鄯善千五百里,南去女國三千里,西去朱俱波千里,北去龜茲千四百里,東北去瓜州二千八百里。 大業中,頻遣使朝貢。 鏺汗鏺汗國,都葱嶺之西五百餘里,古渠搜國也。 王姓昭武,字阿利柒。 都城方四里。 勝兵數千人。 王坐金羊牀,妻戴金花。 俗多朱砂、金、鐵。 東去疏勒千里,西去蘇對沙那國五百里,西北去石國五百里,東北去突厥牙二千餘里,東去瓜州五千五百里。 大業中,遣使貢方物。 吐火羅吐火羅國,都葱嶺西五百里,與挹怛雜居。 都城方二里。 勝兵者十萬人,皆習戰。 其俗奉佛。 兄弟同一妻,迭寢焉,每一人入房,戶外挂其衣以為志。 生子屬其長兄。 其山穴中有神馬,每歲牧牝馬於穴所,必產名駒。 南去漕國千七百里,東去瓜州五千八百里。 大業中,遣使朝貢。 挹怛挹怛國,都烏滸水南二百餘里,大月氏之種類也。 勝兵者五六千人。 俗善戰。 先時國亂,突厥遣通設字詰強領其國。 都城方十餘里。 多寺塔,皆飾以金。 兄弟同妻。 婦人有一夫者,冠一角帽,夫兄弟多者,依其數為角。 南去漕國千五百里,東去瓜州六千五百里。 大業中,遣使貢方物。 米國米國,都那密水西,舊康居之地也。 無王。 其城主姓昭武,康國王之支庶,字閉拙。 都城方二里。 勝兵數百人。 西北去康國百里,東去蘇對沙那國五百里,西南去史國二百里,東去瓜州六千四百里。 大業中,頻貢方物。 史國史國,都獨莫水南十里,舊康居之地也。 其王姓昭武,字逖遮,亦康國王之支庶也。 都城方二里。 勝兵千餘人。 俗同康國。 北去康國二百四十里,南去吐火羅五百里,西去那色波國二百里,東北去米國二百里,東去瓜州六千五百里。 大業中,遣使貢方物。 曹國曹國,都那密水南數里,舊是康居之地也。 國無主,康國王令子烏建領之。 都城方三里。 勝兵千餘人。 國中有得悉神,自西海以東諸國並敬事之。 其神有金人焉,金破羅闊丈有五尺,高下相稱。 每日以駝五頭、馬十匹、羊一百口祭之,常有千人食之不盡。 東南去康國百里,西去何國百五十里,東去瓜州六千六百里。 大業中,遣使貢方物。 何國何國,都那密水南數里,舊是康居之地也。 其王姓昭武,亦康國王之族類,字敦。 都城方二里。 勝兵千人。 其王坐金羊座。 東去曹國百五十里,西去小安國三百里,東去瓜州六千七百五十里。 大業中,遣使貢方物。 烏那曷烏那曷國,都烏滸水西,舊安息之地也。 王姓昭武,亦康國種類,字佛食。 都城方二里。 勝兵數百人。 王坐金羊座。 東北去安國四百里,西北去穆國二百餘里,東去瓜州七千五百里。 大業中,遣使貢方物。 穆國穆國,都烏滸河之西,亦安息之故地,與烏那曷為鄰。 其王姓昭武,亦康國王之種類也,字阿濫密。 都城方三里。 勝兵二千人。 東北去安國五百里,東去烏那曷二百餘里,西去波斯國四千餘里,東去瓜州七千七百里。 大業中,遣使貢方物。 波斯波斯國,都達曷水之西蘇藺城即條支之故地也。 其王字庫薩和。 都城方十餘里。 勝兵二萬餘人,乘象而戰。 國無死刑,或斷手刖足,沒家財,或剃去其鬚,或繫排於項,以為標異。 人年三歲已上,出口錢四文。 妻其姊妹。 人死者,棄屍于山,持服一月。 王著金花冠,坐金師子座,傅金屑於鬚上以為飾。 衣錦袍,加瓔珞於其上。 土多良馬,大驢,師子,白象,大鳥卵,真珠,頗黎,獸魄,珊瑚,瑠璃,碼碯,水精,瑟瑟,呼洛羯,呂騰,火齊,金剛,金,銀,鍮石,銅,鑌鐵,錫,錦疊,細布,氍㲣,毾㲪,護那,越諾布,檀,金縷織成,赤麖皮,朱沙,水銀,薰陸、鬱金、蘇合、青木等諸香,胡椒,畢撥,石蜜,半蜜,千年棗,附子,訶黎勒,無食子,鹽綠,雌黃。 突厥不能至其國,亦羈縻之。 波斯每遣使貢獻。 西去海數百里,東去穆國四千餘里,西北去拂菻四千五百里,東去瓜州萬一千七百里。
In the sixth year of Kaihuang a tribute mission was sent; thereafter no further embassies came. Yanqi—the state of Yanqi—had its capital seventy li south of White Mountain and was an ancient kingdom already known to the Han. The king belonged to the Long clan and was styled Tuqi. The capital measured two li square. The kingdom held nine walled towns and could field a little over a thousand fighting men. The realm had no effective legal order. They followed Buddhist scripture in ways resembling Brahmanical practice. Their marriage rites resembled those of the Central States. The dead were cremated and mourners wore funeral garb for seven days. The men cropped their hair short. They profited from fisheries, salt, and reed marshes. Gaochang lay nine hundred li to the east and Kucha nine hundred li to the west, all across sandy desert. Guazhou stood two thousand two hundred li to the southeast. During the Daye era it sent tribute missions bearing local goods. Kucha—the state of Kucha—had its capital one hundred seventy li south of White Mountain and was an ancient kingdom known to the Han. The king belonged to the Bai clan and was styled Sunie. The capital measured six li square. It could field several thousand fighting men. Murderers were executed; robbers lost an arm and had a foot amputated as well. Their customs matched those of Yanqi. The king bound a colored ribbon around his head with the ends trailing behind and sat upon a golden lion throne. The land yielded rice, millet, beans, and wheat in abundance, along with copper, iron, lead, antelope hides, qulu wool carpets, naosha, salt-green minerals, orpiment, lead white powder, benzoin, fine horses, and humped cattle. Yanqi lay nine hundred li to the east, Khotan fourteen hundred li