Volume 81 Treatises 34: Selection of Officials 1

選舉一

Selection of Officials 1

選舉之法尚矣。成周庠序學校，以鄉三物教萬民而賓興之，舉於鄉，升於司徒、司馬論定，而後官之。兩漢有賢良方正、孝弟力田等科，或奉對詔策，事猶近古。隋、唐有秀才、明經、進士、明法、明算等科，或兼用詩賦，士始有棄本而逐末者。宋大興文治，專尚科目，雖當時得人為盛，而其弊遂至文體卑弱，士習委靡，識者病焉。遼、金居北方，俗尚弓馬，遼景宗、道宗亦行貢試，金太宗、世宗屢辟科場，亦粗稱得士。

The methods by which officials are chosen are ancient indeed. In the Zhou of King Cheng, state and village schools taught the people through the three village norms and advanced the worthy as guests. Candidates were chosen in the village, sent up to the ministers of education and war for review, and only then appointed to office. Under the two Han dynasties there were categories such as Worthy and Upright and Filial and Frugal in Farming, and candidates sometimes answered imperial questions in person—practices that still bore some resemblance to antiquity. Sui and Tang established categories such as Cultivated Talent, Understanding the Classics, Presented Scholar, Understanding Law, and Understanding Calculation, and sometimes added poetry and rhapsody as well. Scholars began to abandon fundamentals and chase ornament. The Song greatly promoted literary governance and relied almost entirely on the examination system. For a time it produced many able men, but in time the style of writing grew feeble and scholarly habits grew slack—failings that thoughtful observers lamented. Liao and Jin ruled the north, where the custom favored bow and horse. Even so, Liao's Emperor Jingzong and Daozong held tribute examinations, and Jin's Emperor Taizong and Shizong opened the examination fields many times; they too could be said, in a rough way, to have secured able men.

元初，太宗始得中原，輒用耶律楚材言，以科舉選士。世祖既定天下，王鶚獻計，許衡立法，事未果行。至仁宗延祐間，始斟酌舊制而行之，取士以德行為本，試藝以經術為先，士褒然舉首應上所求者，皆彬彬輩出矣。然當時仕進有多岐，銓衡無定制，其出身於學校者，有國子監學，有蒙古字學、回回國學，有醫學，有陰陽學。其策名於薦舉者，有遺逸，有茂異，有求言，有進書，有童子。其出於宿衛、勛臣之家者，待以不次。其用於宣徽、中政之屬者，重為內官。又蔭敘有循常之格，而超擢有選用之科。由直省、侍儀等入官者，亦名清望。以倉庾、賦稅任事者，例視冗職。捕盜者以功敘，入粟者以貲進，至工匠皆入班資，而輿隸亦躋流品。諸王、公主，寵以投下，俾之保任。遠夷、外僥，授以長官，俾之世襲。凡若此類，殆所謂吏道雜而多端者歟！矧夫儒有歲貢之名，吏有補用之法，曰掾史、令史，曰書寫、銓寫，曰書吏、典吏，所設之名，未易枚舉，曰省、臺、院、部，曰路、府、州、縣，所入之途，難以指計。雖名卿大夫，亦往往由是躋要官，受顯爵；而刀筆下吏，遂致竊權勢，舞文法矣。故其銓選之備，考核之精，曰隨朝、外任，曰省選、部選，曰文官、武官，曰考數，曰資格，一毫不可越。而或援例，或借資，或優升，或回降，其縱情破律，以公濟私，非至明者不能察焉。是皆文繁吏弊之所致也。

Early in the dynasty, as soon as Emperor Taizong gained the Central Plains, he took Yelü Chucai's advice and used the civil examination to select scholars. After Emperor Shizu had settled the realm, Wang E offered plans and Xu Heng drafted regulations, but the reforms were never fully implemented. Not until Emperor Renzong's Yanyou reign did the court weigh the old rules and put them into practice, taking scholars on the basis of virtue and testing them with classical learning first. Men who answered the throne's call came forward in refined succession. Yet advancement into office had many paths and assessment had no single standard. School graduates might come from the Directorate of Education, the Mongol Script School, the Hui Nationality School, medical schools, or yin-yang schools. Those who gained office through recommendation included recluses of outstanding merit, men of exceptional talent, petitioners offering counsel, presenters of books, and child prodigies. Those from the households of palace guards and meritorious ministers were promoted out of regular order. Those who served in the Xuanwei and Central Administration bureaus were treated as weighty inner-court officials. Hereditary privilege followed regular grades, while extraordinary promotion had its own selection categories. Those who entered office through the Direct Secretariat, Ceremonial Attendants, and similar posts were also counted among posts of clear reputation. Posts charged with granaries and tax collection were routinely treated as low-status routine work. Bandit-catchers advanced by merit, grain donors by wealth, and even artisans entered the official roster; runners and clerks too could rise into the ranked service. Princes and princesses were favored with appanages and empowered to guarantee appointments. Distant peoples and border communities were given chief posts to hold in hereditary succession. Cases such as these are precisely what people mean when they say the paths of officialdom were tangled and manifold. Moreover, Confucians had annual tribute posts and clerks had supplementary appointment routes—aide clerks, order clerks, copyists, selection copyists, document clerks, registry clerks, and more titles than one can easily list. From secretariats, censorates, courts, and ministries down to circuits, prefectures, subprefectures, and districts, the paths into office were beyond easy reckoning. Even men who bore the titles of high minister or grandee often rose to important posts and received eminent ranks by these routes; while lowly clerks who wielded the brush came to seize power and twist the written law. Accordingly its rules for selection and assessment were elaborate and exact—court service and outside appointment, provincial selection and ministry selection, civil and military posts, examination counts and qualifications—and not a single rule could be crossed. Yet some invoked precedents, some borrowed seniority, some won preferential promotion, and some were sent down in rank. Those who bent the rules to serve private ends under cover of public business could be detected only by the sharpest observers. All of this sprang from prolix paperwork and the abuses of clerical government.

今采摭舊編，載於簡牘，或詳或略，絳分類聚，殆有不勝其紀述者，姑存一代之制，作《選舉志》。 ○科目

The present compilation draws on older records, setting them down in full or in summary and arranging them by category—almost too much to recount in full. For now we preserve the institutions of the dynasty in this Treatise on Selection of Officials. Examination Categories

太宗始取中原，中書令耶律楚材請用儒術選士，從之。九年秋八月，下詔命斷事官術忽<角┦>與山西東路課稅所長官劉中，歷諸路考試。以論及經義、詞賦分為三科，作三日程，專治一科，能兼者聽，但以不失文義為中選。其中選者，復其賦役，令與各處長官同署公事，得東平楊奐等凡若干人，皆一時名士，而當世或以為非便，事復中止。

When Emperor Taizong first took the Central Plains, Chief Minister Yelü Chucai asked that scholars be chosen through Confucian learning, and the emperor agreed. In the eighth month of autumn in the ninth year, an edict ordered the judicial officer Shuhudai and Liu Zhong, head of the Shanxi Eastern Circuit tax office, to hold examinations throughout the circuits. Candidates were tested in discourse, classical exegesis, and lyric composition, divided into three categories over three days. Each was to specialize in one subject, though those able to combine subjects were allowed; selection depended on sound understanding of the texts. Those who passed had their tax and corvée obligations restored and were ordered to handle public business alongside local chiefs. Among those chosen were Yang Huan of Dongping and several others, all celebrated scholars of the day, but many contemporaries found the arrangement impractical, and the program was halted again.

世祖至元初年，有旨命丞相史天澤絳具當行大事，嘗及科舉，而未果行。四年九月，翰林學士承旨王鶚等，請行選舉法，遠述周制，次及漢、隋、唐取士科目，近舉遼、金選舉用人，與本朝太宗得人之效，以為：「貢舉法廢，士無入仕之階，或習刀筆以為吏胥，或執仆役以事官僚，或作技巧販鬻以為工匠商賈。以今論之，惟科舉取士，最為切務，矧先朝故典，尤宜追述。」奏上，帝曰：「此良法也，其行之。」中書左三部與翰林學士議立程式，又請：「依前代立國學，選蒙古人諸職官子孫百人，專命師儒教習經書，俟其藝成，然後試用，庶幾勛舊之家，人材輩出，以備超擢。」十一年十一月，裕宗在東宮時，省臣復啟，謂「去年奉旨行科舉，今將翰林老臣等所議程式以聞」。奉令旨，準蒙古進士科及漢人進士科，參酌時宜，以立制度，事未施行。至二十一年九月，丞相火魯火孫與留夢炎等言，十一月中書省臣奏，皆以為天下習儒者少，而由刀筆吏得官者多。帝曰：「將若之何？」對曰：「惟貢舉取士為便。凡蒙古之士及儒吏、陰陽、醫術，皆令試舉，則用心為學矣。」帝可其奏。繼而許衡亦議學校科舉之法，罷詩賦，重經學，定為新制。事雖未及行，而選舉之制已立。

Early in Emperor Shizu's Zhiyuan reign, the emperor ordered Chancellor Shi Tianze to compile in detail the major reforms that should be undertaken. The civil examination was discussed, but never implemented. In the ninth month of the fourth year, Hanlin Academician Wang E and others asked that the selection law be implemented. They reviewed the Zhou system, then Han, Sui, and Tang methods of recruitment, and cited Liao and Jin practice together with the success of our Taizong in securing talent. They argued: "With the tribute-examination system abandoned, scholars have no path into office. Some learn clerical skills to become aides, some serve as attendants to officials, and some turn to crafts and trade as artisans or merchants. For the present, nothing is more urgent than restoring the civil examination, and the precedents of the former dynasty should especially be revived." When the memorial reached the throne, the emperor said, "This is sound policy. Put it into practice." The Left Three Departments of the Secretariat and the Hanlin academicians drafted procedures and further asked that, following earlier dynasties, a National University be established. One hundred descendants of Mongol officials were to be chosen and taught the classics by appointed teachers; only after they had mastered their studies were they to be tried in office, so that meritorious households might produce talent for extraordinary promotion." In the eleventh month of the eleventh year, while Crown Prince Yuzong was in the Eastern Palace, provincial ministers reported again that, having received orders the previous year to implement the civil examination, they now submitted the procedures drafted by senior Hanlin scholars. By imperial command they approved Mongol and Han Presented Scholar categories and drafted a system suited to the times, but the reforms were still not implemented. In the ninth month of the twenty-first year, Chancellor Huoluohusun and Liu Mengyan and others spoke on the matter. In the eleventh month Secretariat ministers memorialized that few men in the realm studied Confucian learning, while many gained office through clerical service. The emperor asked, "What is to be done about it?" They answered, "The tribute-examination system is the best remedy. If Mongol scholars, Confucian clerks, yin-yang specialists, and medical practitioners were all required to sit for examinations, they would devote themselves to study." The emperor approved the memorial. Xu Heng then proposed reforms to schools and the civil examination, abolishing poetry and rhapsody, emphasizing classical learning, and establishing a new system. Although the reforms had not yet been implemented, the framework for official selection was already in place.

至仁宗皇慶二年十月，中書省臣奏：「科舉事，世祖、裕宗累嘗命行，成宗、武宗尋亦有旨，今不以聞，恐或有沮其事者。夫取士之法，經學實修己治人之道，詞賦乃摛章繪句之學，自隋、唐以來，取人專尚詞賦，故士習浮華。今臣等所擬將律賦省題詩小義皆不用，專立德行明經科，以此取士，庶可得人。」帝然之。十一月，乃下詔曰：「惟我祖宗以神武定天下，世祖皇帝設官分職，徵用儒雅，崇學校為育材之地，議科舉為取士之方，規模宏遠矣。朕以眇躬，獲承丕祚，繼誌述事，祖訓是式。若稽三代以來，取士各有科目，要其本末，舉人宜以德行為首，試藝則以經術為先，詞章次之。浮華過實，朕所不取。爰命中書，參酌古今，定其條制。其以皇慶三年八月，天下郡縣，興其賢者能者，充賦有司，次年二月會試京師，中選者朕將親策焉。具合行事宜於後：科場，每三歲一次開試。舉人從本貫官司於諸色戶內推舉，年及二十五以上，鄉黨稱其孝悌，朋友服其信義，經明行修之士，結罪保舉，以禮敦遣，資諸路府。其或徇私濫舉，並應舉而不舉者，監察御史、肅政廉訪司體察究治。考試程式：蒙古、色目人，第一場經問五絳，《大學》、《論語》、《孟子》、《中庸》內設問，用朱氏章句集註。其義理精明，文辭典雅者為中選。第二場策一道，以時務出題，限五百字以上。漢人、南人，第一場明經經疑二問，《大學》、《論語》、《孟子》、《中庸》內出題，並用朱氏章句集註，復以己意結之，限三百字以上；經義一道，各治一經，《詩》以朱氏為主，《尚書》以蔡氏為主，《周易》以程氏、朱氏為主，已上三經，兼用古註疏，《春秋》許用《三傳》及胡氏《傳》，《禮記》用古註疏，限五百字以上，不拘格律。第二場古賦詔誥章表內科一道，古賦詔誥用古體，章表四六，參用古體。第三場策一道，經史時務內出題，不矜浮藻，惟務直述，限一千字以上成。蒙古、色目人，願試漢人、南人科目，中選者加一等註授。蒙古、色目人作一榜，漢人、南人作一榜。第一名賜進士及第，從六品，第二名以下及第二甲，皆正七品，第三甲以下，皆正八品，兩榜並同。所在官司遲誤開試日期，監察御史、肅政廉訪司糾彈治罪。流官子孫蔭敘，並依舊制，願試中選者，優升一等。在官未入流品，願試者聽。若中選之人，已有九品以上資級，比附一高，加一等註授；若無品級，止依試例從優銓註。鄉試處所，並其餘條目，命中書省議行。於戲！經明行修，庶得真儒之用；風移俗易，益臻至治之隆。咨爾多方，體予至意。」

In the tenth month of the second year of Emperor Renzong's Huangqing reign, Secretariat ministers memorialized: "As for the civil examination, Emperor Shizu and Crown Prince Yuzong repeatedly ordered its implementation, and Emperors Chengzong and Wuzong soon issued further edicts. If we do not report progress now, someone may obstruct the project. The proper way to recruit officials is through classical learning, which cultivates the self and governs others. Lyric composition is merely the art of polished phrasing. Since Sui and Tang, recruitment has favored poetry and rhapsody, and scholarly habits have grown showy and hollow. We propose to abolish regulated rhapsody, provincial-topic poetry, and minor exegetical questions, and to establish only the categories of Virtue and Conduct and Understanding the Classics. By this means we may hope to secure true talent." The emperor agreed. In the eleventh month the emperor issued an edict: "Our ancestors settled the realm by divine martial prowess. Emperor Shizu established offices and divided duties, recruited cultivated scholars, honored schools as places to nurture talent, and planned the civil examination as the means to recruit officials—a design of vast scope. I, in my slight person, have received the great succession and now carry on the work of my forebears, taking their instruction as my model. Looking back from the Three Dynasties, each age had its own recruitment categories. In essentials, candidates should be judged first on virtue and conduct, and in testing, classical learning should come first and literary composition second. Showiness without substance is what I reject. I therefore command the Secretariat to weigh past and present practice and fix the regulations. In the eighth month of the third year of Huangqing, commanderies and districts throughout the realm shall present their worthy and able men to the responsible offices. In the second month of the following year they shall assemble in the capital for examination, and those who pass I shall examine in person. The regulations to be carried out are as follows. Examinations shall be held once every three years. Candidates shall be recommended by the offices of their native place from among all household categories. They must be twenty-five or older, praised in their community for filial piety and fraternal duty, and trusted by friends for faith and integrity. Scholars accomplished in the classics and conduct shall be recommended under sworn guarantee, sent forward with proper ceremony, and dispatched to circuit and prefectural offices. Where recommendations are made from private favor or where qualified men are passed over, investigating censors and the Commission for Upholding Justice shall investigate and punish offenders. Examination procedures: For Mongols and persons of other colors, the first session consists of five classic questions drawn from the Great Learning, Analects, Mencius, and Doctrine of the Mean, using Zhu Xi's collected commentaries. Those who show clear understanding of principle and elegant expression shall pass. The second session is one policy question on current affairs, of no fewer than five hundred characters. For Han and southern candidates, the first session has two questions on Understanding the Classics and classic difficulties, drawn from the Four Books with Zhu Xi's commentaries, with an additional personal conclusion of no fewer than three hundred characters; one question on classic exegesis, each candidate specializing in one classic—the Odes chiefly by Zhu, the Documents by Cai, the Changes by Cheng and Zhu, with ancient commentaries also permitted for these three; the Spring and Autumn Annals may use the Three Commentaries and Hu Anguo's commentary; the Record of Rites uses ancient commentaries—no fewer than five hundred characters, without formal constraints. The second session is one question in ancient rhapsody, edict, patent, memorial, or table—ancient rhapsody and edict-patent in ancient style, memorials and tables in parallel prose, with some use of ancient style permitted. The third session is one policy question drawn from the classics, history, and current affairs. Candidates should not indulge in ornament but write plainly, in no fewer than one thousand characters. Mongols and persons of other colors who choose to sit for the Han and southern examinations, if they pass, receive appointment one grade higher. Mongols and persons of other colors form one roster; Han and southern candidates form another. First place receives the title Presented Scholar with Honors at rank 6b; from second place through the second class, rank 7a; third class and below, rank 8a—the same for both rosters. If local offices delay the opening of examinations, investigating censors and the Commission for Upholding Justice shall impeach and punish them. Descendants of ranked officials receive hereditary privilege under the old rules; those who choose to sit for the examination and pass are promoted one grade preferentially. Officials not yet in the ranked grades who wish to sit for the examination are permitted to do so. If a successful candidate already holds qualification of rank nine or above, appointment shall be one grade higher than his present standing; if he holds no rank, appointment follows the examination rules with preferential assessment. The sites for provincial examinations and all remaining provisions are referred to the Secretariat for deliberation and implementation. Alas! May men clear in the classics and cultivated in conduct serve as true Confucian officials; may customs be transformed and governance brought to its fullest height. Take heed, all regions, and embody my utmost intent."