south, Kashgar fifteen hundred li west, the Türk royal camp a little over six hundred li northwest, and Guazhou three thousand one hundred li southeast. During the Daye era it sent tribute missions bearing local goods. Kashgar—the state of Shule—had its capital a little over a hundred li south of White Mountain and was an ancient kingdom known to the Han. The king was styled Amijue and was born with six fingers on each hand and foot. Infants born without six fingers were not permitted to live. The capital measured five li square. The kingdom held twelve major walled towns and several dozen smaller ones and could field two thousand fighting men. The king wore a golden lion crown. The land produced rice, millet, hemp, wheat, copper, iron, brocade, and orpiment, which were delivered annually as tribute to the Turks. The Yellow River lay to the south and the Pamirs marked its western border; Kucha stood fifteen hundred li east, Kapul a thousand li west, Zhujubo eight or nine hundred li south, the Türk royal camp over a thousand li northeast, and Guazhou forty-six hundred li southeast. During the Daye era it sent tribute missions bearing local goods. Khotan—the state of Khotan—had its capital a little over two hundred li north of the Pamirs. The king bore the surname Wang and was styled Beishibilian. The capital measured eight or nine li square. The kingdom held five major walled towns and several dozen smaller ones and could field several thousand fighting men. They were devout Buddhists with an especially large monastic community; the king himself regularly kept the fasting precepts. Fifty li south of the capital stood Zanmo Temple, said to have been founded by the arhat Piludana; on its stones were the barefoot footprints of a pratyekabuddha. Five hundred li west of Khotan stood Bimo Temple, held to be the site where Laozi transformed the barbarians and attained Buddhahood. Propriety was little observed; theft, robbery, and sexual license were common. The king wore a brocade cap and a golden rat crown; his consort wore ornaments of golden flowers. No one was permitted to see the king's hair. Popular belief held that anyone who glimpsed the king's hair would bring famine upon the year. The land yielded hemp, wheat, millet, rice, and orchard fruits; gardens were plentiful, and the mountains held fine jade. Shanshan lay fifteen hundred li to the east, the Women's Kingdom three thousand li south, Zhujubo a thousand li west, Kucha fourteen hundred li north, and Guazhou twenty-eight hundred li northeast. During the Daye era Khotan repeatedly sent tribute missions to the capital. Kapul—the state of Kapul—had its capital a little over five hundred li west of the Pamirs, on the site of the ancient kingdom of Qusou. The king belonged to the Zhaowu clan and was styled Aoliqi. The capital measured four li square. It could field several thousand fighting men. The king sat upon a golden ram throne, and his consort wore ornaments of golden flowers. The land produced cinnabar, gold, and iron in abundance. Kashgar lay a thousand li east, Suduishana five hundred li west, Shi five hundred li northwest, the Türk royal camp over two thousand li northeast, and Guazhou fifty-five hundred li east. During the Daye era it sent tribute missions bearing local