中書省所定條目：

Articles fixed by the Secretariat:

鄉試中選者，各給解據、錄連取中科文，行省移咨都省，送禮部，腹裏宣慰司及各路關申禮部，拘該監察御史、廉訪司，依上錄連科文申臺，轉呈都省，以憑照勘。

Those who pass the provincial examination shall each receive credentials and a connected record of their examination papers. The regional secretariat shall consult the metropolitan secretariat and forward the papers to the Ministry of Rites. Pacification commissions in the core region and each circuit shall submit to the Ministry of Rites, with the relevant investigating censor and visiting official recording the papers and reporting to the commission, which forwards them to the metropolitan secretariat for verification.

鄉試，八月二十日，蒙古、色目人，試經問五絳；漢人、南人，明經經疑二問，經義一道。二十三日，蒙古、色目人，試策一道；漢人、南人，古賦詔誥章表內科一道。二十六日，漢人、南人，試策一道。

Provincial examination, twentieth day of the eighth month: Mongols and persons of other colors sit for the five classic questions; Han and southern candidates take two questions on Understanding the Classics and classic difficulties, and one on classic exegesis. Twenty-third day: Mongols and persons of other colors take one policy question; Han and southern candidates take one question in ancient rhapsody, edict, patent, memorial, or table. Twenty-sixth day: Han and southern candidates take one policy question.

會試，省部依鄉試例，於次年二月初一日試第一場，初三日第二場，初五日第三場。

Metropolitan examination: following the provincial model, the ministries hold the first session on the first day of the second month of the following year, the second on the third day, and the third on the fifth.

禦試，三月初七日，前期奏委考試官二員、監察御史二員、讀卷官二員，入殿廷考試。

Palace examination, seventh day of the third month: beforehand the court appoints two examination officials, two investigating censors, and two reading officials to conduct the examination in the palace hall.

每舉子一名，怯薛歹一人看守。漢人、南人，試策一道，限一千字以上成。蒙古、色目人，時務策一道，限五百字以上成。

One imperial guard is assigned to watch each candidate. Han and southern candidates take one policy question of no fewer than one thousand characters. Mongols and persons of other colors take one policy question on current affairs of no fewer than five hundred characters.

選考試官，行省與宣慰司及腹裏各路，有行臺及廉訪司去處，與臺憲官一同商議選差。上都、大都從省部選差在內監察御史、在外廉訪司官一員監試。每處差考試官、同考試官各一員，並於見任並在閑有德望文學常選官內選差；封彌官一員、謄錄官一員，選廉幹文資正官充之。凡謄錄試卷並行移文字，皆用朱書，仍須設法關防，毋致容私作弊。省部會試，都省選委知貢舉、同知貢舉官各一員，考試官四員，監察御史二員，彌封、謄錄、對讀官、監門等官各一員。

Examination officials shall be chosen by the regional secretariat, pacification commission, and core circuits, consulting together with regional commission and censorate officials where those offices exist. At Shangdu and Dadu the ministries appoint one investigating censor and one visiting official to supervise the examination. Each site shall appoint one chief examiner and one associate examiner, chosen from incumbent or retired officials of reputation and literary accomplishment; and one sealing official and one copying official, chosen from upright civil officials of regular rank. All copied examination papers and official documents shall be written in red ink, with safeguards established to prevent favoritism and cheating. For the metropolitan examination the metropolitan secretariat appoints one Director of Tribute Presentation, one Associate Director, four examiners, two investigating censors, and one each of sealing, copying, collation, and gate-guard officials.

鄉試，行省一十一：河南，陜西，遼陽，四川，甘肅，雲南，嶺北，征東，江浙，江西，湖廣。宣慰司二：河東，山東。直隸省部路分四：真定，東平，大都，上都。

Provincial examinations are held in eleven regional secretariats: Henan, Shaanxi, Liaoyang, Sichuan, Gansu, Yunnan, Lingbei, Eastern Campaign, Jiang-Zhe, Jiangxi, and Huguang. Two pacification commissions: Hedong and Shandong. Under the metropolitan ministries there are four circuits: Zhending, Dongping, Dadu, and Shangdu.

天下選合格者三百人赴會試，於內取中選者一百人，內蒙古、色目、漢人、南人分卷考試，各二十五人，蒙古人取合格者七十五人：大都十五人，上都六人，河東五人，真定等五人，東平等五人。山東四人，遼陽五人，河南五人，陜西五人，甘肅三人，嶺北三人，江浙五人，江西三人，湖廣三人，四川一人，雲南一人，征東一人。色目人取合格者七十五人：大都十人，上都四人，河東四人，東平等四人，山東五人，真定等五人，河南五人，四川三人，甘肅二人，陜西三人，嶺北二人，遼陽二人，雲南二人，征東一人，湖廣七人，江浙一十人，江西六人。漢人取合格者七十五人：大都一十人，上都四人，真定等十一人，東平等九人，山東七人，河東七人，河南九人，四川五人，雲南二人，甘肅二人，嶺北一人，陜西五人，遼陽二人，征東一人。南人取合格者七十五人：湖廣一十八人，江浙二十八人，江西二十二人，河南七人。

Three hundred qualified candidates from across the realm proceeded to the metropolitan examination, of whom one hundred were selected. Mongols, persons of other colors, Han, and southern candidates sat in separate rolls of twenty-five each. Seventy-five Mongols were to pass: fifteen from Dadu, six from Shangdu, five from Hedong, five from Zhending and related circuits, and five from Dongping and related circuits. Shandong four, Liaoyang five, Henan five, Shaanxi five, Gansu three, Lingbei three, Jiang-Zhe five, Jiangxi three, Huguang three, Sichuan one, Yunnan one, and Eastern Campaign one. Seventy-five persons of other colors were to pass: ten from Dadu, four from Shangdu, four from Hedong, four from Dongping and related circuits, five from Shandong, five from Zhending and related circuits, five from Henan, three from Sichuan, two from Gansu, three from Shaanxi, two from Lingbei, two from Liaoyang, two from Yunnan, one from Eastern Campaign, seven from Huguang, ten from Jiang-Zhe, and six from Jiangxi. Seventy-five Han candidates were to pass: ten from Dadu, four from Shangdu, eleven from Zhending and related circuits, nine from Dongping and related circuits, seven from Shandong, seven from Hedong, nine from Henan, five from Sichuan, two from Yunnan, two from Gansu, one from Lingbei, five from Shaanxi, two from Liaoyang, and one from Eastern Campaign. Seventy-five southern candidates were to pass: eighteen from Huguang, twenty-eight from Jiang-Zhe, twenty-two from Jiangxi, and seven from Henan.

鄉試、會試，許將《禮部韻略》外，余並不許懷挾文字。差搜檢懷挾官一員，每舉人一名差軍一名看守，無軍人處，差巡軍。

In provincial and metropolitan examinations, candidates may bring only the Ministry of Rites Rhyme Compendium; no other written materials may be carried in. One official is appointed to search for concealed materials; each candidate is assigned one soldier as guard, or a patrol soldier where no regular troops are available.

提點擗掠試院，差廉幹官一員，度地安置席舍，務令隔遠，仍自試官入院後，常川妨職，監押外門。鄉試、會試，彌封、謄錄、對讀官下吏人，於各衙門從便差設。

An upright official is appointed to secure the examination grounds, lay out seats at adequate distance, and from the time examiners enter the compound remain on duty at the outer gate. For provincial and metropolitan examinations, clerks under the sealing, copying, and collation officials are assigned from the various offices as convenient.

試卷不考格，犯御名廟諱及文理紕繆、塗註乙五十字以上者，不考。謄錄所承受試卷，並用朱書謄錄正文，實計塗註乙字數，標寫對讀無差，將朱卷逐旋送考試所。如朱卷有塗註乙字，亦皆標寫字數，謄錄官書押。候考校合格，中選人數已定，抄錄字號，索上元卷，請監試官、知貢舉官、同試官，對號開拆。

Papers failing to meet standards—those violating imperial or temple taboos, showing confused reasoning, or containing more than fifty corrections—are not graded. The copying office receives the papers, transcribes the main text in red ink, counts all corrections, marks successful collation, and forwards the red copies to the examination office. Any corrections on the red copy are likewise counted and marked, and the copying official signs and seals the document. Once grading is complete and the number of successful candidates fixed, the code numbers are recorded, the original papers retrieved, and the supervising examiner, Director of Tribute Presentation, and associate examiners open them by number.

舉人試卷，各人自備三場文卷並草卷，各一十二幅，於卷首書三代、籍貫、年甲，前期半月於印卷所投納。置簿收附，用印鈐縫訖，各還舉人。

Each candidate prepares examination and draft papers for all three sessions, twelve sheets per roll, with three generations, native place, and age written at the head; these are submitted to the stamping office half a month in advance. A register records receipt, seals are applied along the stitched seam, and the papers are returned to each candidate.

凡就試之日，日未出入場，黃昏納卷。受卷官送彌封所，撰字號，封彌訖，送謄錄所。

On examination day candidates enter before sunrise and submit their papers at dusk. The roll-receiving official forwards them to the sealing office, assigns code numbers, completes sealing, and sends them to the copying office.

科舉既行之後，若有各路歲貢及保舉儒人等文字到官，並令還赴本鄉應試。倡優之家及患廢疾、若犯十惡奸盜之人，不許應試。舉人於試場內，毋得喧嘩，違者治罪，仍殿二舉。

Once the civil examination was in force, candidates holding circuit tribute credentials or recommendation documents were ordered to return to their home districts to sit for the examination. Members of actors' and entertainers' households, the seriously disabled, and those guilty of the ten abominations or theft and robbery were barred from the examination. Candidates must not make noise within the examination grounds; violators are punished and barred from the next two examinations.