goods. Tokhara—the state of Tokhara—had its capital five hundred li west of the Pamirs and lived mingled with the Yeda. The capital measured two li square. It could field a hundred thousand fighting men, all trained for war. They were devout Buddhists. Brothers shared one wife, taking turns with her; when one entered the bedchamber, he hung his garment outside the door as a sign. Any children born belonged to the eldest brother. A sacred stallion dwelt in a mountain cave there; each year mares were pastured at the cave and unfailingly bore famous foals. Kapiśa lay seventeen hundred li south, and Guazhou fifty-eight hundred li east. During the Daye era it sent tribute missions to the capital. Yeda—the state of Yeda—had its capital a little over two hundred li south of the Wuhu River and was a branch of the Great Yuezhi. It could field five or six thousand fighting men. They were skilled warriors. When the kingdom had fallen into disorder, the Turks dispatched an official of tongshe rank, styled Jieqiang, to govern it. The capital measured a little over ten li square. Monasteries and pagodas were numerous, all ornamented with gold. Brothers shared a single wife. A woman with one husband wore a single-horned cap; if her husbands were numerous among the brothers, the cap bore horns in corresponding number. Kapiśa lay fifteen hundred li south, and Guazhou sixty-five hundred li east. During the Daye era it sent tribute missions bearing local goods. Mi—the state of Mi—had its capital west of the Namih River, on former Kangju territory. It had no king of its own. Its city lord belonged to the Zhaowu clan, a cadet line of the king of Kang, and was styled Bizhuo. The capital measured two li square. It could field several hundred fighting men. Kang lay a hundred li northwest, Suduishana five hundred li east, Shi two hundred li southwest, and Guazhou sixty-four hundred li east. During the Daye era it frequently sent local goods as tribute. Shi—the state of Shi—had its capital ten li south of the Dumo River, on former Kangju territory. The king belonged to the Zhaowu clan and was styled Tizhe, likewise a cadet branch of the king of Kang. The capital measured two li square. It could field more than a thousand fighting men. Their customs largely matched those of Kang. Kang lay two hundred forty li north, Tokhara five hundred li south, Nasibo two hundred li west, Mi two hundred li northeast, and Guazhou sixty-five hundred li east. During the Daye era it sent tribute missions bearing local goods. Cao—the state of Cao—had its capital a few li south of the Namih River, on former Kangju territory. The state had no ruler of its own; the king of Kang put his son Wujian in charge of it. The capital measured three li square. It could field more than a thousand fighting men. Within the kingdom was the god Dexi, whom all states from the Western Sea eastward jointly revered. The deity had a golden image: a golden ritual vessel one zhang and five chi across, proportioned in height and breadth. Each day five camels, ten horses, and a hundred sheep were sacrificed to it, and a thousand people could not finish eating the offerings. Kang lay a hundred li southeast, He a hundred fifty li west, and Guazhou sixty-six hundred li east. During the Daye era it sent tribute missions bearing local goods. He—the state of He—had its capital a few li south of the Namih River, on former Kangju territory. The king belonged to the Zhaowu clan, kin to the ruler of Kang, and was styled Dun. The capital measured two li square. It could field a thousand fighting men. The king sat upon a golden ram throne. Cao lay a hundred fifty li east, Lesser An three hundred li west, and Guazhou sixty-seven hundred fifty li east. During the Daye era it sent tribute missions bearing local goods. Wunahe—the state of Wunahe—had its capital west of the Wuhu River, on former Parthian territory. The king belonged to the Zhaowu clan, a branch kin to Kang, and was styled Foshi. The capital measured two li square. It could field several hundred fighting men. The king sat upon a golden ram throne. An lay four hundred li northeast, Mu over two hundred li northwest, and Guazhou seventy-five hundred li east. During the Daye era it sent tribute missions bearing local goods. Mu—the state of Mu—had its capital west of the Wuhu River, likewise on former Parthian ground and bordering Wunahe. The king belonged to the Zhaowu clan, likewise a branch of the ruler of Kang, and was styled Alanmi. The capital measured three li square. It could field two thousand fighting men. An lay five hundred li northeast, Wunahe over two hundred li east, Persia over four thousand li west, and Guazhou seventy-seven hundred li east. During the Daye era it sent tribute missions bearing local goods. Persia—the state of Persia—had its capital at Sulon west of the Dahe River, on the site known to the Han as Tiaozhi. The king was styled Kusahe. The capital measured a little over ten li square. It could field more than twenty thousand fighting men and went to war mounted on elephants. The kingdom had no death penalty; offenders might have hands or feet severed and their household goods confiscated, their beards shaved off, or wooden placards hung from the neck as marks of disgrace. Every person from the age of three upward paid an exit tax of four cash. Men married their sisters. When someone died the body was abandoned on a mountain, and mourners wore mourning dress for one month. The king wore a golden-flower crown, sat upon a golden lion throne, and dusted gold powder into his beard as ornament. He wore a brocade robe with jeweled chains added over it. The land abounded in fine horses, large donkeys, lions, white elephants, ostrich eggs, pearls, crystal, amber, coral, lapis lazuli, agate, rock crystal, turquoise sese stones, huluojie and lüteng textiles, carnelian, diamonds, gold, silver, orpiment, copper, patterned steel, tin, layered brocades, fine cloth, qulu and ta carpets, huna and yuenuo fabrics, sandalwood, gold-thread weaving, red musk-deer hides, cinnabar, mercury, frankincense, turmeric, storax, lign aloes, and other aromatics, pepper, long pepper, rock candy, half-refined honey, thousand-year jujubes, aconite, haritaki, myrobalan galls, green salt, and realgar. Even the Turks could not reach this kingdom, yet it too was held only loosely within the tributary orbit. Persia sent tribute missions repeatedly. The sea lay several hundred li west, Mu over four thousand li east, Fulin forty-five hundred li northwest, and Guazhou eleven thousand seven hundred li east.