舉人與考試官有五服內親者，自須回避，仍令同試官考卷。若應避而不自陳者，殿一舉。

Candidates related to an examiner within the five degrees of mourning must declare the relationship and withdraw; the associate examiner grades the paper instead. Failure to declare a required withdrawal results in deferral for one examination.

鄉試、會試，若有懷挾及令人代作者，漢人、南人有居父母喪服應舉者，並殿二舉。

In provincial and metropolitan examinations, carrying concealed materials, employing a substitute writer, or sitting for the examination while in mourning for parents (for Han and southern candidates) all incur deferral for two examinations.

國子監學歲貢生員及伴讀出身，並依舊制，願試者聽。中選者，於監學合得資品上從優銓註。

Directorate students on annual tribute and those who entered through companion-reading service followed the old rules; those who wished to sit for the examination were permitted. Those who passed received appointment one grade above their Directorate qualification.

別路附籍蒙古、色目、漢人，大都、上都有恒產、住經年深者，從兩都官司，依上例推舉就試，其餘去處冒貫者治罪。知貢舉以下官會集至公堂，議擬合行事目云：

Mongols, persons of other colors, and Han registered in another circuit but with permanent property and long residence in Dadu or Shangdu were recommended for examination by the two-capital offices under the above rules; false registration elsewhere was punished. The Director of Tribute Presentation and subordinate officials assembled in the Hall of Ultimate Justice and drafted the regulations to be carried out, as follows:

諸輒於彌封所取問舉人試卷封號姓名及漏泄者，治罪。諸試題未出而漏泄者，許人告首。諸對讀試卷官不躬親而輒令人吏對讀，其對讀訖而差誤有礙考校者，有罰。諸謄錄人書寫不慎及錯誤有礙考校者，重事責罰。諸官司故縱舉人私將試卷出院，及祗應人知而為傳送者，許人告首。諸監試官掌試院事，不得干預考校。諸試院官在簾內者，不許與簾外官交語。諸色人無故不得入試廳。諸舉人謗毀主司，率眾喧競，不服止約者，治罪。諸舉人就試，無故不冠及擅移坐次者，或偶與親姻鄰坐而不自陳者，懷挾代筆傳義者，並扶出。諸拆毀試卷首家狀者，推治。諸舉人於試卷書他語者，駁放；涉謗訕者，推治。諸試日，為舉人傳送文書，及因而受財者，並許人告。諸舉人於別紙上起草者，出榜退落。諸科文內不得自敘苦辛門第，委謄錄所點檢得，如有違犯，更不謄錄，移文考試院出榜退落。諸冒名就試，別立姓名，反受財為人懷挾代筆傳義者，並許人告。諸被黜而妄訴者，治罪。諸監門官譏察出入，其物應入者，拆封點檢。諸巡鋪官及兵級，不得喧擾，及輒視試文，並容縱舉人無故往來，非因公事，不得與舉人私語。諸試卷彌封用印訖，以三不成字為號標寫，仍於塗註乙處用印。

Anyone who at the sealing office inquires into a candidate's code number or name, or leaks such information, shall be punished. Leaking examination topics before they are issued may be reported by informants. Collation officials who delegate collation to clerks rather than performing it personally, when errors impede grading, are subject to punishment. Copyists whose careless writing or errors impede grading are severely punished. Officials who deliberately allow candidates to remove examination papers, or attendants who knowingly transmit them, may be reported by informants. Supervising examination officials manage the examination grounds and must not interfere in grading. Officials inside the examination curtain may not converse with those outside it. No unauthorized persons may enter the examination hall. Candidates who slander the chief examiners, incite noisy disturbances, or refuse to obey orders are punished. Candidates who enter without caps, change seats without permission, sit beside relatives without declaring it, or carry concealed materials, use substitute writers, or pass answers are escorted out. Anyone who tears off the family-status sheet at the head of an examination paper is investigated and punished. Candidates who write extraneous matter on their papers are rejected; those involving slander are investigated and punished. On examination days, anyone who transmits documents for candidates or accepts payment for doing so may be reported. Candidates who draft on separate paper are posted as failed. Compositions must not include personal hardship or family background; the copying office inspects for violations. Offending papers are not copied, the examination office is notified, and the candidate is posted as failed. False registration, use of alternate names, or accepting payment to carry materials, write for others, or pass answers may all be reported. Candidates dismissed who lodge frivolous appeals are punished. Gate guards inspect all entry and exit; permitted items are unsealed and inspected. Patrol officers and soldiers must not cause disturbance, view examination papers, or allow candidates to move about without cause; they may not speak privately with candidates except on official business. After sealing and stamping, each paper is marked with a code of three incomplete characters, with seals also applied at correction marks.

每舉人一名，給祗應巡軍一人，隔夜入院，分宿席房。試日，擊鐘為節。一次，院官以下皆盥漱。二次，監門官啟鑰，舉人入院，搜檢訖，就將解據呈納。禮生贊曰「舉人再拜」，知貢舉官隔簾受一拜，跪答一拜，試官受一拜，答一拜。鐘三次，頒題，就次。日午，賜膳。其納卷首，赴受卷所揖而退，不得交語。受卷官書舉人姓名於歷，舉人揖而退，取解據出院，巡軍亦出。至晚，鳴鐘一次，鎖院門。第二場，舉人入院，依前搜檢，每十人一甲，序立至公堂下，作揖畢，頒題就次。第三場，如前儀。

Each candidate is assigned one attendant patrol soldier, who enters the grounds overnight and lodges in the assigned seat room. On examination day, the bell marks each stage of the proceedings. At the first bell, all examination officials wash and prepare. At the second bell the gate guard unlocks the gates; candidates enter, are searched, and present their credentials. The ceremonial attendant calls "Candidate, bow twice." The Director of Tribute Presentation receives one bow through the curtain and returns it kneeling; the examiner receives and returns one bow. At the third bell the topics are distributed and candidates take their seats. At midday, food is provided. When submitting papers, candidates bow at the roll-receiving office and withdraw without speaking. The roll-receiving official records the candidate's name; the candidate bows, collects credentials, and leaves with the patrol soldier. In the evening the bell sounds once and the examination grounds are locked. In the second session candidates enter and are searched as before; in groups of ten they stand below the Hall of Ultimate Justice, bow, receive the topics, and take their seats. The third session follows the same ceremony.

其受卷官具受到試卷，逐旋關發彌封官，將家狀草卷，腰封用印，蒙古、色目、漢人、南人分卷，以三不成字撰號。每名累場同用一號，於卷上親書，及於歷內標附訖，牒送謄錄官置歷，分給吏人，並用朱書謄錄正文，仍具元卷塗註乙及謄錄塗註乙字數，卷末書謄錄人姓名，謄錄官具銜書押，用印鈐縫，牒送對讀所。翰林掾史具謄錄訖試卷總數，呈報監察御史。對讀官以元卷與朱卷躬親對讀無差，具銜書押，呈解貢院，元卷發還彌封所。各所行移，並用朱書，試卷照依元號附簿。

The roll-receiving official forwards the papers to the sealing office, which seals the family-status and draft rolls at the waist, separates Mongol, other-color, Han, and southern rolls, and assigns codes of three incomplete characters. Each candidate uses one code number across all sessions, written on the roll and recorded in the register. The copying office distributes papers to clerks, who transcribe the main text in red ink, count corrections on both original and copy, sign the end of each roll, seal the seam, and forward papers to the collation office. The Hanlin clerk reports the total number of copied papers to the investigating censor. The collation official personally compares original and red copy, signs, submits the papers to the tribute-presenting grounds, and returns the originals to the sealing office. All official documents are written in red ink, and examination papers are filed by their original code numbers.

試官考卷，知貢舉居中，試官相對向坐，公同考校，分作三等，逐等又分上中下，用墨筆批點。考校既定，收掌試卷官於號簿內標寫分數，知貢舉官、同試官、監察御史、彌封官，公同取上元卷對號開拆，知貢舉於試卷家狀上親書省試第幾名。拆號既畢，應有試卷並付禮部架閣，貢舉諸官出院。中書省以中選舉人分為二榜，揭於省門之左右。

Examiners grade the papers with the Director of Tribute Presentation seated in the center and associate examiners facing each other. Papers are divided into three grades, each subdivided into upper, middle, and lower, and marked in ink. Once grading is complete, the paper custodian records scores in the register. The Director of Tribute Presentation, associate examiners, investigating censor, and sealing official jointly open the original papers by number, and the director writes each candidate's metropolitan rank on the family-status sheet. When all numbers have been opened, the papers are deposited in the Ministry of Rites archive and the examination officials leave the grounds. The Secretariat posts the successful candidates in two rosters to the left and right of the Secretariat gate.