18
煬帝遣雲騎尉李昱使通波斯,尋遣使隨昱貢方物。 漕國漕國,在葱嶺之北,漢時𦋺賓國也。 其王姓昭武,字順達,康國王之宗族。 都城方四里。 勝兵者萬餘人。 國法嚴整,殺人及賊盜皆死。 其俗淫祠。 葱嶺山有順天神者,儀制極華,金銀鍱為屋,以銀為地,祠者日有千餘人。 祠前有一魚脊骨,其孔中通,馬騎出入。 國王戴金魚頭冠,坐金馬座。 土多稻、粟、豆、麥; 饒象,馬,封牛,金,銀,鑌鐵,氍㲣,朱砂,青黛,安息、青木等香,石蜜,半蜜,黑鹽,阿魏,沒藥,白附子。 北去帆延七百里,東去刦國六百里,東北去瓜州六千六百里。 大業中,遣使貢方物。 附國附國者,蜀郡西北二千餘里,即漢之西南夷也。 有嘉良夷,即其東部,所居種姓自相率領,土俗與附國同,言語少殊,不相統一。 其人並無姓氏。 附國王字宜繒。 其國南北八百里,東南千五百里,無城柵,近川谷,傍山險。 俗好復讎,故壘石為𥕘而居,以避其患。 其𥕘高至十餘丈,下至五六丈,每級丈餘,以木隔之。 基方三四步,𥕘上方二三步,狀似浮圖。 於下級開小門,從內上通,夜必關閉,以防賊盜。 國有二萬餘家,號令自王出。 嘉良夷政令繫之酋帥,重罪者死,輕刑罰牛。
Emperor Yang dispatched Cloud-Cavalry Commandant Li Yu to open relations with Persia, and soon afterward the Persians sent envoys with Li Yu bearing local goods in tribute. Caoguo—the state of Caoguo—lay north of the Pamirs and was the Han-era kingdom of Kapiśa. The king belonged to the Zhaowu clan and was styled Shunda, of the royal kindred of Kang. The capital measured four li square. It could field more than ten thousand fighting men. Its laws were stern: murder and theft were capital crimes. Their cultic practice was lavish and licentious. On Mount Pamir stood the god Shuntian, whose cult was magnificently appointed: the shrine was built of sheets of gold and silver with a silver floor, and more than a thousand worshippers came daily. Before the shrine lay a fish spine whose hollow passage was wide enough for a mounted rider to pass through. The king wore a golden fish-head crown and sat upon a golden horse throne. The land produced rice, millet, beans, and wheat; elephants were plentiful, along with horses, humped cattle, gold, silver, patterned steel, qulu carpets, cinnabar, indigo, Parthian and lign aloes aromatics, rock candy, half-refined honey, black salt, asafetida, myrrh, and white aconite. Fanyan lay seven hundred li north, Jie six hundred li east, and Guazhou sixty-six hundred li northeast. During the Daye reign, Caoguo sent envoys bearing local goods in tribute. Fu—called Fu Kingdom—lay more than two thousand li northwest of Shu commandery; in Han times it had been one of the Southwest Yi peoples. The Jialiang Yi occupied its eastern regions. Local clans lived under their own leaders, their customs matched those of Fu, though their speech differed slightly, and they were not united under a single authority. None of them used surnames. The king of Fu was styled Yizeng. The kingdom measured eight hundred li north to south and fifteen hundred li east to southeast. It had no walled towns or stockades; settlements lay along river valleys against steep mountain slopes. Because blood feuds were common, they built stone tower-dwellings to live in and escape that danger. The towers stood anywhere from five or six to more than ten zhang high, each tier rising over a zhang with wooden floors between levels. Each stood on a base three or four paces square, narrowed to two or three paces at the top, and looked like a pagoda. A small door opened at the lowest level gave internal access upward; it was always bolted at night against thieves. The kingdom contained more than twenty thousand households, and all government orders came from the king. Among the Jialiang Yi, each chieftain enforced the law locally: capital crimes merited death, lesser offenses were punished with fines paid in cattle.
19
人皆輕捷,便於擊劍。 漆皮為牟甲,弓長六尺,以竹為弦。 妻其羣母及嫂,兒弟死,父兄亦納其妻。 好歌儛,鼓簧,吹長笛。 有死者,無服制,置屍高牀之上,沐浴衣服,被以牟甲,覆以獸皮。 子孫不哭,帶甲儛劍而呼云:「我父為鬼所取,我欲報冤殺鬼。」 自餘親戚哭三聲而止。 婦人哭,必以兩手掩面。 死家殺牛,親屬以猪酒相遺,共飲噉而瘞之。 死後十年而大葬,其葬必集親賓,殺馬動至數十匹。 立其祖父神而事之。 其俗以皮為帽,形圓如鉢,或帶羃䍦。 衣多毛毼皮裘,全剝牛脚皮為靴。 項繫鐵鎖,手貫鐵釧。 王與酋帥,金為首飾,胸前懸一金花,徑三寸。 其土高,氣候涼,多風少雨。 土宜小麥、青𮃡。 山出金、銀、多白雉。 水有嘉魚,長四尺而鱗細。
The people were agile and skilled swordsmen. They wore lacquered leather armor; their bows were six chi long with bamboo strings. A man might marry his stepmothers and sisters-in-law; when a younger brother died, his father or elder brothers would take the widow. They loved song and dance, playing reed pipes and long flutes. When someone died, no mourning garb was prescribed. The body was laid on a high platform, washed and dressed, clad in armor, and covered with animal hides. The sons and grandsons did not weep. Instead they donned armor, danced with swords drawn, and shouted: "My father was seized by a ghost—I will avenge him and slay the ghost! Other relatives cried out three times and fell silent. Women mourners always covered their faces with both hands. The bereaved family slaughtered an ox; relatives exchanged gifts of pork and wine, feasted together, and then buried the body. A great funeral was held ten years after death, attended by kin and guests; dozens of horses might be slaughtered. They set up ancestral spirits of fathers and grandfathers and worshipped them. They wore round leather caps shaped like bowls, or face veils. Their clothing was chiefly felted wool and fur; boots were made entirely from the skin of cattle hooves. They wore iron chains around the neck and iron bangles on the wrists. Kings and chieftains wore gold head ornaments and hung a golden flower three cun across on the chest. The land was high and the climate cool, with frequent winds and scant rain. The soil favored wheat and highland barley. The mountains yielded gold and silver, and white pheasants were plentiful. The rivers held splendid fish four chi long with fine scales.
20
大業四年,其王遣使素福等八人入朝。 明年,又遣其弟子宜林率嘉良夷六十人朝貢。 欲獻良馬,以路險不通,請開山道以修職貢。 煬帝以勞人不許。
In the fourth year of Daye, the king sent eight envoys led by Sufu to the imperial court. The following year he sent his young kinsman Yilin at the head of sixty Jialiang Yi to pay tribute at court. They wished to offer fine horses but the route was too dangerous; they asked that a mountain road be cut so they could fulfill their tribute obligations. Emperor Yang refused, unwilling to burden the populace with such labor.
21
嘉良有水,闊六七十丈,附國有水,闊百餘丈,並南流,用皮為舟而濟。
Jialiang had a river sixty or seventy zhang wide; Fu had one over a hundred zhang wide. Both flowed south, and people crossed in boats made of hides.
22
附國南有薄緣夷,風俗亦同。 西有女國。 其東北連山,緜亘數千里,接於党項。 往往有羌:大、小左封,昔衞,葛延,白狗,向人,望族,林臺,春桑,利豆,迷桑,婢藥,大硤,白蘭,叱利摸徒,那鄂,當迷,渠步,桑悟,千碉,並在深山窮谷,無大君長。 其風俗略同於党項,或役屬吐谷渾,或附附國。
South of Fu lived the Boyuan Yi, whose customs were much the same. To the west lay the Women's Kingdom. To the northeast, mountains ran unbroken for thousands of li, reaching the Tangut lands. Scattered Qiang groups were found throughout the region—the Great and Lesser Zuofeng, Xiewei, Geyan, Baigou, Xiangren, Wangzu, Lintai, Chunsang, Lidou, Misang, Biyao, Daxia, Bailan, Chilimotu, Na'e, Dangmi, Qubu, Sangwu, and Qiandiao—all dwelling in deep mountains and remote valleys without any paramount chief. Their customs broadly resembled those of the Tangut; some served the Tuyuhun, others were attached to Fu.