三月初四日，中書省奏準，以初七日禦試舉人於翰林國史院，定委監試官及諸執事。初五日，各官入院。初六日，撰策問進呈，俟上采取。初七日，執事者望闕設案於堂前，置策題於上。舉人入院，搜檢訖，蒙古人作一甲，序立，禮生導引至於堂前，望闕兩拜，賜策題，又兩拜，各就次。色目人作一甲，漢人、南人作一甲，如前儀。每進士一人，差蒙古宿衛士一人監視。日午，賜膳。進士納卷畢，出院。監試官同讀卷官，以所對策第其高下，分為三甲進奏。作二榜，用敕黃紙書，揭於內前紅門之左右。

On the fourth day of the third month the Secretariat reported approval to hold the palace examination at the Hanlin National History Academy on the seventh, appointing supervising examiners and all attendants. On the fifth day all officials entered the examination grounds. On the sixth day policy questions were drafted and presented for the emperor's selection. On the seventh day attendants set a table before the hall facing the palace and placed the policy topic upon it. Candidates entered and were searched. Mongols formed one company, were led before the hall, bowed twice toward the palace, received the policy topic, bowed again, and took their seats. Persons of other colors formed one company; Han and southern candidates formed another, following the same ceremony. Each presented scholar was assigned one Mongol palace guard to supervise. At midday, food was provided. When the presented scholars had submitted their papers, they left the grounds. The supervising examiner and reading official ranked the policy responses and divided them into three classes for presentation to the throne. Two rosters were written on imperial yellow paper and posted to the left and right of the inner red gate.

前一日，禮部告諭中選進士，以次日詣闕前，所司具香案，侍儀舍人唱名，謝恩，放榜。擇日賜恩榮宴於翰林國史院，押宴以中書省官，凡預試官並與宴。預宴官及進士並簪華至所居。擇日恭詣殿廷，上謝恩表。次日，詣中書省參見。又擇日，諸進士詣先聖廟行舍菜禮，第一人具祝文行事，刻石題名於國子監。

The day before, the Ministry of Rites notified the successful presented scholars to appear before the palace the next day. The responsible office prepared the incense table, ceremonial attendants called names, the scholars gave thanks, and the roster was published. On a chosen day a banquet of grace and honor was held at the Hanlin National History Academy, presided over by a Secretariat official; all examination officials attended. Banquet officials and presented scholars wore flowers in their hair as they proceeded to their lodgings. On a chosen day they respectfully proceeded to the palace and submitted a memorial of thanks. The next day they paid their respects at the Secretariat. On another chosen day all presented scholars went to the Confucian temple to perform the vegetable-offering ceremony. The top graduate composed and read the prayer; names were carved on stone at the Directorate of Education.

泰定元年春三月，廷試進士捌剌、張益等八十有六人。四年春三月，廷試進士阿察赤、李黼等八十有六人。天歷三年春三月，廷試進士篤列圖、王文燁等九十有七人。

In the third month of spring in the first year of Taiding, eighty-six presented scholars including Balie and Zhang Yi took the palace examination. In the third month of spring in the fourth year, eighty-six presented scholars including Achachi and Li Fu took the palace examination. In the third month of spring in the third year of Tianli, ninety-seven presented scholars including Dulietu and Wang Wenye took the palace examination.

元統癸酉科，廷試進士同同、李齊等，復增名額，以及百人之數。稍異其制，左右榜各三人，皆賜進士及第，其餘出身有差。科舉取士，莫盛於斯。後三年，其制遂罷。又七年而復興，遂稍變程式，減蒙古、色目人明經二絳，增本經義；易漢、南人第一場《四書》疑一道為本經疑，增第二場古賦外，於詔誥、章表內又科一道。此有元科目取士之制，大略如此。

In the Yuantong guiyou examination, presented scholars including Tongtong and Li Qi took the palace examination; the quota was increased to one hundred. The system was slightly altered: three candidates on each roster received Presented Scholar with Honors; the rest received differentiated ranks. The civil examination never flourished more than at this time. Three years later the system was abolished. Seven years later it was revived with revised procedures: for Mongols and persons of other colors the two Understanding the Classics questions were reduced and classic exegesis on one's chosen classic was added; for Han and southern candidates the first-session Four Books question was changed to a question on one's chosen classic; and beyond ancient rhapsody in the second session, one additional question in edict, patent, memorial, or table was added. Such was the Yuan examination system for recruiting officials, in broad outline.

若夫會試下第者，自延祐創設之初，丞相帖木叠兒、阿散及平章李孟等奏：「下第舉人，年七十以上者，與從七品流官致仕；六十以上者，與教授；元有出身者，於應得資品上稍優加之；無出身者，與山長、學正。受省劄，後舉不為例。今有來遲而不及應試者，未曾區用。取旨。」帝曰：「依下第例恩之，勿著為格。」

As for those who failed the metropolitan examination, at the founding of the Yanyou system Chancellor Temuder, Asan, and Vice Director Li Meng memorialized: "Failed candidates aged seventy or above shall receive retirement as ranked officials at rank 7b; those sixty or above shall receive instructor posts; those who already held official standing shall receive a slight preferential advance above their due qualification grade; those without prior official standing received posts as academy director or school rectifier. They received provincial appointment documents, but this was not made a standing precedent. Those who arrived too late to sit for the examination had not yet been assigned posts. The court sought the emperor's decision." The emperor said, "Grant them favor under the failed-candidate precedent, but do not fix this as a permanent rule."

泰定元年三月，中書省臣奏：「下第舉人，仁宗延祐間，命中書省各授教官之職，以慰其歸。今當改元之初，恩澤宜溥。蒙古、色目人，年三十以上並兩舉不第者，與教授；以下，與學正、山長。漢人、南人，年五十以上並兩舉不第者，與教授；以下，與學正、山長。先有資品出身者，更優加之；不願仕者，令備國子員。後勿為格。」從之。自余下第之士，恩例不可常得，間有試補書吏以登仕籍者。惟已廢復興之後，其法始變，下第者悉授以路府學正及書院山長。又增取鄉試備榜，亦授以郡學錄及縣教諭。於是科舉取士，得人為盛焉。

In the third month of the first year of Taiding, Secretariat ministers memorialized: "Under Emperor Renzong's Yanyou reign, failed candidates were given teaching posts by the Secretariat to comfort them on their return home. Now, at the beginning of a new reign era, favors should be broadly distributed. Mongols and persons of other colors aged thirty or above who failed two examinations shall receive instructor posts; those below that age shall receive school rectifier or academy director posts. Han and southern candidates aged fifty or above who failed two examinations shall receive instructor posts; those below that age shall receive school rectifier or academy director posts. Those who already held official standing shall receive a further preferential advance; those unwilling to serve shall be retained as Directorate students. This shall not become a standing rule thereafter." The memorial was approved. Other failed candidates could not regularly receive such favors; occasionally some passed clerk examinations and entered the official register. Only after the examination was revived and then abolished again did the practice change: failed candidates were routinely given posts as circuit or prefectural school rectifier or academy director. The reserve roster for the provincial examination was expanded as well, with appointments as commandery school recorder or district instructor. At this point the civil examination produced talent in exceptional abundance.

○學校

Schools

世祖至元八年春正月，始下詔立京師蒙古國子學，教習諸生，於隨朝蒙古、漢人百官及怯薛歹官員，選子弟俊秀者入學，然未有員數。以《通鑒節要》用蒙古語言譯寫教之，俟生員習學成效，出題試問，觀其所對精通者，量授官職。成宗大德十年春二月，增生員廩膳，通前三十員為六十員。武宗至大二年，定伴讀員四十人，以在籍上名生員學問優長者補之。仁宗延祐二年冬十月，以所設生員百人，蒙古五十人，色目二十人，漢人三十人，而百官子弟之就學者，常不下二三百人，宜增其廩餼，乃減去庶民子弟一百一十四員，聽陪堂學業，於見供生員一百名外，量增五十名。元置蒙古二十人，漢人三十人，其生員紙劄筆墨止給三十人，歲凡二次給之。

In the first month of spring in the eighth year of Emperor Shizu's Zhiyuan reign, an edict established the Capital Mongol Directorate of Education. Sons of Mongol and Han officials at court and of keshik officers were selected for study, though no fixed quota was yet set. The Essentials of the Comprehensive Mirror was taught in Mongol translation. When students showed progress they were tested, and those who answered with mastery received official appointments. In the second month of spring in the tenth year of Dade under Emperor Chengzong, student grain stipends were increased from thirty to sixty. In the second year of Zhide under Emperor Wuzong, forty companion-reader posts were established, filled from registered students of superior accomplishment. In the tenth month of winter of the second year of Yanyou under Emperor Renzong, the school had set quotas of one hundred students—fifty Mongols, twenty persons of other colors, and thirty Han—but children of officials in attendance often exceeded two or three hundred. Their stipends were therefore increased by removing one hundred fourteen commoners from the regular rolls, allowing them to study in the hall without full stipend, and adding fifty places beyond the existing one hundred funded students. The original quotas were twenty Mongols and thirty Han. Paper, documents, brush, and ink were supplied only to thirty students, disbursed twice yearly.

至元六年秋七月，置諸路蒙古字學。十二月，中書省定學制頒行之，命諸路府官子弟入學，上路二人，下路二人，府一人，州一人。余民間子弟，上路三十人，下路二十五人。願充生徒者，與免一身雜役。以譯寫《通鑒節要》頒行各路，俾肄習之。至成宗大德五年冬十月，又定生員，散府二十人，上、中州十五人，下州十人。元貞元年，命有司割地，給諸路蒙古學生員餼廩。其學官，至元十九年，定擬路府州設教授，以國字在諸字之右，府州教授一任，準從八品，再歷路教授一任，準正八品，任回本等遷轉。大德四年，添設學正一員，上自國學，下及州縣，舉生員高等，從翰林考試，凡學官譯史，取以充焉。

In the seventh month of autumn in the sixth year of Zhiyuan, Mongol Script Schools were established throughout the circuits. In the twelfth month the Secretariat finalized and promulgated the school regulations, requiring sons of circuit and prefectural officials to enroll: two each for superior and inferior circuits, one each for prefecture and subprefecture. Commoner students were capped at thirty per superior circuit and twenty-five per inferior circuit. Volunteer students were exempted from personal miscellaneous corvée duties. A Mongol translation of the Essentials of the Comprehensive Mirror was distributed to every circuit for study. In the tenth month of winter of the fifth year of Dade under Emperor Chengzong, quotas were reset at twenty for scattered prefectures, fifteen for superior and middle subprefectures, and ten for inferior subprefectures. In the first year of Yuanzhen, authorities were ordered to allocate land to fund grain stipends for Mongol students in each circuit. School appointments were regulated in the nineteenth year of Zhiyuan. Circuits, prefectures, and subprefectures each received instructors, with the national script taking precedence over all others. A single term as prefectural instructor ranked at Associate Eighth Grade; after a further term as circuit instructor, at Regular Eighth Grade, after which one returned to promotion within one's original grade. In the fourth year of Dade an additional school rectifier post was created. From the National University down to district and county schools, top students were examined by the Hanlin Academy and appointed as school officers or translators.

太宗六年癸巳，以馮誌常為國子學總教，命侍臣子弟十八人入學。世祖至元七年，命侍臣子弟十有一人入學，以長者四人從許衡，童子七人從王恂。至二十四年，立國子學，而定其制。設博士，通掌學事，分教三齋生員，講授經旨，是正音訓，上嚴教導之術，下考肄習之業。復設助教，同掌學事，而專守一齋；正、錄，申明規矩，督習課業。凡讀書必先《孝經》、《小學》、《論語》、《孟子》、《大學》、《中庸》，次及《詩》、《書》、《禮記》、《周禮》、《春秋》、《易》。博士、助教親授句讀、音訓，正、錄、伴讀以次傳習之。講說則依所讀之序，正、錄、伴讀亦以次而傳習之。次日，抽簽，令諸生復說其功課。對屬、詩章、經解、史評，則博士出題，生員具稿，先呈助教，俟博士既定，始錄附課簿，以憑考校。其生員之數，定二百人，先令一百人及伴讀二十人入學。其百人之內，蒙古半之，色目、漢人半之。許衡又著諸生入學雜儀，及日用節目。七年，命生員八十人入學，俾永為定式而遵行之。

In the sixth year of Taizong (the guisi year), Feng Zhichang was made chief instructor of the Directorate of the Sons of the State, and eighteen sons of court ministers were enrolled. In the seventh year of Zhiyuan under Emperor Shizu, eleven sons of court ministers entered the school: four older students under Xu Heng and seven younger ones under Wang Xun. In the twenty-fourth year the Directorate of the Sons of the State was formally established and its regulations set. Erudites were appointed to direct all academic affairs, teaching the three halls, expounding the classics, and correcting pronunciation. They oversaw instruction above and examined students' progress below. Assistant erudites were also appointed to share academic oversight, each responsible for one hall; rectifiers and recorders enforced the rules and supervised coursework. The curriculum began with the Classic of Filial Piety, Elementary Learning, Analects, Mencius, Great Learning, and Doctrine of the Mean, then advanced to the Odes, Documents, Record of Rites, Rites of Zhou, Spring and Autumn Annals, and Changes. Erudites and assistants taught punctuation and glosses directly; rectifiers, recorders, and companion-readers passed the lessons down in sequence. Lectures followed the reading sequence, and rectifiers, recorders, and companion-readers continued instruction in the same order. The next day lots were drawn and students were made to recite their lessons from memory. For paired composition, verse, classical commentary, and historical critique, erudites set the topics. Students drafted answers, submitted them first to assistants, and only after erudites approved were entries made in the coursework register for grading. The student quota was set at two hundred, with an initial enrollment of one hundred students and twenty companion-readers. Of the first hundred, half were Mongol and half were persons of other colors and Han combined. Xu Heng also drafted entrance rites and daily routines for students. In the seventh year eighty students were enrolled, and this became the permanent standard.

成宗大德八年冬十二月，始定國子生，蒙古、色目、漢人三歲各貢一人。十年冬閏十月，國子學定蒙古、色目、漢人生員二百人，三年各貢二人。

In the twelfth month of winter of the eighth year of Dade under Emperor Chengzong, quotas for Directorate students were first set: one Mongol, one person of other colors, and one Han graduate every three years. In the intercalary tenth month of winter of the tenth year the Directorate set two hundred students, with two graduates presented from each category every three years.

武宗至大四年秋閏七月，定生員額二百人。冬十二月，復立國子學試貢法，蒙古授官六品，色目正七品，漢人從七品。試蒙古生之法宜從寬，色目生宜稍加密，漢人生則全科場之制。

In the intercalary seventh month of autumn of the fourth year of Zhide under Emperor Wuzong, the student quota was fixed at two hundred. In the twelfth month of winter the Directorate examination and presentation system was restored: Mongols received sixth-rank posts, persons of other colors seventh rank, and Han associate seventh rank. Mongol students were tested leniently, persons of other colors under somewhat stricter standards, and Han students under the full civil examination format.

仁宗延祐二年秋八月，增置生員百人，陪堂生二十人，用集賢學士趙孟頫、禮部尚書元明善等所議國子學貢試之法更定之。一曰升齋等第。六齋東西相向，下兩齋左曰遊藝，右曰依仁，凡誦書講說、小學屬對者隸焉。中兩齋左曰據德，右曰志道，講說《四書》、課肄詩律者隸焉。上兩齋左曰時習，右曰日新，講說《易》、《書》、《詩》、《春秋》科，習明經義等程文者隸焉。每齋員數不等，每季考其所習經書課業，及不違規矩者，以次遞升。二曰私試規矩。漢人驗日新、時習兩齋，蒙古色目取志道、據德兩齋，本學舉實歷坐齋二周歲以上，未嘗犯過者，許令充試。限實歷坐齋三周歲以上，以充貢舉。漢人私試，孟月試經疑一道，仲月試經義一道，季月試策問、表章、詔誥科一道。蒙古、色目人，孟、仲月各試明經一道，季月試策問一道。辭理俱優者為上等，準一分；理優辭平者為中等，準半分。每歲終，通計其年積分，至八分以上者升充高等生員，以四十名為額，內蒙古、色目各十名，漢人二十名。歲終試貢，員不必備，惟取實才。有分同闕少者，以坐齋月日先後多少為定。其未及等，並雖及等無闕未補者，其年積分，並不為用，下年再行積算。每月初二日蚤旦，圓揖後，本學博士、助教公座，面引應試生員，各給印紙，依式出題考試，不許懷挾代筆，各用印紙，真楷書寫，本學正、錄彌封謄錄，余並依科舉式，助教、博士以次考定。次日，監官覆考，於名簿內籍記各得分數，本學收掌，以俟歲終通考。三曰黜罰科絳。應私試積分生員，其有不事課業及一切違戾規矩者，初犯罰一分，再犯罰二分，三犯除名，從學正、錄糾舉，正、錄知見而不糾舉者，從本監議罰之。應已補高等生員，其有違戾規矩者，初犯殿試一年，再犯除名，從學正、錄糾舉之，正、錄知見而不糾舉者，亦從本監議罰之。應在學生員，歲終實歷坐齋不滿半歲者，並行除名。除月假外，其餘告假，並不準算。學正、錄歲終通行考校應在學生員，除蒙古、色目別議外，其餘漢人生員三年不能通一經及不肯勤學者，勒令出學。其餘責罰，並依舊規。

In the eighth month of autumn of the second year of Yanyou under Emperor Renzong, one hundred students and twenty hall companions were added, and the Directorate presentation examinations were revised along lines proposed by Zhao Mengfu, Yuan Mingshan, and others. First: advancement through the halls by grade. Six halls faced each other east and west. The lower pair were Recreation in the Arts (left) and Resting in Benevolence (right), for recitation, elementary lectures, and paired composition from Elementary Learning. The middle halls were Resting in Virtue (left) and Aspiring to the Way (right), for the Four Books and poetry. The upper halls were Timely Practice (left) and Daily Renewal (right), for the Changes, Documents, Odes, Spring and Autumn, and examination essays on classical meaning. Each hall had a different capacity. Quarterly examinations of coursework and conduct determined orderly promotion. Second: rules for internal examinations. Han students qualified from the Daily Renewal and Timely Practice halls; Mongols and persons of other colors from Aspiring to the Way and Resting in Virtue. Students with at least two full years in a hall and no infractions were allowed to sit the internal examination. Presentation to the civil examinations required at least three full years' residence in a hall. Han internal exams assigned one classic doubt in the first month of each season, one classic meaning in the second, and one policy question, memorial, or edict in the third. Mongols and persons of other colors took one classics subject in the first two months of each season and one policy question in the third. Superior answers in both reasoning and style earned one point; sound reasoning with ordinary expression earned half a point. At year's end points were totaled. Students scoring at least eight-tenths were promoted to advanced standing, capped at forty—ten Mongols, ten persons of other colors, and twenty Han. Year-end presentations did not require a full quota—only genuine ability mattered. Ties for limited slots were broken by length of residence in the hall. Students who missed the threshold, or met it when no vacancy existed, forfeited that year's points and began accumulating anew. On the second day of each month at dawn, after the ceremonial bow, erudites and assistants seated themselves and summoned candidates. Each received sealed examination paper, fixed-format questions, no aides or cheat sheets, answers in regular script, copying by rectifiers and recorders, and grading by assistants then erudites according to civil examination practice. The next day supervisors re-checked papers, logged scores, and the school retained the records until the year-end tally. Third: demerits, penalties, and expulsion. Students in the point system who neglected coursework or broke rules lost one point on the first offense, two on the second, and were expelled on the third, upon report by rectifiers or recorders; officials who failed to report faced penalties from the supervisor. Advanced students who broke rules were barred from presentation for one year on the first offense and expelled on the second, upon report by rectifiers or recorders, with the same penalty for officials who failed to report. At year's end any student with less than half a year's actual residence in a hall was expelled. Only monthly leave was credited; other absences did not count toward residence. At year-end rectifiers and recorders reviewed all students. Mongols and persons of other colors were judged separately; Han students who after three years had not mastered one classic or refused diligent study were expelled. Other penalties followed the previous rules.