23
大業中,來朝貢。 緣西南邊置諸道總管,以遙管之。
During the Daye reign they came to court bearing tribute. The court placed circuit administrators-general along the southwestern frontier to oversee them at a distance.
24
史臣曰:自古開遠夷,通絕域,必因宏放之主,皆起好事之臣。 張騫鑿空於前,班超投筆於後,或結之以重寶,或懾之以利劍,投軀萬死之地,以要一旦之功,皆由主尚來遠之名,臣殉輕生之節。 是知上之所好,下必有甚者也。 煬帝規摹宏侈,掩吞秦、漢,裴矩方進西域圖記以蕩其心,故萬乘親出玉門關,置伊吾、且末,而關右暨於流沙,騷然無聊生矣。 若使北狄無虞,東夷告捷,必將修輪臺之戍,築烏壘之城,求大秦之明珠,致條支之鳥卵,往來轉輸,將何以堪其敝哉! 古者哲王之制,方五千里,務安諸夏,不事要荒。 豈威不能加,德不能被? 蓋不以四夷勞中國,不以無用害有用也。 是以秦戍五嶺,漢事三邊,或道殣相望,或戶口減半。 隋室恃其強盛,亦狼狽於青海。 此皆一人失其道,故億兆罹其毒。 若深思即叙之義,固辭都護之請,返其千里之馬,不求白狼之貢,則七戎九夷,候風重譯,雖無遼東之捷,豈及江都之禍乎!
The historiographer remarks: Since antiquity, reaching distant barbarians and opening routes to the farthest lands has always required a magnanimous ruler—and has always been set in motion by ministers eager for bold undertakings. Zhang Qian had pioneered the route in the Han, Ban Chao had cast aside his writing brush to follow—some were won with lavish gifts, others cowed with drawn swords. Men threw themselves into mortal danger for a single burst of glory, all because the sovereign coveted renown from afar and his servants were ready to squander their lives for the cause. This shows that whatever the ruler favors, his subjects will pursue with even greater zeal. Emperor Yang's ambitions were vast enough to overshadow Qin and Han combined. Pei Ju had just submitted his Western Regions gazetteer to inflame those ambitions, so the Son of Heaven himself marched beyond Yumen Pass, established garrisons at Yiwu and Qiemo, and the regions west of the passes as far as the shifting sands were thrown into such turmoil that ordinary people could scarcely live. Had the northern barbarians stayed quiet and the eastern tribes brought good news, the court would inevitably have restored the Luntai garrison, rebuilt Wulei fortress, demanded the luminous pearls of Rome, and fetched the ostrich eggs of Tiaozhi—with goods shuttling ceaselessly back and forth, how could the empire have endured the strain? The institutions of the sage kings of old measured five thousand li square; their aim was to secure the Central States, not to meddle in the far wastes. Was it that their power could not reach so far, or their virtue could not extend there? Rather, they refused to exhaust the Central Kingdom for the sake of the four barbarian quarters, or to sacrifice what was useful for what was worthless. That is why Qin posted troops to the Five Ridges and Han poured resources into the three frontiers—with corpses sometimes lining the roads and registered populations cut in half. The Sui dynasty, confident in its strength, likewise found itself in desperate straits on the Qinghai frontier. All of this stemmed from one man's loss of the Way—and hundreds of millions bore the cost. Had the emperor truly grasped the principle of ruling distant peoples through peaceful submission—firmly declining requests for protectorates, sending back horses offered from a thousand li away, and spurning exotic tribute like the white wolf's pelt—then the peoples of west and east would still have come bearing gifts through interpreters, wind at their backs. The court might have won no triumph in Liaodong, but would it ever have suffered catastrophe at Jiangdu?