泰定三年夏六月，更積分而為貢舉，並依世祖舊制。其貢試之法，從監學所擬，大概與前法略同，而防閑稍加嚴密焉。其本學正、錄各二員，司樂一員，典籍二員，管勾一員，及侍儀舍人，舊例舉積分生員充之，後以積分既革，於上齋舉年三十以上、學行堪範後學者為正、錄，通曉音律、學業優贍者為司樂，幹局通敏者為典籍、管勾。其侍儀舍人，於上、中齋舉禮儀習熟、音吐洪暢、曾掌春秋釋奠、每月告朔明贊、眾與其能者充之。文宗天歷二年春三月，惟伴讀員數，自初二十人歲貢二人，後於大德七年定四十人歲貢六人，至大四年定四十人歲貢四人，延祐四年歲貢八人為淹滯，既額設四十名，宜充部令史者四人、路教授者四人。是後，又命所貢生員，每大比選士，與天下士同試於禮部，策於殿廷，又增至備榜而加選擇焉。

In the sixth month of summer of the third year of Taiding, the point system was replaced with direct presentation and examination under Emperor Shizu's original rules. The presentation examinations followed proposals from the school supervisor, broadly similar to the earlier rules but with tighter safeguards. The school had two rectifiers, two recorders, one director of music, two librarians, one registrar, and ceremonial attendants. Under the point system these posts went to top students; after points were abolished, rectifiers and recorders were drawn from the upper halls among students over thirty whose conduct could serve as a model; the musically skilled became director of music; capable administrators became librarians and registrars. Ceremonial attendants were chosen from the upper and middle halls among students skilled in ritual, with clear delivery, who had assisted at the seasonal Confucian sacrifice, monthly new-moon rites, and other public ceremonies. In the third month of spring of the second year of Tianli under Emperor Wenzong, companion-reader quotas were adjusted: originally twenty with two presented yearly, then forty with six under Dade, four under Zhide, and eight under Yanyou causing a backlog. With the quota fixed at forty, four were to fill Secretariat clerkships and four circuit instructor posts. Thereafter, presented students sat the metropolitan examination with candidates from across the empire at the Ministry of Rites and faced palace interrogation; the reserve roster was expanded and further selection applied.

太宗始定中原，即議建學，設科取士。世祖中統二年，始命置諸路學校官，凡諸生進修者，嚴加訓誨，務使成材，以備選用。至元十九年夏四月，命雲南諸路皆建學以祀先聖。二十三年二月，帝御德興府行宮，詔江南學校舊有學田，復給之以養士。二十八年，令江南諸路學及各縣學內，設立小學，選老成之士教之，或自願招師，或自受家學於父兄者，亦從其便。其他先儒過化之地，名賢經行之所，與好事之家出錢粟贍學者，並立為書院。凡師儒之命於朝廷者，曰教授，路府上中州置之。命於禮部及行省及宣慰司者，曰學正、山長、學錄、教諭，路州縣及書院置之。路設教授、學正、學錄各一員，散府上中州設教授一員，下州設學正一員，縣設教諭一員，書院設山長一員。中原州縣學正、山長、學錄、教諭，並受禮部付身。各省所屬州縣學正、山長、學錄、教諭，並受行省及宣慰司劄付。凡路府州書院，設直學以掌錢谷，從郡守及憲府官試補。直學考滿，又試所業十篇，升為學錄、教諭。凡正、長、學錄、教諭，或由集賢院及臺憲等官舉充之。諭、錄歷兩考，升正、長。正、長一考，升散府上中州教授。上中州教授又歷一考，升路教授。教授之上，各省設提舉二員，正提舉從五品，副提舉從七品，提舉凡學校之事。後改直學考滿為州吏，例以下第舉人充正、長，備榜舉人充諭、錄，有薦舉者，亦參用之。自京學及州縣學以及書院，凡生徒之肄業於是者，守令舉薦之，臺憲考核之，或用為教官，或取為吏屬，往往人材輩出矣。

When Emperor Taizong first secured the Central Plains, he immediately planned to establish schools and recruit scholars by examination. In the second year of Zhongtong under Emperor Shizu, school officers were appointed in every circuit, with strict instruction so that advancing students might become qualified talent for official service. In the fourth month of summer of the nineteenth year of Zhiyuan, every circuit in Yunnan was ordered to build schools for sacrifice to the sages. In the second month of the twenty-third year, while at the traveling palace in Dexing Prefecture, the emperor ordered that former school lands in Jiangnan be restored to support students. In the twenty-eighth year elementary schools were ordered within Jiangnan circuit schools and each district school, taught by elderly scholars of accomplishment, or by those who recruited their own teachers or had been educated at home, as they preferred. Sites associated with former Confucians, places where renowned scholars had lived, and philanthropists who funded students were also established as academies. Teachers appointed by the court were called instructors and served in circuits, prefectures, and superior and middle subprefectures. Appointments from the Ministry of Rites, regional secretariats, or pacification commissions were school rectifiers, academy directors, school recorders, and instructors, for subprefectures, districts, and academies. Each circuit had one instructor, school rectifier, and school recorder; scattered prefectures and superior and middle subprefectures one instructor each; inferior subprefectures one school rectifier; districts one instructor; academies one academy director. In the Central Plains, subprefecture and district school rectifiers, academy directors, recorders, and instructors all received credentials from the Ministry of Rites. In the provinces, the same posts received appointment documents from the regional secretariat or pacification commission. Circuit, prefecture, and subprefecture academies each had a direct student to manage finances, appointed after examination by the prefect and surveillance officials. After completing his term, the direct student submitted ten compositions in his specialty and, upon passing, was promoted to school recorder or instructor. Rectifiers, academy directors, school recorders, and instructors might be appointed on recommendation from the Academy of Scholarly Worthies, the surveillance apparatus, or other offices. After two rounds of assessment, instructors and recorders were promoted to school rectifier or academy director. After one assessment, rectifiers and directors advanced to instructor in scattered prefectures or superior and middle subprefectures. After another assessment, subprefecture instructors were promoted to circuit instructor. Each province appointed two school superintendents above the rank of instructor—a chief at associate fifth rank and a deputy at associate seventh rank—charged with all educational administration. Later reforms made direct students who completed their terms into subprefecture clerks. Lower-tier civil examination graduates routinely filled rectifier and director posts, alternate-list graduates served as instructors and recorders, and nominees were also considered. Students at the capital school, local schools, and academies were recommended by magistrates, vetted by the surveillance system, and appointed either as instructors or clerks—yielding a steady stream of talent.

世祖中統二年夏五月，太醫院使王猷言：「醫學久廢，後進無所師授。竊恐朝廷一時取人，學非其傳，為害甚大。」乃遣副使王安仁授以金牌，往諸路設立醫學。其生員擬免本身檢醫差占等役，俟其學有所成，每月試以疑難，視其所對優劣，量加勸懲。後又定醫學之制，設諸路提舉綱維之。凡宮壸所需，省臺所用，轉入常調，可任親民，其從太醫院自遷轉者，不得視此例，又以示仕途不可以雜進也。然太醫院官既受宣命，皆同文武正官五品以上遷敘，余以舊品職遞升，子孫蔭用同正班敘。其掌藥，充都監直長，充禦藥院副使，升至大使，考滿依舊例於流官銓註。諸教授皆從太醫院定擬，而各路主善亦擬同教授皆從九品。凡隨朝太醫，及醫官子弟，及路府州縣學官，並須試驗。其各處名醫所述醫經文字，悉從考校。其諸藥所產性味真偽，悉從辨驗。其隨路學校，每歲出降十三科疑難題目，具呈太醫院，發下諸路醫學，令生員依式習課醫義，年終置簿解納送本司，以定其優劣焉。

In the fifth month of summer of the second year of Zhongtong, Wang You, director of the Imperial Medical Service, reported to Emperor Shizu: "Medical education has long lain dormant, and no teachers remain for the young. I fear that if the court recruits physicians hastily without proper training, the harm will be grave." The emperor then sent Deputy Commissioner Wang Anren with a gold tablet to establish medical schools in every circuit. Students were exempted from medical corvée and draft duties. Once they had made progress, monthly examinations on difficult cases determined rewards and discipline according to their performance. Regulations were later codified and circuit superintendents appointed to oversee medical education. Graduates serving the palace or secretariat could enter the regular civil roster and hold magistracies, but physicians promoted from within the Imperial Medical Service were excluded—a sign that mixed paths must not adulterate the civil service. Officials of the Imperial Medical Service who received imperial commissions were promoted like fifth-rank civil and military officials; others advanced by seniority, and descendants enjoyed hereditary privilege on the regular roster. Pharmacy stewards rose through chief supervisor and direct chief to deputy and then commissioner of the Imperial Pharmacy; upon completing their terms they were assigned transitory posts under the usual rules. All medical instructors were appointed by the Imperial Medical Service; circuit chief practitioners were proposed at the same rank as instructors—associate ninth. Court physicians, sons of medical officials, and students at circuit and local medical schools were all subject to examination. Medical texts attributed to renowned local physicians were all examined and verified. The origins, properties, and authenticity of drugs were all inspected. Each year circuit schools received thirteen categories of difficult cases from the Imperial Medical Service. Students studied these cases, and year-end reports sent to the ministry determined their standing.

世祖至元二十八年夏六月，始置諸路陰陽學。其在腹裏、江南，若有通曉陰陽之人，各路官司詳加取勘，依儒學、醫學之例，每路設教授以訓誨之。其有術數精通者，每歲錄呈省府，赴都試驗，果有異能，則於司天臺內許令近侍。延祐初，令陰陽人依儒、醫例，於路府州設教授一員，凡陰陽人皆管轄之，而上屬於太史焉。

In the sixth month of summer of the twenty-eighth year of Zhiyuan, Emperor Shizu first established Yin-Yang schools in every circuit. In the metropolitan region and Jiangnan, those versed in yin-yang lore were vetted by circuit officials. Following the model of Confucian and medical schools, each circuit appointed a professor to instruct them. Those expert in divination and numerology were each year reported to the provincial authorities and summoned to the capital for examination. The genuinely gifted were allowed to serve at the Astronomical Bureau. Early in the Yanyou era, yin-yang practitioners were regulated like Confucian and medical students, with one instructor at each circuit, prefecture, and subprefecture, all under the Grand Astrologer.

舉遺逸以求隱跡之士，擢茂異以待非常之人。世祖中統間，征許衡，授懷孟路教官，詔於懷孟等處選子弟之俊秀者教育之。是年，又詔征金進士李冶，授翰林學士。征劉因為集賢學士，不至。又用平章咸寧王野仙薦，征蕭不起，即授陜西儒學提舉。至元十八年，詔求前代聖賢之後，儒醫卜筮，通曉天文歷數，並山林隱逸之士。二十年，復召拜劉因右贊善大夫，辭，不允。未幾以親老，乞終養，俸給一無所受。後遣使授命於家，辭疾不起。二十八年，復詔求隱晦之士，俾有司具以名聞。成宗大德六年，征臨川布衣吳澂，擢應奉翰林文字，拜命即歸。九年，詔求山林間有德行文學、識治道者，遣使征蕭渼，且曰：「或不樂於仕，可試一來，與朕語而遣歸。」至大三年，復召吳澄，拜國子司業，以病還；延祐三年，召拜集賢直學士，以疾不赴；至治三年，召拜翰林學士。武宗、仁宗累征蕭渼，授集賢學士、國子司業，未赴，改集賢侍講學士。又以太子右諭德征，始至京師，授集賢學士、國子祭酒，諭德如故。仁宗延祐七年十一月，詔曰：「比歲設立科舉，以取人材，尚慮高尚之士，晦跡丘園，無從可致。各處其有隱居行義、才德高邁、深明治道、不求聞達者，所在官司具姓名，牒報本道廉訪司，覆奏察聞，以備錄用。」又屢詔求言於下，使得進言於上，雖指斥時政，並無譴責，往往采擇其言，任用其人，列諸庶位，以圖治功。其他著書立言、裨益教化、啟迪後人者，亦斟酌錄用，著為常式云。

The court sought recluses by summoning the neglected, and elevated exceptional talent to await men of uncommon ability. During the Zhongtong era, Xu Heng was summoned and made instructor for Huaimeng Circuit, with orders to educate gifted youths from that region. That same year Li Ye, a Jin advanced scholar, was summoned and made Hanlin Academician. Liu Yin was summoned as Academician of Scholarly Worthies but declined to come. On the recommendation of Grand Councilor Yexian, Prince of Xianning, Xiao Ji was summoned but refused; he was nevertheless appointed superintendent of Confucian schools in Shaanxi. In the eighteenth year of Zhiyuan, the throne called for descendants of ancient sages, scholars, physicians, diviners, experts in astronomy and calendrics, and recluses in mountain retreats. In the twentieth year Liu Yin was again offered the post of Right Assistant in the Palace; he declined, and the court would not accept his refusal. Soon he pleaded to retire and care for his aged parents, accepting no salary at all. Later envoys brought appointment to his home; citing illness, he still refused to serve. In the twenty-eighth year another edict sought hidden worthies, requiring local officials to submit their names. In the sixth year of Dade, Wu Cheng, a commoner from Linchuan, was summoned and made Attendant of Hanlin Script; he accepted the post and at once went home. In the ninth year the throne sought virtuous and learned men in mountain retreats who understood government, and sent envoys to summon Xiao Rang with this message: "If office holds no appeal, come once to speak with Us, and you may go home." In the third year of Zhida, Wu Cheng was again summoned as Vice Commissioner of the Directorate but returned ill; in the third year of Yanyou he was made Direct Academician of Scholarly Worthies but did not attend owing to illness; in the third year of Zhizhi he was appointed Hanlin Academician. Emperors Wuzong and Renzong summoned Xiao Rang repeatedly, offering him posts as Academician and Directorate Vice Commissioner; he declined, and the offer was changed to Attendant Lecturer of Scholarly Worthies. He was summoned again as Right Mentor to the Heir Apparent and only then came to the capital, receiving joint appointment as Academician and Directorate Rector while retaining his mentor title. In the eleventh month of the seventh year of Yanyou, Emperor Renzong issued an edict: "Civil examinations have lately been instituted to recruit talent, yet we fear that eminent men dwelling in obscurity among hills and gardens cannot be reached. Wherever men of moral excellence live in seclusion, possess lofty talent and virtue, understand government deeply, and seek no fame, local offices shall report their names to the circuit surveillance commission for review and possible appointment." Repeated edicts also invited criticism from below. Even denunciations of current policy went unpunished. The court often adopted such counsel and appointed the speakers to various posts in pursuit of good government. Authors whose writings enriched education and enlightened posterity were also considered for appointment, and this became standing practice.

童子舉，唐、宋始著於科，然亦無常員。成宗大德三年，舉童子楊山童、海童。五年，大都提舉學校所舉安西路張秦山，江浙行省舉張升甫。武宗至大元年，舉武福安。仁宗延祐三年，江浙行省舉俞傅孫、馮怙哥。六年，河南路舉張答罕，學士完者不花舉丁頑頑。七年，河間縣舉杜山童，大興縣舉陳聃。英宗至治元年，福州路連江縣舉陳元麟。至治三年，河南行省舉張英。泰定四年，福州舉葉留井。文宗天歷二年，舉杜夙靈。至順二年，制舉答不歹子買來的。皆以其天資穎悟，超出兒輩，或能默誦經文，書寫大字，或能綴緝辭章，講說經史，並令入國子學教育之。惟張秦山尤精篆涘，陳元麟能通性理，葉留井問以《四書》大義，則對曰：「無過事父母能竭其力，事君能致其身。」時人以遠大期之。

The presentation of child prodigies first appeared in Tang and Song examinations but had no fixed quota. In the third year of Dade under Emperor Chengzong, the prodigies Yang Shantong and Haitong were presented. In the fifth year the Daidu school superintendent presented Zhang Qinshan of Anxi Circuit, and the Jiangzhe regional secretariat presented Zhang Shengfu. In the first year of Zhida under Emperor Wuzong, Wu Fu'an was presented. In the third year of Yanyou the Jiangzhe regional secretariat presented Yu Fusun and Feng Hugge. In the sixth year Henan Circuit presented Zhang Dahan, and Academician Wan Zhebuhua presented Ding Wanwan. In the seventh year Hejian District presented Du Shantong and Daxing District presented Chen Dan. In the first year of Zhizhi under Emperor Yingzong, Lianjiang District in Fuzhou Circuit presented Chen Yuanlin. In the third year of Zhizhi the Henan regional secretariat presented Zhang Ying. In the fourth year of Taiding, Fuzhou presented Ye Liujing. In the second year of Tianli under Emperor Wenzong, Du Suling was presented. In the second year of Zhishun, Mailaide, son of Dabutai, was presented by special decree. All were admitted to the Directorate of Learning because their native gifts far outstripped their peers—some could recite classics from memory or write large characters, others compose essays or expound on the classics and histories. Zhang Qinshan excelled especially in seal script; Chen Yuanlin had mastered Neo-Confucian principle; when Ye Liujing was questioned on the Four Books, he answered: "Nothing surpasses serving one's parents with all one's strength and serving one's ruler with one's life." Contemporaries looked to him for great things ahead.

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